ABSTRACT
This study was conducted as an action research in which students were taught on
how to process vocabulary deeply by applying some vocabulary learning strategies
(VLS). The study first aimed at identifying the vocabulary problems that students
are facing with; evaluating the improvement of students’ vocabulary retention with
some helpful memory strategies, namely structured reviewing, using mechanical
techniques, using imagery and placing new words into a context; finding out which
strategies are the most popularly used among students; and finally collecting
students’ attitudes towards the strategy training scheme, four sub-memory strategies
and their suggestions for a better future teaching and learning program. For the
accomplishments of these purposes, 28 first-year students in one class at Phuong
Dong university, Vietnam were involved in the study. The data instruments varied
from a Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) test, a group-interview, learners’
diaries, pre-test/post-tests to a questionnaire. Through the VKS test and the group
interview, the results revealed that among many obstacles students encountered in
their independent vocabulary learning, lack of remembering techniques was the
biggest problem. Learners’ diaries noticeably indicated students’ equal concerns for
all four sub-memory strategies, and especially for “using imagery” strategy. The
results from the pre-test and the two post-tests helped to prove the effectiveness of
using memory strategies in both short-term and long-term vocabulary learning.
Finally, students’ positive attitudes towards both the strategy training scheme and
four memory strategies and their suggestions about the future learning and teaching
vocabulary were comprised in the last instrument- questionnaire. On this basis, the
study gave some implications for teachers’ preparation, classroom practices and
future research.
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
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TABLES
Table 1: Results from VKS test
Table 2: Students’ strategic problems in vocabulary learning
Table 3: Mean scores gained by the group in the pre-test and post-test 1

Table 4: Mean scores gained by the group in the pre-test and post-test 2
Table 5: Students’ preference of four sub-memory strategies
Table 6: Students’ suggestions for future schedule
Table 7: Types of strategy training
FIGURES
Figure 1: Action Research circle
Figure 2: Data collection procedure
Figure 3: Strategies used as reported students’ diaries
Figure 4: Report of strategies used in post-test 1
Figure 5: The whole group’s performance in the pre-test and post test 1
Figure 6: The whole group’ performance in the pre-test and post test 2
Figure 7: The whole group’ performance in the pre-test, post-test 1 and post test 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
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ABSTRACT i
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 3
1.1.1. Background of language learning strategies 3
1.1.2. Definition of language learning strategies 4
1.1.3. The importance of language learning strategies in language learning and teaching. 5
1.1.4. Classification of learning strategies 7
1.1.5. Strategies Training 8
1.1.5.1. Why is training? 8
1.1.5.2. How to train 10
1.2. Vocabulary Learning Strategies 12
1.2.1. Definition of vocabulary 12
1.2.2. The importance of vocabulary in second language learning 13
1.2.3. Factors affecting vocabulary learning and acquisition 14
1.2.4. Retention and factors affecting vocabulary retention 15
1.2.4.1. Memory 16

1.2.4.2. Language exposure 18
1.2.4.3. Effective Vocabulary learning strategies 19
1.2.5. Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) 20
1.2.6. Classification of VLS 20
1.2.7. Oxford’s taxonomy 22
1.3. Memory strategies 23
1.3.1. Definition of memory strategies 23
1.3.2. Why memory strategies? 24
1.3.3. Oxford’s classification of Memory Strategies 24
1.3.3.1. Structured reviewing 26
1.3.3.2. Using mechanical techniques 27
1.3.3.3. Using imagery 28
1.3.3.4. Placing new words into a context 29
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2.1. The rationale of using Action Research 30
2.2. The background to the study 30
2.3. The research process 31
2.3.1. Identify the problems 32
2.3.2. Gather data 34
2.3.2.1. Results from VKS 34
2.3.2.2. Results from the interview 35
2.3.3. Interprete data 39
2.3.4. Act on evidence 40
2.3.4.1. Participants 40
2.3.4.2. Materials 40
2.3.4.3. Training procedures 41
Data collection procedure 43
2.3.5. Evaluation 45
2.3.5.1. Data analysis methods and procedures 45
2.3.5.2. Findings and discussion 46

2.3.6. Plan for the next stages. 54
1. Major findings of the study 58
2. Limitations of the study 59
3. Suggestions for further study 59
REFERENCES 60
Appendix 1: Direct and Indirect learning strategies (Oxford, 1990, p. 18-20) I
Appendix 2: Schedule of Teaching GE1 IV
Appendix 3: VKS test VII
Appendix 7: Strategies used as reported in students’ diaries XVI
Appendix 8: Individuals’ performance in the Pre-test, Post-test 1 and Post-test 2 XVII
Appendix 9: Mean difference between pre-test, post test 1 and post-test 2 XX
Appendix 10: Suggested activities for introducing and practicing memory strategies XXII
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PART A: INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the statement of the problem, rationale as well as aims and
objectives of the study reported in this thesis. It also presents the research questions
and the scope of the research. Finally, the chapter ends with an outline of structure
of the thesis.
1. Statement of the problem and rationale for the study
Vocabulary is considered an essential part of language learning. According to
Knight (1994, cited in Gu, 2003), learning words is the most important aspect of
language acquisition. Learning vocabulary is regarded as the basis of obtaining
other skills. Vocabulary deficiency can result in weaknesses in reading
comprehension, listening comprehension, speaking competence, writing
performance and grammatical accuracy. Therefore, learning vocabulary is an
indispensable step of L2 acquisition. However, how recently learners have learnt
something is not important, but in fact, the depth of processing. In other words,
students must be taught on how to process information deeply. This view confirmed
the role of understanding and applying Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) in
teaching and learning vocabulary.

Studying VLS has been an interest for a great deal of psychologists, linguists and
language teachers for a long time. There are numerous studies conducted about
VLS, their effectiveness in learning vocabulary and these researchers almost have
attempted to develop a framework of category of VLS (e.g O’Malley & Chamot
1990, Oxford 1990; Gu & Johnson 1996, Schmitt 1997, Nation 2001)
Vocabulary retention is one of the prolems of vocabulary learning. Students have
not known how to use memory strategies. Thus the training of memory strategies is
esential. However, there are many memory strategies so each study focuses on a
group of Memory strategies.
2. Aim of the study.
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The study aims at finding out the extent to which the training of memory strategies
help the students to retain the learned words better. The training in this study is
limited to four strategies as introduced in Oxford (1990)’s taxonomy. These are
structured reviewing, using mechanical techinques, using imagery and placing new
words into a context.
3. Research questions.
In an attempt to achieve the above-presented aim, the study was designed to answer
the three following research questions:
1. What are the problems second language learners have with vocabulary
retention?
2. Why do they have those problems?
3. To what extent does applying the 4 selected strategies, i.e, structured reviewing,
using mechanical techniques, using imagery and placing new words into a context
help to improve students' vocabulary retention?
4. Scope of the study
This action research is an investigation into the effectiveness of the training of
Memory Strategies on students’ vocabulary retention. However, the training does
not cover all the memory strategies. In an attempt to make this study more
managable, the study focuses on the effectiveness of the training of 4 memory

strategies: structured reviewing, using mechanical techniques, using imagery and
placing new words into a context on a group of students (n=28) who were studying
English as a minor in Phuong Dong university curriculum.
5. The organization of the thesis
The thesis is composed of three parts: Part A, Part B, and Part C. Part A –
Introduction - introduces the rationale, aims and objectives as well research
questions of the study. Part B labelled as Development is composed of two
chapters: Chapter 1- Literature review - introduces the theoretical foundations for
the whole study and Chapter 2 – Methodology - elaborates on the participants, the
method used, the instruments, the date collecting and processing procedure from the
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tests, questionnaires, interviews and learners’ diaries. Part C – Conclusion -
summarizes all the major points in the study, reveals the limitations of the study and
proposes some suggestions for further research.
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides an overview of the literature related to the study: from
vocabulary learning strategies, next, memory strategies and last four sub-memory
strategies. Besides, this review also reveals some critical analysis about the systems
of classifying vocabulary learning strategies as well as the research gap, thus
motivating to carry out the study.
1.1. Language learning strategies
1.1.1. Background of language learning strategies
There has been a prominent shift within the field of language learning and teaching
over the last twenty years with greater emphasis being put on learners and learning
rather than on teachers and teaching. In parallel to this new shift of interest, how
learners process new information and what kinds of strategies they employ to
understand, learn or remember the information have been the primary concern of
the researchers dealing with the area of foreign language learning. So, language
learning strategies (LLS) for foreign language learning and the teacher's role in

strategy training is very important. As vocabulary learning strategies are a
component of second language learning strategies, a brief review of the literature on
language learning strategies is needed.
Research into LLS began in the 1960s. Particularly, developments in cognitive
psychology influenced much of the research done on LLS. In most of the research
on LLS, the primary concern has been on “identifying what good language learners
report they do to learn a second or foreign language, or, in some cases, are observed
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doing while learning a second or foreign language” (Rubin & Wenden 1987:19). In
1966, Aaron Carton published his study entitled “The Method of Inference in
Foreign Language Study”, which was the first attempt on learner strategies. After
Carton, in 1971, Rubin started doing research focusing on the strategies of
successful learners and stated that, once identified, such strategies could be made
available to less successful learners. Rubin classified strategies in terms of
processes contributing directly or indirectly to language learning. The strategies
initiated by Rubin were expanded and refined by other scholars and researchers
such as Wong-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al. (1978), Cohen &
Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot & O'Malley (1987), Politzer & Mc Groarty
(1985), Conti & Kolsody (1998). Before presenting an overview of these studies, a
review of the definitions of language learning strategies is needed, and this is
presented below.
1.1.2. Definition of language learning strategies
It is clearly seen that research on learning strategies in general and language
learning strategies in particular is becoming increasingly popular. So far, there has
been no consensus among the linguists regarding to the definitions of leaning
strategies.
According to Nunan (1991:168), “Learning strategies […] are the mental processes
which learners employ to learn and use the target language”. Nunan’s definition
restricts learning strategies only to “mental processes”. Richard et al. (1992:209),
offers a broader definition of learning strategies, that is, learning strategies are

intentional behavior and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order
to better help them understand, learn and remember new information. Similarly,
Weinstein and Mayer (1986) (in O’ Malley and Charmot 1990:43) have learning
facilitation as a goal and are intentional on the part of the learner. The goal of
strategy use is to affect the leaner’s motivational or affective state, or the way in
which the learner selects, acquires, organizes, or integrates new knowledge.
4
Oxford (1990:8) defines learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner
to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective
and more transferable to new situation.”
Ellis defines learning strategies as “the particular approaches or techniques that
learner employs to try to learn an L2.” (1997:76). He further explains that learning
strategies can be behavioral or mental and are typically problem - oriented.
Rubin (in Wenden and Rubin 1987:19) is even more explicit when he defines
learning strategies as “any set of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the
learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information, that is,
what learner do to learn and do to regulate their learning.”
According to O’Malley and Charmot (1990:1), learning strategies are “special ways
of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning, or retention of the
information” or in their other words learning strategies are the “special thoughts or
behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new
information.”
Obviously, learning strategies are defined in different words and from different
perspectives such as cognitive, social or pragmatic. Therefore, researchers worked
out the taxonomy of learning strategies instead of defining them. This can be seen
in the following part.
1.1.3. The importance of language learning strategies in language learning and
teaching.
Bridging the gap between students’ learning styles and teachers’ teaching styles will
be a powerful means to guide students towards successful learning. Thus, teaching

students learning strategies should not be neglected. Oxford (1990) describes
learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learners to make learning easier,
faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to
new situations”. Learning strategies will compensate for the weakness of a learning
style and maximize the strengths of a learning style powerfully.
5
To emphasize the importance of LLS, Chamot et al. (1999) stated, “differences
between more effective learners and less effective learners were found in the
number and range of strategies used, in how the strategies were applied to the task,
and in whether they were appropriate for the task”. Therefore, teaching learning
strategies is especially useful for the latter learners. If they can find effective
strategies, they will be able to succeed, through effective strategy teaching, students
will acquire not only vocabulary but also the way for studying.
The language learner capable of using a wide variety of LLS appropriately can
improve his language skills. According to Oxford (1990), memory strategies “help
students store and retrieve new information”, cognitive strategies “enable learners
to understand and produce new language by many different means”, compensation
strategies “allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in
knowledge”, metacognitive strategies “allow learners to control their own cognition
- that is, to coordinate the learning process by using functions such as centering,
arranging, planning, and evaluating”, affective strategies “help to regulate emotions,
motivations, and attitudes” and social “help students learn through interaction with
other”. Developing skills in three areas, such as metacognitive, cognitive, and
socio-affective can help the language learner build up learner independence and
autonomy whereby he can take control of his own learning. Lessard-Clouston
(1997:3) states that LLS contribute to the development of the communicative
competence of the students. Being a broad concept, LLS are used to refer to all
strategies foreign language learners use in learning the target language and
communication strategies are one type of LLS. As Oxford (1990:1) stated, LLS “
are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-

directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence”.
Besides developing the communicative competence of the students, teachers who
train students to use LLS can help them become better language learners. Helping
students understand good LLS and training them to develop and use such good LLS
can be considered to be the appreciated characteristics of a good language teacher.
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Research into the good LLS revealed a number of positive strategies so that such
strategies could also be used by bad language learners trying to become more
successful in language learning. However, there is always the possibility that bad
language learners can also use the same good LLS while becoming unsuccessful
owing to some other reasons. At this point, it should be strongly stressed that using
the same good LLS does not guarantee that bad learners will also become
successful in language learning since other factors may also play role in success.
1.1.4. Classification of learning strategies
In the 1980s and early 90s, research mainly focused on categorizing the strategies
found in the studies of the previous decade. As a result, several taxonomies were
proposed to classify them, including classifications of LLS in general and language
sub-skills strategies in particular.
The most famous learning strategies are proposed by O'Malley and Chamot (1990).
Their hierarchical framework of strategies distinguishes three major strategy types:
Metacognitive Strategies; Cognitive Strategies; Socio-affective Strategies.
O'Malley and Chamot's framework of strategies has considerable intuitive appeal
and many practitioners have used this taxonomy in planning their teaching.
However, O'Malley and Chamot have never examined the construct validity of their
taxonomy. As a result, it is unclear enough to teach students and to train them to use
these three separate strategies.
According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies used by learners that
contribute directly or indirectly to language learning. These are: Learning
Strategies; Communication Strategies; Social Strategies.
Stern (1992:262-266) stated that, there are five main LLS. These are as follows:

Management and Planning Strategies; Cognitive Strategies; Communicative -
Experiential Strategies; Interpersonal Strategies; Affective Strategies
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It seems that among numbers of classifications of learning strategies given by
researchers, Oxford’s scheme is the most comprehensive detailed system of six
strategies, classified as direct and indirect. Oxford's (1990:17) taxonomy of LLS is
shown as following:
Direct strategies
 Memory strategies
 Cognitive strategies
 Compensation strategies
Indirect strategies
 Metacognitive strategies
 Affective strategies
 Social strategies
It can be seen that much of the recent work in this area has been underpinned by a
broad concept of LLS that goes beyond cognitive processes to include social and
communicative strategies.
1.1.5. Strategies Training
1.1.5.1. Why is training?
It has been suggested that one way to improve the learning of a second or a foreign
language is to teach learners how to learn more effectively. In order to do this,
teachers are recommended to train their students different learning strategies in
general and VLS in particular. Chamot (1999, p.1, cited in Ghazal, n.d.) emphasized
that learning strategies instruction can help “EFL learners become better learners. In
addition, skills in using learning strategies assist students in becoming independent,
confident learners”. There used to be a question that whether there exists a
relationship between strategy use and success in second or foreign language
learning or not. Many researchers have studied for this and discovered this kind of
relationship. For instance, Cohen and Aphek (1981, cited in Ghazal, n.d.) taught

students of Hebrew to remember vocabulary items by making paired mnemonic
associations and found that those who made associations remembered vocabulary
more effectively than those who did not. In another attempt, in a journal titled
“Adult learners’ approaches to learning vocabulary in second languages”, Sanaoui
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(1995, cited in Ghazal, n.d.) carried out a study to demonstrate the relationship
between vocabulary strategies use and success in acquiring and retaining
vocabulary items. The study showed that adult learners of L2 vocabulary were
likely to fall into two categories: Those who adopted a structured approach to their
learning and those who did not. Learners in the first group took control of their
vocabulary learning. They not only relied on what the language course provided
them with, but also used their own initiative in regularly creating opportunities for
vocabulary learning by listening to the radio, watching movies, reading and self-
studying. By using vocabulary notebooks and lists, they kept systematic record of
vocabulary they learned and reviewed it several times a week. Meanwhile, the
learners in the second group who followed unstructured approach relied mainly on
course material. If they made lists of vocabulary items, they did not review them
and easily, they lost them little by little. Sanaoui concluded that students who had a
structured learning approach were more successful in retaining the vocabulary items
taught in classrooms than learners who had an unstructured approach. It is
suggested from the research that helping learners gain control over processes for
managing their own lexis is an important task in vocabulary learning and teaching
in L2 classrooms.
According to Cohen (2003), strategy training aims at providing learners with the
tools to do the following:
Self-diagnose their strengths and weaknesses in language learning
- Become aware of what helps them to learn the target language most efficiently
- Develop a broad range of problem-solving skills
- Experiment with familiar and unfamiliar learning strategies
- Make decisions about how to approach a language task

- Monitor and self-evaluate their performance
- Transfer successful strategies to new learning contexts
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In conclusion, strategy use will result in more effective vocabulary acquisition and
recall among L2 learners. This is the reason why teachers should embark on
strategy training and help students raise awareness of the necessity of using VLS in
learning and retaining vocabulary.
1.1.5.2. How to train
Oxford (1994) suggests some principles of language learning strategy training as
follows:
- Language learning strategy training should be based clearly on students’
attitude, beliefs, and stated needs.
- Strategies should be chosen so that they mesh with and support each other
and so that they fit the requirements of the language task, the learners’ goals,
and the learners’ style of learning
- Training should, if possible, be integrated into regular language learning
activities over a long period of time rather than taught as a separate, short
intervention.
- Students should have plenty of opportunities for strategy training during
language classes
- Strategy training should include explanations, handouts, activities,
brainstorming, and materials for reference and home study
- Affective issues such as anxiety, motivation, beliefs, and interests-all of
which influence strategy choice-should be directly addressed by language
learning strategy training.
- Strategy training should not be solely tied to the class at hand; it should
provide strategies that are transferable to future language tasks beyond a
given class.
- Strategy training should be somewhat individualized, as different students
prefer or need certain strategies for particular tasks.

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- Strategy training should provide students with a mechanism to evaluate their
own progress and to evaluate the success of the training and the value of the
strategies in multiple tasks.
Steps for strategy training
Finding the usefulness of strategy training, some researchers tried to present a
model including the steps to be taken by teachers for this kind of instruction
(Oxford,1990; O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). O'Malley and Chamot (1990) found two
approaches in teaching learning strategy, direct (overt in Oxford's model) and
embedded (covert in Oxford's model).
-Direct training
Direct training is "learning strategy instruction in which students are informed about
the value and purpose of learning strategies" (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 229).
-Embedded training
Embedded training is "guidance in the use of learning strategies that is embedded in
the task materials but not explicitly defined to the learner as strategy instruction"
(O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 230). They added that embedded approach had little
effect on learners. Wenden (1987) has also criticized embedded instruction since
with this kind of training the learners who were not familiar with cognitive or socio-
affective strategies that were available to them, could not use the metacognitive
ones and as a result no transfer occurred. As a result, she recommended the use of a
more direct approach for the instruction.
-Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA)
Chamot & O'Malley (1994) proposed CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language
Learning Approach) as a useful framework for direct language learning strategies
instruction which includes five phases: introducing, teaching, practicing,
evaluating, and applying learning strategies. In this approach, highly explicit
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instruction in applying strategies to learning tasks is gradually faded so that students
can begin to assume greater responsibility in selecting and applying appropriate

learning strategies.This study attempts to follow the CALLA approach as it
basically involves explicit instruction of strategies as well as orients the learners’
towards higher level of autonomy. Also, this approach allows the students to
develop their own practice and self evaluation skills to a great extent which would
build up their confidence and responsibility- the characteristics the research aimed
to achieve - towards their own learning. As stated above, not all L2 strategy training
studies have been successful or conclusive. Some training has been effective in
various skill areas but not in others, even within the same study (Oxford, 1990a).
Therefore, the present study was conducted to shed some light on this issue.
Considering the specific situation of the researcher, the present study can add to the
previous literature on strategiestraining in general and on vocabulary strategies
training in particular.
1.2. Vocabulary Learning Strategies
1.2.1. Definition of vocabulary
“…without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can
be conveyed” (David Wilkins, 1972, cited in Hoang, 1985, p.1)
Above was the way that David Wilkins, a British linguist acknowledged vocabulary
and the significance of vocabulary. Vocabulary is considered a very important
aspect of learning a foreign language that has called for a great of attention from
linguists, researchers, teachers and learners together with many different definitions
of vocabulary. In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, vocabulary is defined
as “all the words that a person knows or uses, or all the words in a particular
language.”
According to Michael Lewis (1993, p.89, cited in Hoang, 1985), vocabulary “…
may be individual words or full sentences – institutionalized utterances – that
conveyed fixed social or pragmatic meaning within a given community”
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Penny Ur, in her book “A course book in language teaching” defined vocabulary as
“the words we teach in the foreign language. However, a new item of vocabulary
may be more than a single word: a compound of two or three words or multi word

idioms” (1996, p.60, cited in Hoang, 1985)
From the above quotations about vocabulary, the question: “What is vocabulary?”
in terms of vocabulary teaching and learning can be partly revealed. Vocabulary is
not only a stock of individual words with fixed meanings, more than that, it is also a
combination of words such as: poly words (e.g. by the way, upside down),
collocations or word partnership (e.g. sense of humor, make a complaint),
institutionalized utterances (e.g. I’ll take it; Where are you from?), sentence frames
(It can be said that ; there is /there are), or even text frames (e.g. in this
presentation, I would like to…; Firstly, secondly, thirdly…). Learning vocabulary
involves learning “chunks” rather than learning individual words.
1.2.2. The importance of vocabulary in second language learning
In the very first part of his book “Vocabulary”, Michael Mc Carthy (1990, p.2, cited
in Quach, 2007) stated: “It is the experience of most language teachers that the
single, biggest component of any language course is vocabulary. No matter how
well the student learns grammar, no matter how successfully the sounds of L2 are
mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in an
L2 just cannot happen in any meaningful way.” It is impossible to deny the role of
vocabulary in communication in an L2. One’s vocabulary size plays a very
significant part in his/her ability to communicate due to the fact that “words are the
tools we use to think, to express ideas and feelings and to learn about the world.”
(Johnson and Johnson, 2004, p.1, cited in Quach, 2007)
In the book named “Understanding vocabulary” (2000, p.16, cited in Quach, 2007),
Alexander wrote: “Comprehension improves when you know what the words
mean” and “words are currency of communication. A robust vocabulary improves
all areas of communication – listening, speaking, reading and writing”.
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All the above quotations highly appreciate the important role of vocabulary in
language learning, especially in second language learning. Thus, teaching
vocabulary should be a part of the syllabus and vocabulary should be paid more
attention through well- planned lesson of language teachers’ and serious learning

behavior of learners.
1.2.3. Factors affecting vocabulary learning and acquisition
Despite the abundance of research on vocabulary acquisition that has been
conducted by linguists, psychologists and theorists of L2 acquisition, there is still no
general theory of vocabulary acquisition. While psycholinguists have a particular
interest in vocabulary development and exploration of the formal models of
vocabulary acquisition, and ignore the L2 vocabulary literature because it is model
free, applied linguists are mainly concerned with the descriptive aspects of
vocabulary and do not draw on existing psycholinguistic models of bilingual
lexicon even when this implies an immediate pedagogical significance (Singleton,
2008). It was these differences that have made it extremely difficult to list all the
significant factors and the ways in which they influence.
Singleton (2008, p.4-24) listed some significant factors affecting vocabulary
learning and acquisition which were the most frequently discussed in relevant
literature, namely linguistic features of lexical items, the influence of first and other
languages, the incremental nature of vocabulary acquisition, the role of memory in
vocabulary learning and acquisition, the organization and development of L2
mental lexicon, the source of vocabulary (exposure to linguistic input), individual
learner differences, the role of teacher and vocabulary teaching and strategies.
Approving Singleton’s viewpoint, but expressing in a more systematical way, in
her research about how to increase students’ retention of vocabulary through
meaning practice, Quach (2007) divided all the factors into three groups, namely
learner-related factors, teacher-related factors and learning context. Discussing
learner-related factors, she mentioned about memory and storage system, learner’s
needs and interests (which can be called individual learner differences in
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Singleton’s way) and learning styles and strategies. The group of factors relating to
teachers included teaching method and strategy training. Language input and output
were two other factors mentioned in the group of learning context.
In short, due to different influencing factors, achieving the goals of L2 vocabulary

acquisition is no easy matter. This difficulty was stated in Singleton’s book as:
“Even a well planned vocabulary lesson based on contemporary pedagogical
principles cannot guarantee that learners will acquire the vocabulary that is taught”.
Learning vocabulary through formal instruction is a complex process influenced by
a number of factors: the teacher’s approach to vocabulary teaching (i.e. vocabulary
teaching strategies) and his or her understanding of the key notions in vocabulary
acquisition, the effort invested by learners in vocabulary learning (i.e. vocabulary
learning strategies) as well as their readiness to take responsibility for their own
learning, and, finally, the interaction of all the factors mentioned above.
1.2.4. Retention and factors affecting vocabulary retention
In the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2005, p.1297), retention is defined
as “an ability to remember things”. There is also another definition in which
retention in learning can be defined as “the ability to retain facts and figures in
memory”. Although no definition of vocabulary retention in the literature has been
found by the researcher, for the purpose of this study, vocabulary retention can be
clarified as the storage of vocabulary in the memory, which becomes available for
usage when needed.
In terms of “acquisition”, we talk about “the act of getting something about
knowledge” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2005); whereas, talking about
retention, we mention the act of remembering something. In the scope of this study,
factors affecting retention, especially vocabulary retention should be discussed.
The retention of vocabulary is affected by three following factors: memory,
language exposure and effective vocabulary learning strategies. There is a close
relationship among these three factors. Learning refers to processes in the initial
acquisition or encoding of information, whereas the term memory more often refers
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to later storage and retrieval of information. After all, it can be said that information
is learned only when it can be retrieved later, and retrieval cannot occur unless
information was learned. Supporting this inseparable relationship among three
above factors, Gairns (1986, p.86, cited in Vu, 2005) stated: “Understanding how

we store information in the memory and why certain chunks of it seem to “stick”
while others slip away is obviously a matter of concern to anyone whose work
involves helping others to learn. For language teachers, this knowledge should help
to establish classroom procedures that will promote more effective learning and
retention of new language items.” Thus, it is necessary for both language teachers
and learners to have a deeper investigation in this process.
1.2.4.1. Memory
Types of memory
The role of memory is crucial in any kind of learning and vocabulary learning is no
exception. What people usually think of as “memory” in day-to-day usage is
actually long-term memory, but there are also important short-term (working
memory) and sensory memory processes, which must be worked through before a
long-term memory can be established.
Sensory memory is defined as “the shortest-term element of memory. It is the
ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have
ended. It acts as a kind of buffer for stimuli received through the five senses of
sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch, which are retained accurately, but very
briefly” (cited in ). For example, the ability to look
at something and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation is
an example of sensory memory. Sensory memory lasts for such a short time within
200 - 500 milliseconds (1/5 - 1/2 second) and decays very quickly after the
perception of an item. It is often considered part of the process of perception, but
represents an essential step for storing information in short-term memory.
Short-term memory can be thought of as the ability to remember and process
information at the same time. It holds a small amount of information (typically
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around 7 items or even less) in mind in an active, readily-available state for a short
period of time (typically from 10 to 15 seconds, or sometimes up to a minute).
Long-term memory is intended for storage of information over a long period of
time. Unlike short-term memory, which is limited in capacity, long term memory is

seemingly inexhaustible and can accommodate any amount of new information.
Despite our everyday impressions of forgetting, it seems likely that long-term
memory actually decays very little over time, and can store a seemingly unlimited
amount of information almost indefinitely.
Process of memorization
Each different type of memory has its own particular mode of operation, but they all
cooperate in the process of memorization, and can be seen as three necessary steps
in forming a lasting memory.
As information is perceived, it is stored in sensory memory automatically. Sensory
memory does not require any conscious attention, but it is essential, because it gives
us the effect of unity of an object as our eyes jump from point to point on its surface
to examine its details; for example, if the object in your sensory memory is a red
octagon, you may or may not pay attention to it. If you do pay attention, you
recognize that it is a stop sign. Once you have paid such attention to a piece of
information, it can pass on to your short-term memory. Your short-term memory
then lets you record limited amounts of information for periods of less than one
minute. With an active effort, you can keep a piece of information in short-term
memory for longer by repeating; otherwise, the memory will disappear in less than
a minute. Keeping an item in short-term memory for a certain amount of time lets
you eventually transfer it to long-term memory for more permanent storage. The
mental work of repeating the information in this process explains why the
expression “working memory” is increasingly used as a synonym for short-term
memory. But such repetition seems to be a less effective strategy for consolidating a
memory than the technique of giving it a meaning by associating it with previously
acquired knowledge. Once the piece of information has been stored in your long-
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term memory, it can remain there for a very long time, and sometimes even for the
rest of your life.
In short, it can be seen that in order to retain knowledge as much as possible,
foreign language learners need all the information of the language that they learned

to be transferred into long-term memory. The question is how it can happen?
According to the above chart, short-term memories can become long-term memory
through the process of consolidation, involving rehearsal and meaningful
association. Unlike short-term memory (which relies mostly on an acoustic, and to
a lesser extent a visual, code for storing information), long-term memory encodes
information for storage semantically (i.e. based on meaning and association). In
other words, the main way of transferring from short- term memory to long-term
memory is by finding some pre- existing information in the long-term memory to
attach the new information to.
1.2.4.2. Language exposure
While the term memory more often refers to later storage and retrieval of
information language exposure refers more to processes in the initial acquisition or
encoding of information. There are many situations that a learner can discover the
meaning of a new word or phrase such as: through the written text, through hearing
it used, or through other members’ explanations. However, there is no guarantee
that those vocabulary items and their meanings will be remembered. There is a fact
that getting to know the meaning of a new vocabulary item is not the same as
remembering that meaning.
Joe et al. (1996) gave out three important processes that may lead to vocabulary
being retained. These processes can be viewed as three steps with the later steps
including the earlier steps. The first process encouraging learning is attention, the
second one is retrieval and the last one is generation.
Attention
This is the first process in which learners need to be aware of needed useful
language item. This noticing can be affected by several factors, namely: (1) the
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salience of the word in the textual input or in the discussion of the text; (2) the
previous contact that the learners have had with the word; and (3) the learners’
realization that the word fill the gap in their knowledge of language (Schmitt and
Frota, 1986, Ellis, 1990, cited in Joe et.al, 1996)

Retrieval
After the word is noticed and its meaning comprehended in the textual input to the
task, and if that word is subsequently retrieved either receptively or productively
during a task, the memory of that word will be strengthened.
Receptive retrieval involves perceiving the form and having to retrieve its meaning
when the word is met in listening and reading.
Productive retrieval involves wishing to communicate the meaning of the word and
having to retrieve its spoken or written form as in speaking or writing.
Generation
This is the third process that leads to a word being remembered. Generative
processing can also be receptive or productive. This means that a word is used
generatively if it is used in a way that is different from its use in the textual input.
Whereas, receptive use involves meeting the word in new context only.
1.2.4.3. Effective Vocabulary learning strategies
Like general learning strategies, English vocabulary learning strategies include
those techniques that help learners to remember what they have learned- their
storage and retention of new information.
Identifying the effective vocabulary learning strategies is always a controversial
issue that attracts a lot of research attention. Politzer and McGroarty (1995, cited in
Schmitt, 1997) warn that no strategy should be considered inherently good or bad
but is dependent on the context in which they are used. The context here is
comprised of many variables, including proficiency level, task, text, language
modality, background knowledge, context of learning, target language, learner
characteristics and culture, among which Schmitt (1997) highlights culture and
language proficiency.
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In the next section, more knowledge of vocabulary learning strategies, the reasons
for teaching and learning vocabulary strategies and some classifications of
vocabulary learning strategies will be discussed into details, which helps readers
have a closer view of this term.

1.2.5. Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS)
Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) are one part of language learning strategies
(LLS) which in turn are part of general learning strategies (Nation, 2001). LLS
encourage greater overall self-direction for learners. Self-directed learners are
independent learners who are capable of assuming responsibility for their own
learning and gradually gaining confidence, involvement and proficiency (Oxford,
1990). So is the case with VLS. Thus, students need training in VLS they need
most.
Research into VLS stems from two directions of research. The first one is the
research of general language learning strategies which showed that many of the
learning strategies used by learners are in fact vocabulary learning strategies (e.g.
memory strategies in Oxford’s classification, 1990) or may be used in vocabulary
learning. The second one is the research oriented towards exploring the
effectiveness of individual strategy application in vocabulary learning. Generally,
research conducted so far has revealed that many learners employ learning
strategies in vocabulary learning more frequently than in other language learning
activities (O’Malley et al., 1885a, cited in Singleton, 2008). However, they are
mostly inclined to use basic vocabulary learning strategies (Schmitt, 1997).
Therefore, it is necessary for language teachers to make strategy instruction an
essential part of any foreign or second language program.
1.2.6. Classification of VLS
Studying VLS has been an interest for a lot of psychologists, linguists and language
teachers for ages. There are numerous studies conducted about VLS and their
effectiveness in learning vocabulary and this vocabulary field has been productive
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in the last two decades. Some researchers have attempted to develop a framework of
category of vocabulary learning strategies. Following are the three most prominent
taxonomies by Gu and Johnson (1996, cited in Gazah, 2007), Schmitt (1997) and
Nation (2001).
Gu and Johnson (1996 as cited in Ghazal, 2007) divide second language (L2)

vocabulary learning strategies into: metacognitive. cognitive, memory and
activation strategies.
Metacognitive strategies are composed of selective attention (what words are
important to learn and are essential for adequate comprehension of a passage) and
self-initiation strategies (a variety of means to clarify the meaning of vocabulary
items).
Cognitive strategies include guessing strategies, skillful use of dictionaries and
note-taking strategies. Learners using guessing strategies draw upon their
background knowledge and use linguistic clues like grammatical structures of a
sentence to guess the meaning of a word.
Memory strategies are comprised of rehearsal and encoding categories. Word lists
and repetition are examples of rehearsal strategies. Encoding strategies entail such
strategies as association; imagery; visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual
encoding as well as word—structure (i.e., analyzing a word in terms of prefixes,
stems, and suffixes).
Activation strategies involve the strategies through which the learners actually
utilize new words in different contexts such as setting example sentences.
Based on the system of Oxford’s taxonomy of LLS, Schmitt (1997) only adopted
four strategy groups: social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive. Schmitt stated
that there was no category in Oxford’s system which adequately describes the kind
of strategies used by an individual when facing with discovering a new word’s
meaning without recourse to another person’s expertise, so he added another new
category – determination strategies (DET) to the system. Therefore, there are 58
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