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Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook
The safety margin required
Feed demand from lower section
Superheated core or mould section
Once all the required inputs have been entered into the left hand side of the
Feeder Size Calculation screen, the user may select a feeding product from
the ‘Selected Product’ pull down list. Once a product has been selected, the
FEEDERCALC program calculates the optimum feeder size for the casting
under consideration and this information is displayed beneath the product
name. The next size up in the product range is also displayed for comparison
purposes.
The Side Neck Calculation button allows the user to calculate the size of
a neck used with a side feeder. The neck modulus, provided by the feeder
size calculation for the feeder to be used, is automatically transferred to this
screen. The program then calculates the range of values which one dimension
of a rectangular-section neck would have based on this neck modulus. When
the most convenient dimension for the casting being considered is entered,
the second dimension is automatically calculated together with the resulting
contact area.
Cost analysis
Selecting this option allows the cost of a feeding practice for the casting or
castings under consideration to be determined. A comparison of two
Figure 19.32
Feeder size calculation.
Feeding of castings
341
alternative feeding practices can also be made (for example a practice using
sleeves compared against one using sand risers).
By clicking on the ‘Cost Analysis’ tab, the screen Fig.19.33 appears. Six
items of basic foundry cost data are presented. These are average values

estimated by Foseco (for the country for which the particular program was
designed). The operator may simply accept these (and continue onto the Job
Cost button); or the operator may enter actual costs for the foundry and
save this data set by selecting the ‘New’ or ‘Save’ buttons.
Figure 19.33
Cost analysis screen.
The six basic foundry cost elements are:
Cost of molten metal in the mould (currency unit/weight unit)
This includes costs of raw materials, energy, direct and indirect labour,
melting department overheads and any penalty for losses in providing
liquid metal to the mould cavity, i.e. melting and pouring.
Value accorded to returns (currency unit/weight unit)
The value allocated to the metal in feeders, running systems, and scrap
castings etc. which are returned for re-melting.
Cost of cutting (feeder removal) (currency unit/area)
This includes costs of raw materials, energy, direct and indirect labour,
cleaning department overheads and penalty for losses in cutting feeders
from castings.
Cost of grinding (feeder removal) (currency unit/area)
This includes costs of raw materials, energy, direct and indirect labour,
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Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook
cleaning department overheads and penalty for losses for grinding the
feeder stub etc. in cleaning castings.
Sand density (weight unit/volume unit)
The density of the moulding medium (sand) when compacted in the
mould (typically 1.5 g/cm
2
for silica sand).
Cost of moulding sand (currency unit/weight unit)

This includes the costs of raw materials, energy, direct and indirect
labour and overheads associated with preparing the moulding sand
(i.e. sand/binder storage, transport and mixing).
Job costs
The Job Costs button accesses the screen of Fig. 19.34 on which details of the
casting and feeding are entered allowing two practices to be compared. The
final Report screen, Fig.19.35, lists all the costs entered and calculated with
the total costs for each practice displayed. Various ‘what if?’ scenarios may
be investigated by changing data on the Base Costs or Job Costs screen.
Figure 19.34
Job costs screen.
Authorisation
The FEEDERCALC program uses a licensing system to operate the software.
If an attempt is made to copy the files, or run the program without proper
authorisation, the program will not run and an error message pertaining to
Feeding of castings
343
authorisation will be shown on the screen. Authorisation to run the program
is obtained when the Serialization Code for the specific computer on which
the program is to be run is notified to Foseco. An Authorisation Code is then
provided by Foseco enabling the program to run. The program is set to
expire after one year. The user must send Foseco a purchase order to receive
the new Authorisation Code.
Figure 19.35
Report screen.
Chapter 20
Computer simulation of
casting processes
Introduction
The purpose of computer modelling of any industrial process is to enable

predictions to be made about the effect of adjusting the controls of the
process. The casting process is an ideal candidate for modelling. If the process
of filling a mould with liquid metal and its subsequent solidification could
be accurately and quickly modelled by computer, shrinkage cavities and
other potential defects could be predicted. The effect of changing the gating
system, the position and size of feeders and even the casting design could
be simulated. The casting method could then be optimised before the design
and method are finalised, so avoiding expensive and time consuming foundry
trials.
Software for the numerical simulation of flow and solidification during
casting processes has been available since the mid-1980s. A large number of
commercial software packages are now available and they are improving
all the time. The modelling of heat flow and solidification of castings is now
well advanced. Modelling the filling of castings is more difficult since both
turbulent and quiescent flow in complex shaped cavities may be involved.
The effects of surface oxide films and bubble entrainment are further
complications and it is not easy to check the predictions experimentally in
complex moulds.
Solidification modelling
The aim of solidification modelling is to:
Predict the pattern of solidification, indicating where shrinkage cavities
and associated defects may arise.
Simulate solidification with the casting in various positions, so that the
optimum position may be selected.
Calculate the volumes and weights of all the different materials in the
solid model.
Provide a choice of quality levels, allowing for example the highlighting
or ignoring of micro-porosity.
Computer simulation of casting processes
345

Perform over a range of metals, including steel, white iron, grey and
ductile iron and non-ferrous metals.
A number of systems are available, they may be divided into two basic
types:
Numerical heat flow simulations
Empirical rule based simulations
Numerical based systems, of which the best known is MAGMAsoft, are
based on thermophysical data: surface tension, specific heat, viscosity, latent
heat, thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficients of metal, mould
and core materials. Mathematical equations are used to calculate heat flow
and to predict temperatures within the cooling casting. The complexities of
the equations do not allow direct solutions so numerical methods of solving
differential equations, finite difference or finite element techniques, must be
used. Both require considerable computing power. The time and position
where solidification commences is predicted and regions within the casting
identified which are likely to become isolated from feed metal. Turbulence
during mould filling and convection effects during cooling need to be taken
into account.
Empirical rule based systems, such as SOLSTAR, take a model of the
casting and its surrounding moulding media divided into small cubic
elements. Heat flow and solidification are then modelled by applying iterative
rules. In the SOLSTAR method, each element is considered to be at the
centre of a Rubik cube of elements with 26 nearest neighbours. The subsequent
heat exchange calculations are then carried out in 26 directions taking into
account the temperatures and properties of the neighbouring sites. The
temperature of a particular site is thus changed step by step resulting in an
accurate prediction of thermal history. A liquid site will transform into solid
when the site reaches a predetermined value. Metal flow from neighbouring
elements is then mathematically simulated to take up the space vacated by
shrinkage. When there are no liquid metal elements left to fill the shrinkage

cavity a void is created. The system is thus able to predict where shrinkage
defects are likely to occur in the casting. By ‘calibrating’ the rule based
system against experimental results, accurate prediction of shrinkage defects
is achieved.
While the numerical systems are in principle more precise than rule based
systems, at the present time the necessary physical data is not yet available
to make numerical systems completely accurate and some ‘correction factors’
must be introduced.
Rule based systems use standard PC-based computers and are designed
to be used by an average foundry engineer. Simulations of freezing of castings
are achieved in a fraction of the time needed by numerical models. Numerical
systems require more computing power, needing a workstation costing several
times more than a PC and requiring a highly trained computer operator.
Both systems are useful to the practical foundryman, not only cutting out
346
Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook
trial and error sampling but increasing metal yield, reducing lead times,
optimising production methods and improving the accuracy of quotations.
The speed and user friendliness of rule based programs makes them
better suited to jobbing foundries where many different castings need to be
processed and computation time is an issue. On the other hand, numerical
programs demand strong computing power and lengthy processing time,
but as better physical data becomes available, they can in principle provide
greater accuracy and a closer representation of what actually happens in the
mould. They allow temperature profiles after solidification to be modelled
so that metallurgical structures can be predicted. They may even take into
account the thermal effects that occur during the filling of the mould. Currently
such programs are perhaps better suited to research and to study highly
engineered, critical components. They are also used for important product
development projects, for example automotive castings to be made in very

large numbers.
Mould filling simulation
Many of the problems associated with the casting process are related to
poor mould filling. Programs have been developed which allow mould
filling to be simulated. The aim is to predict how running and gating design
affects turbulence in the mould which may trap oxidation products and
cause potential defects. MAGMAsoft (and others) have developed such
programs which allow the visualisation and animation of the movement of
the melt surface during filling. Current limitations are system time, it can
take several days to simulate the flow in a mould, and the lack of good data
on surface tension, viscosity etc. Several laboratories around the world are
generating the thermo-physical data needed to improve the simulations.
The SOLSTAR solidification program
SOLSTAR is used by a large number of foundries, service bureaux and
educational establishments. The breakdown of usage (in 1994) is:
Steel foundries 36%
Iron foundries 26%
Non-ferrous foundries 10%
Education & Service 27%
The procedures for carrying out a SOLSTAR analysis are:
(1) Using the casting drawing, determine model scale and element size.
(2) Make the solid model of the casting.
(3) Make the solid model of the proposed production method (feeders,
Computer simulation of casting processes
347
chills, insulators etc.). Use the program’s own feeder-size calculator
if required.
(4) Carry out thermal analysis to establish the order of solidification.
(5) Carry out solidification simulation to a set quality standard, for the
selected alloy incorporating shrinkage percentage, ingate effects etc.

This results in the model being changed to the predicted final shape
(internal and external) of the casting showing size, shape and location
of shrinkage cavities in casting and feeders.
(6) Examine the predicted shrinkage (the equivalent of non-destructive
testing) by viewing and plotting of 3D ‘X-rays’ and sections of the
model in 2D slices or 3D sections and relating predicted defects to
solidification contours and required quality standards.
(7) If the predicted defects do not meet the required quality standard,
develop an improved production method and repeat the procedures.
These trial-and-error sampling procedures can be carried out very rapidly,
allowing the operator to indulge in any number of ‘what-if’ experiments.
Solid modelling
The first stage in any solidification simulation is to create a three-dimensional
model of the component with its associated method. This will often take the
greatest proportion of time, as much as 70%. The SOLSTAR program has its
own solid modeller/mesh generator capable of modelling the most complex
casting shapes. Depending on the computer hardware specification, models
can contain up to 256 million elements but most models use between 2 and
64 million elements. Figure 20.1 shows a solid model of a 350 kg steel valve
casting containing 40 million elements produced in less than 3 hours.
It is possible to transfer 3D models from any other CAD system using
Stereolithography STL files created by them. These models can then be
manipulated within the solidification software so that the method can be
added.
Thermal analysis
The thermal analysis calculates the simulated heat flow between the elements
of the solid model which gives a ‘thermal picture’ of the conditions prevailing
at a specific point in time. SOLSTAR’s thermal analysis simulates ‘heat
flow’ in 26 directions, with each cuboid element of metal, mould, chill etc.
being the equivalent of the centre block of a ‘Rubik’ cube (27 cubes).

SOLSTAR uses the thermal analysis to store details of the solidification
order of each element of the casting and feeding system. Figure 20.2 shows
a ‘thermal’ illustration of a section through the steel valve casting (in black
and white on p. 349 and reproduced in colour in plate section). This is
produced in colours showing ‘solidification contours’ of the metal from the
348
Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook
Figure 20.1
Solid model of a valve casting utilising 40 million elements. (This
figure is reproduced in colour in plate section.)
Computer simulation of casting processes
349
Figure 20.2
Solidification contours for the lower section of the valve casting. (This
figure is reproduced in colour in plate section.)
end of pouring to the end of solidification. The thermal analysis for the steel
valve involves approximately 200 billion ‘heat exchanges’ between adjacent
elements of the model and was calculated in 22 minutes using a 266 MHz
computer.
Solidification simulation
After the thermal analysis is completed, each metal element of the model is
allocated an order of solidification. SOLSTAR then carries out a solidification
simulation of the metal elements, by solidifying them in the predetermined
order. During this simulation several things are happening:
(1) The solidified elements are assumed to have increased in density,
accompanied by a loss of volume.
(2) This loss (liquid shrinkage) is calculated by multiplying the number
of solidifying elements by the input shrinkage factor for the alloy.
(3) The software calculates (according to the alloy and the required quality
standard) whether this shrinkage will manifest itself in the form of a

cavity and, if so, how big the cavity will be.
(4) The resultant cavity is placed in the remaining liquid of the section of
which it is a part. Where it resides in this remaining liquid depends
on the type of alloy.
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Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook
(5) The program continually checks the linkages between the remaining
liquid metal.
(6) Metal elements are continually ‘flowing’ through the liquid paths to
replace volume loss during solidification, so accurate tracing of these
paths is critical to the program.
At the end of the solidification simulation the model represents the casting
(and feeders) at the ‘shake-out’ stage of production. Figure 20.3 is an ‘X-ray’
plot of the final model showing all the shrinkage cavities predicted to be
outside of the requested quality standard. A Class 2 solidification simulation
for this valve took 26 minutes using a 266MHz computer.
Figure 20.3
An ‘X-ray’ plot showing predicted shrinkage cavities. (This figure is
reproduced in colour in plate section.)
During the solidification simulation, the effect of varying
moulding position,
ingate position,
mould materials, chills, insulating and exothermic materials,
can be modelled, allowing the optimum method of making the casting to be
predicted.
Computer simulation of casting processes
351
Feeder size and weight calculations
The program can calculate the volume, weight and surface area of each
material in any selected part of the model, so that casting yield is readily

obtained. The program can also calculate feeder sizes for steel and ductile
iron, giving a selection of feeder options (height/diameter ratios, sand or
insulating/exothermic materials). This data allows more accurate estimation
of production costs to be made.
Cost benefits of solidification simulation
Figure 20.4 shows a simplified trialling process for making a cast component,
the cycle may need repeating several times before product of acceptable
quality is made. Solidification simulation software such as SOLSTAR can be
used to electronically sample the method and cut down on the number of
actual trials made (Table 20.1).
Figure 20.4
The trialling process for making a cast component of acceptable
quality.
component
design
“method”
make mould
cast metal
reject
casting
x-ray for holes
good
casting
cycle repeated
up to
10 times
Table 20.1 Pre- and post SOLSTAR methoding accuracy in a steel foundry
Trial methods Before SOLSTAR Using SOLSTAR
Right first time 50% 99%
Two attempts 85% 100%

Three attempts 98%
(From M. Jolly, Foundryman Jan. 1994 p. 11)
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Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook
Each trial carries a cost in materials and manpower but, more important
still is the effect on lead time for producing a component. For new jobs in a
foundry, where solidification simulation is practised as standard procedure,
components can be modelled and methoded at a rate of 10 each week per
method engineer, and most of these methods will be right first time (Table
20.2).
Table 20.2 Probability of right first time reported by
SOLSTAR users
Steel 99%
Iron 90–99%
Non-ferrous
(short freezing range alloys) 99%
Non-ferrous
(long freezing range alloys) 85–95%
Conclusions
While this chapter has concentrated on the benefits of the SOLSTAR program
to foundries, there are many other rule based programs which can give
similar good results. It is important to remember that programs such as
these, as well as the more comprehensive numerical packages, must be used
by skilled foundrymen who are able to interpret the results to achieve practical
solutions in the special circumstances of their own foundries. It must also
be remembered that, however good the simulation is, no foundry has complete
control over its manufacturing processes so some variation in the end result
is inevitable and safety factors must be built in to the design of the casting
being made.
Accuracy, dimensional, 21

Acid demand value of sand, 147
measurement of, 149
Acid resisting cast irons, 101
Adhesives for core assembly, 213
AFS Grain Fineness Number, calculation
of, 16
Air set sands, see Self-hardening
Alcohols as carriers for coatings, 229
Alkaline phenolic resin binders, 183
Aluminium in grey iron, 39
Amine catalysts for cold box, 192
control, 202
Annealing ductile iron, 82
Angle of repose of silica sand, 148
Anti-piping compounds, see FERRUX
AOD refining of steel, 125
Arc furnace melting of steel, 121
Areas and volumes of circles, spheres,
cylinders etc., 6
ASTM specifications for graphite flake
form, 34
Atomic weights of metals, 7
Austempered ductile iron (ADI), 83
Austenitic cast iron, 96
Austenitic manganese steel, 114
Automatic pouring boxes, KALTEK
lining, 136
Average grain size, calculation, 15
BAKFIL, 132
Baumé measurement of coatings, 232

Bench life of self-hardening sand, 167
BENTOKOL sand additive, 154
Bentonite, 153
Binders, chemical
self-hardening, 167
resin, 180
silicate, 209
triggered hardening,
gas hardened resin, 192
heat hardened resin, 186
silicate, CO
2
hardened, 204
Bismuth in coatings, 242
Blackheart malleable cast iron, 25
Breakdown agents for silicates, 207
Brinell hardness of metals, 8
Breaker cores, 323
BRIX cupola flux, 48
Bulk densities of common materials, 10
Buoyancy forces on cores, 18, 20
Burn-on of sand, 226
Burnt clay, 161
Calcium bentonite, 154
Calibration of mixers, 171
Carbon equivalent value, 32, 37
Carbon equivalent liquidus value, 33
CARSET ester hardener, 210
CARSIL sodium silicate binders, 207
CARSIN coal dust replacement, 154

Cast irons:
alloy additions in the ladle, 138
carbon equivalent value, 32
carbon equivalent liquidus value, 33
casting processes, 28
compacted graphite, 84
corrosion resistant, 101
ductile, see Ductile iron
grey iron, see Grey iron
heat resisting, 95
inoculation of, see Inoculation
machinability, 34
malleable, see Malleable iron
melting, 40
physical properties, 27
density, 27
electrical resistivity, 28
specific heat capacity, 28
thermal conductivity, 29
thermal expansion, 28
scrap analysis, 50
specifications of, 30
wear resistant, 102
Casting defects:
cast iron, 250
due to ladles, 137
hydrogen pinholes, 138
steel, 125, 277
Index
354

Index
Casting processes for cast irons, 28
Castyral process, 223
Cathodic protection anodes, 101
Catalysts for furane binders, 180
CELTEX ceramic filters, 259
Ceramic cellular filters, 251
Ceramic foam filters, 251
Cereal binders for sand, 155
Channel furnace, 54
Chaplets, areas for core support, 18
Chelford sand, 148
Chemically bonded sand, 167
effect of temperature, 172
ester silicate process, 210
resin bonded systems, 180
testing, 169
sodium silicate systems, 204
CHILCOTE coating for chills, 242
Chills, coatings for, 242
Chromite sand, 152
Chromium in grey iron, 39
Chvorinov’s rule for solidification time,
302
Clamping moulds, 19, 173
Clay additives for green sand, 153
CO
2
gassed resin cores, see ECOLOTEC
CO

2
silicate process, 204
gas consumption, 205
Coal dust, 154
Coatings:
for foundry tools, 243
for moulds and cores, 226
brushing, 231
dipping, 230
drying, 233
for metallurgical change, 242
overpouring/flow coating, 232
spraying, 231
water-based, 234
spirit-based, 237
TRIBONOL process, 240
Coke:
consumption in cupolas, 42
quality, 42
Cokeless cupola, 43
Cold box coremaking process, 192
environmental problems, 194, 202
Cold-setting sand, see Self-setting
Colours, standard colours of patterns,
17
Compacted graphite iron, 84
SinterCast process, 87
Computer simulation of casting, 344
Consistency, dimensional, 22
Contraction allowances, 11

Control of metal composition, 60
Conversion tables:
SI, metric and non-metric, 2
stress values, SI, metric, imperial, 5
Copper in grey iron, 39
Cooling of iron in ladles, 131
Cooling green sand, 160
Core making processes:
CO
2
silicate process, 204
cold box, 192
comparison of processes, 200
ECOLOTEC, 194
ester cured alkaline phenolic, 197
hot box, 188
oil sand, 190
shell, 186
SO
2
process, 196
warm box, 189
Core print support, 19
Cores, buoyancy of, 18, 20
Coreless induction furnace:
iron melting, 55
alloy recovery, 58
charge materials, 58
fume extraction, 60
refractories, 59

CORFIX adhesives, 188
Corrosion resistance of cast irons, 101
Corrosion resistant cast irons, 101
CORSEAL sealants, 213
Croning resin shell process, 29, 186
Cupola melting of cast irons, 40
cold blast, 41
charge calculation, 50
emissions, 52
metallic charge, 48
output, 51
cokeless, 43, 53
hot blast, 52
CUPOLLOY, 49
Dead clay, 161
Density:
casting alloys, 9
common materials, 10
metals, 7
cast irons, 27
Deoxidation of steel, 125
Index
355
Desulphurisation of iron, 75
DEXIL silicate breakdown agent, 209
Dextrin, 155
Dicalcium silicate, 209
Diecasting of cast iron, 29
Dimensional tolerances of castings, 22
Dip coating of cores, 230

Direct pouring of iron castings:
KALPUR system, 266
Disamatic moulding machine, 165
DISA insert sleeves, 328
DMEA (dimethyl ethyl amine), 192
DMIA (dimethyl isopropyl amine), 192
Drying ovens for coatings, 233
Ductile cast iron, 25, 70
casting, 84
heat treatment, 82
inhibiting elements, 78
inoculation, 79
melting, 74
specifications, 79
treatment methods, 75
Duplex steel, 117
Dust control in foundries, 18
ECOLOTEC process, 194
Electrical resistivity of cast irons, 28
Electric melting of cast iron, 53
ESHAMINE cold box resin, 192
ESHAMINE Plus process, 194
ESHANOL furane binders, 180
Ester-cured alkaline phenolic system, 197
Ester silicate process, 210
CARSET, 210
VELOSET, 212
Ethanol, 229
Eutectic arrest of cast iron, 61
Evaporative casting process, see Lost foam

Exogenous inclusions, 277
Exothermic feeder sleeves, see Foseco
feeding systems
Expandable polystyrene, 217
FEEDERCALC, 335
Feeding of castings, 296
aids to calculation, 334
FEEDERCALC, 335
nomograms, 335
tables, 334
application of sleeves, 325
core application, 328
Disa application, 328
floating feeder sleeves, 326
insert sleeves, 326
shell mould, 328
breaker cores, 323
feeder dimensions, calculation of, 301
feeder neck calculation, 307
feeders:
aided, 297
natural, 296
feeding distance, 299
feeding
ductile iron castings, 299
non-ferrous castings, 300
steel castings, 305
Foseco feeding systems, 310
FEEDEX HD V-Sleeves, 315
FEEDOL anti-piping compound,

332
FERRUX anti-piping compound,
331
KALBORD insulating material, 320
KALMIN S feeder sleeves, 311
KALMINEX feeder sleeves, 316
KALMINEX 2000 feeder sleeves,
313
KALPAD boards and shapes, 320
KAPEX lids, 318, 322
THERMEXO metal-producing
cover, 332
modulus, 301
extension factor, 302
nomograms for calculation of feeders,
335
tables for calculation of feeders, 334
Williams cores, 329
FEEDEX HD V-sleeves, 315
FEEDOL anti-piping compound, 332
FENOTEC ADT1 anti-fusion additive, 178
FENOTEC alkaline phenolic resin,
gas cured, 197
self setting, 183
Ferrite, 26
Ferroalloys in the cupola, 49
Ferro-manganese, 49
Ferro-silicon, 49
FERRUX anti-piping compound, 331
Filling time for moulds, 248

Filter/feeder/pouring cup
KALPUR, 266, 322
KALPUR ST, 289
356
Index
Filtration and filters:
iron castings, 245, 250
effect on physical properties, 255
vertically parted moulds, 265
steel castings, 272, 277
flow rates and capacity, 286
types of filter, 251
SEDEX ceramic foam filters, 256
STELEX ZR ceramic foam filters,
279
Flake graphite, size and shape, 35
Flaskless moulding, 165
Floating feeder sleeves, 326
Flow-coating, 232
Flow cup, 233
Fluxes in cupola melting, 48
Forces:
buoyancy on cores, 18
opening forces on moulds, 19
FOSCAST dam board, 133
Foundry layout for self hardening
moulds, 173
Foundry tools, coating, 243
Foseco-Morval foam patterns, 217
FRACTON refractory dressing, 243

Full-Mould process, 29
coatings for, 240
Furane resins, 180
Furnaces:
iron melting
cupolas, 40
electric, 53
steel melting
arc, 121
induction, 123
FUROTEC furane binders, 180
Gas curing of core binders, 192
Gas porosity in steel castings, 127
Gas triggered binder systems, 186
Gating:
iron castings, 247
steel castings, 272
Gating with filters:
iron castings, 256
steel castings, 277
Grain Fineness Number (AFS), 16
Grain shape of sands, 147
Grain size:
calculation of AFS grain fineness
number, 16
calculation of average grain size, 15
Graphite flake size and shape, 34
undercooled, 36, 63
Graphitisation potential, 62
Green sand, 152

additives:
BENTOKOL, 154
bentonite, 153
cereals, 155
clay, 153
coal dust, 154
dextrin, 155
MIXAD, 157
starch, 155
cooling, 160
control, 161
moulding machines, 164
properties, 160
sand mill, 157
system, 157
testing, 162
Grey cast iron, 23
applications of, 37
effect of elements in, 37
inoculation of, 62
graphite flake size and shape, 34
production of, 37
specifications, 30
Haltern sand
HARDCOTE bond supplement, 241
Heat resistant cast irons, 95
Heat treatment of ductile iron, 82
austempering, 83
Heat-triggered binder systems, 184
Hexamine, 186

HOLCOTE coatings, 237
Hoppers for sand, 158
Hot box process, 188
Hot tearing in steel castings, 129
Hydrogen in steel, 128
Hydrogen pinholes in iron, 138
Hydrometer, see Baumé measurement
Imperial-metric conversions, 2
IMPREX Station, 66
Inclusions:
iron castings, 250
steel castings, 127, 277
Indigenous inclusions, 277
Index
357
Induction furnace:
iron melting:
channel, 54
coreless, 55
steel melting, 123
Ingot moulds, 96
Inhibiting elements, 78
Inmold treatment, 74, 78
Inoculation of cast iron, 62
ductile iron, 79
IMPREX station, 66
INOPAK mould inoculant, 69
INOTAB mould inoculant, 68
ladle inoculation, 64
late stream inoculation, 66

mould inoculation, 69
wedge chill test, 65
INOCULIN products, 64
INOPAK mould inoculant, 69
INOTAB mould inoculant, 68
Iron-carbon phase diagram, 24
Iron oxide additions to prevent nitrogen
defects, 193
Insert sleeves, 326
Inspection of steel castings, 119
Isocyanate resins, see Phenolic isocyanate
ISOMOL spirit-based coatings, 238
Isopropanol, 229
KALBORD insulating material, 320
KALMIN pouring cups, 188
KALMIN S feeder sleeves, 311
KALMINEX feeder sleeves, 316
KALMINEX 2000 feeder sleeves, 313
KALPAD boards and shapes, 320
KALPAK ramming material, 143
KALPUR direct pouring system:
iron, 266
steel, KALPUR ST, 286, 322
KALSEAL, 132
KALTEK ladle lining system:
automatic pouring boxes, 136
iron foundries, 132
steel foundries, 142
KAPEX lids, 318, 322
LADELLOY, 138

Ladles:
iron foundries, 130
KALTEK ladle lining system, 132
steel foundries, 138
KALTEK ladle lining system, 141
Latent heat of fusion of metals, 7
Launders, coatings for, 243
Lead in grey iron, 39
Levi equation for cupola output, 50
Limestone for cupolas, 48
Liquidus temperature for steels, 144
Loss on ignition, reclaimed sand, 176
Lost foam process, 29, 216
coatings, 220, 239
Low alloy steels, 112
Low carbon bead, 220
Lustrous carbon, 182, 219, 193
LUTRON moulding sand, 163
Machinability:
cast iron, 34
effect of filtration, 255
steel, 281
MAGMAsoft simulation software, 345
Magnesium silicate inclusions in ductile
iron, 254
Magnesium treatment of cast iron, 71
converter, 72, 77
INMOLD, 74
IMPREX treatment station, 73, 78
NODULANT, 77

sandwich ladle, 71, 77
tundish cover, 71, 75
Malleable cast iron, 23
blackheart, 25, 92
whiteheart, 24, 90
Manganese in grey iron, 37
Manganese steel, 114
coating for, 238
Manganese sulphide inclusions, 254
Matchplate moulding, 165
MDI (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate),
182, 192
MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide),
196
Melting cast irons, 40
cupola melting, 40
electric, 53
channel furnace, 54
coreless induction, 55
Melting point of metals, 7
Melting steel:
AOD refining, 125
arc furnace, 121
358
Index
Melting steel (continued)
deoxidation, 125
induction furnace, 123
Metal penetration, 226
Metals, tables of physical properties, 7

Methanol, 229
Methyl formate hardener, 197
Mills for green sand, 158
MIXAD additive, 158
Mixers for chemically bonded sand, 171
Modelling:
mould filling, 344, 346
solidification of castings, 344
Molten metal handling:
iron, 130
steel, 138
Mould design for self hardening sand,
173
Mould filling simulation, 346
Moulding machines, 164
disamatic, 166
Mould inoculation of cast iron, 69
Moulds, opening forces on, 19
MSI 90 Stream Inoculator, 66
Newton, 2
Ni-hard, 103
Ni-resist, 96, 101
Nitrogen:
grey iron, 39
steel, 128
No-bake sand, see Self-hardening
NODULANT, 71, 77
Nodular iron, see Ductile iron
Novolak resin, 186
Nozzles in bottom pour ladles, 141, 143

Oil sand, 190
Olivine sand, 152
Opening forces on moulds, 19
Overpouring coatings, 232
Parting agents, 163
Pascal, 2
Patternmakers’ contraction allowances,
11
Patterns, standard colours, 17
Pearlite, 26
Phenolic-isocyanate binders:
cold box, 192
self-setting, 182
Phosphoric acid, 180
Phosphorus in grey iron, 39
Physical properties of cast irons, 27
Physical properties of metals, 7
Pig iron, 49
Pinholing in steel, 129
PMMA (polymethylmethacrylate), 220
POLISET phenolic-isocyanate binder, 182
POLITEC cold box resin, 192
Polystyrene, see Expandable polystyrene
Pouring bushes:
iron, 246
steel, 274
Pouring cups, KALMIN, 188
Pouring temperature for steels, 144
Powder coatings, 228
Prints:

core support, 18
design for filters
iron, 259, 260
steel, 285
Pre-coated sand, 186
PROCAL, 132
Properties of metals, 7
RADEX insulator for iron ladles, 132
Radioactivity in zircon sand, 151
Ready for use coatings, 228
Reclamation of chemically bonded sand,
173
mechanical attrition, 175
thermal, 177
VELOSET system, 179, 213
wet, 179
Refractories:
induction melting
iron, 59
steel, 124
Refractory coating for foundry tools, 243
Release agents for self-hardening sand,
192
Resin binders:
alkaline phenolic, 183
furane, 180
gas triggered, 186
heat-triggered, 184
hot box, 188
phenolic-isocyanate, 182

self-hardening, 180
Resistivity of cast irons, 28
Index
359
Rheology of coatings, 230
RHEOTEC coatings, 234
Running systems:
iron castings, 245
steel castings, 272
Sand:
acid demand, 101, 149
Chelford, 148
chromite, 152
cooling, 160
German, 149
grain shape, 147
green, see Green sand
olivine, 152
reclamation, see Reclamation
safe handling of silica sand, 148
segregation of, 149
silica, 146
grain shape, 147
properties, 147
safe handling, 148
thermal characteristics, 150
zircon, 151
radioactivity of, 151
Sand reclamation, see Reclamation
Sandwich ladle treatment, 71

Scrap iron compositions, 50
Sealants, 213
SEDEX ceramic foam filters for iron, 256
Segregation of sand, 149
Self-hardening process, 167
foundry layout, 175
mould design, 173
SEMCO coatings, 237
SEMCO PERM coatings for Lost Foam,
220, 239
SEPAROL parting agent for green sand,
163
Shell sand process, 186
Shrinkage of casting alloys, 13, 306
SI units, 1
Sieve sizes, comparison, 14
Silicon in grey iron, 37
Simulation of casting processes, 344
SinterCast process, 87
Sintering point of silica sand, 151
Slag removal, 58
SLAX, 58
Sleeve-filter units, see KALPUR
SO
2
process:
epoxy, 197
furane, 196
Sodium silicate:
breakdown agents, 207

CO
2
process, 204
ester silicate process, 204
see also CARSET, CARSIL,
SOLOSIL, VELOSET
properties of, 204
Solidification modelling, 344
SOLOSIL silicate binder, 209
SOLSTAR solidification simulation, 345
Specific coke consumption in cupolas, 42
Specific heat capacity of cast irons, 28
Specific surface area of silica sand, 148
Specifications:
grey cast iron, 30
ductile iron, 79
malleable iron:
blackheart, 93
whiteheart, 91
steel, 109
Spheroidal graphite cast iron, 26, 70
Sprue, 247
base, 247, 275
Stainless steel, 116
Starch additive for sand, 155
Steel castings, 108
carbon steel, 112
duplex steel, 117
low alloy steel, 112
high alloy steel, 114

hot tearing, 129
manganese steel, 114
physical properties, 117
pinholing, 129
pouring temperature, 144
specifications, 109
stainless steel, 116
Stress conversion table, 5
Stress relief annealing, 82
STRIPCOTE release agent, 192
Strip time of self-hardening sand, 170
STYROMOL coatings for Lost Foam, 220,
239
Sulphides in steel, 126
Sulphonic acid, 180
Sulphur in grey iron, 39
TAK sealant, 215
TEA (triethylamine), 192
360
Index
TELLURIT chill-promoting coating,
242
Temperature losses in ladles:
iron, 131
steel, 142
TENO spirit-based coatings, 238
Terminal velocity of sand grains, 18
Thermal conductivity of cast irons, 29
Thermal expansion of cast irons, 28
Thermal reclamation of sand, 177

THERMEXO metal-producing cover,
332
Thixotropic coatings, 231
Tin in grey iron, 39
Titanium in steel, 126, 286
Tolerances, dimensional of castings, 22
TRIBONOL process, 240
Tundish cover treatment, 71
Types of cast iron, 23
Undercooled graphite, 63
Urethane binders, see Phenolic-isocyanate
Vacuum moulding, 29
VELOSET system, 179, 212
Vermicular graphite, 85
Volume shrinkage of casting alloys, 13
Warm box core making, 189
Wear resistant cast irons, 102
Wedge chill test, 65, 92
Weighting moulds, 19
Wet reclamation, 179
Williams cores, 329
Whiteheart malleable cast iron, 24, 90
Work time of chemically bonded sand,
167
Zircon sand, 151
radioactivity of, 151