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69. Scientists have modifi ed feed corn genetically, increasing its resistance to insect pests. Farmers who tried out
the genetically modifi ed corn last season applied less insecticide to their corn fi elds and still got yields
comparable to those they would have gotten with ordinary corn. Ordinary corn seed, however, costs less,
and what these farmers saved on insecticide rarely exceeded their extra costs for seed. Therefore, for most
feed-corn farmers, switching to genetically modifi ed seed would be unlikely to increase profi ts.
Which of the following would it be most useful to know in order to evaluate the argument?
(A) Whether there are insect pests that sometimes reduce feed-corn yields, but against which commonly used
insecticides and the genetic modifi cation are equally ineffective
(B) Whether the price that farmers receive for feed corn has remained steady over the past few years
(C) Whether the insecticides typically used on feed corn tend to be more expensive than insecticides typically
used on other crops
(D) Whether most of the farmers who tried the genetically modifi ed corn last season applied more insecticide
than was actually necessary
(E) Whether, for most farmers who plant feed corn, it is their most profi table crop
Argument Evaluation
Situation
Farmers who grew feed corn genetically engineered to be pest resistant got yields
comparable to those of farmers growing ordinary feed corn, but did so while using less
pesticide. Since the amount saved on pesticide was rarely in excess of the extra costs for
the genetically modifi ed corn, most farmers will probably not increase profi ts by choosing
the genetically engineered variety.
Reasoning Which would be most useful to know in evaluating the argument? To answer a question such
as this, one should look for information that would strengthen or weaken the argument.
If one had information that the farmers growing the genetically modifi ed corn could
have increased their yields last year at lower cost, this would be helpful in evaluating the
argument, because this would show that the argument is weak.
A It does not matter to the argument whether there are pests against which pesticides and genetic

resistance are equally ineff ective, because that is compatible with there being pests against which
they are not equally eff ective.
B Whether prices of feed corn go up or down aff ects the comparison groups equally.
C  e relative cost of insecticides for other crops has no bearing on the argument because the
argument is concerned with only feed corn.
D Correct.  is option provides the information that it would be most useful to know in evaluating
the argument. It shows that farmers growing genetically modifi ed corn last year could have
attained higher profi ts than they in fact did.
E  e argument concerns only the relative profi tability of growing one variety of feed corn versus
another.
 e correct answer is D.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
70. Although aspirin has been proven to eliminate moderate fever associated with some illnesses, many doctors no
longer routinely recommend its use for this purpose. A moderate fever stimulates the activity of the body’s
disease-fighting white blood cells and also inhibits the growth of many strains of disease-causing bacteria.
If the statements above are true, which of the following conclusions is most strongly supported by them?
(A) Aspirin, an effective painkiller, alleviates the pain and discomfort of many illnesses.
(B) Aspirin can prolong a patient’s illness by eliminating moderate fever helpful in fighting some diseases.
(C) Aspirin inhibits the growth of white blood cells, which are necessary for fighting some illnesses.
(D) The more white blood cells a patient’s body produces, the less severe the patient’s illness will be.
(E) The focus of modern medicine is on inhibiting the growth of disease-causing bacteria within the body.
Argument Construction
Situation
Many doctors do not recommend taking aspirin for moderate fever associated with illness
because moderate fever activates the immune systems and hinders the growth of disease-
carrying bacteria.
Reasoning Which claim is best supported by this information?  is passage maintains that moderate
fever can help fi ght some diseases by activating the immune system and inhibiting the

growth of some bacteria that cause disease. Aspirin suppresses moderate fever. By doing
so, aspirin can be viewed as hindering a benefi cial process and prolonging an illness.
A  ough this may be true, the passage says nothing that supports the claim.
B Correct.  is statement properly identifi es a conclusion that can be drawn from the information.
C Since moderate fever promotes the activity of the white blood cells, it is fair to conclude that
suppressing the fever with aspirin aff ects the activity of the white blood cells.  e passage gives
no evidence, however, regarding whether this suppression has anything to do with aspirin’s eff ect,
if any, on the growth of white blood cells.
D  e passage does not provide enough information to conclude that the greater the number of
white blood cells, the less severe the illness.
E  e passage is compatible with saying that inhibiting the growth of disease-causing bacteria
within the body is one of many concerns of modern medicine, in which case saying that this is
the focus of modern medicine would be an overstatement.
 e correct answer is B.
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71. Roland: The alarming fact is that 90 percent of the people in this country now report that they know someone
who is unemployed.
Sharon: But a normal, moderate level of unemployment is 5 percent, with one out of 20 workers unemployed.
So at any given time if a person knows approximately 50 workers, one or more will very likely be unemployed.
Sharon’s argument relies on the assumption that
(A) normal levels of unemployment are rarely exceeded
(B) unemployment is not normally concentrated in geographically isolated segments of the population
(C) the number of people who each know someone who is unemployed is always higher than 90 percent of
the population
(D) Roland is not consciously distorting the statistics he presents
(E) knowledge that a personal acquaintance is unemployed generates more fear of losing one’s job than does

knowledge of unemployment statistics
Argument Construction
Situation
Roland is alarmed that 90 percent of the population knows someone who is out of work.
Sharon replies that a normal level of unemployment is 5 percent, illustrating her point by
saying that if a person knows 50 workers, at least one of them is likely to be unemployed.
Reasoning What assumption does Sharon make in putting together her argument? Sharon makes a
general statement claiming that if a person knows 50 workers, it is likely that at least one
of them is unemployed. Sharon’s generalization would not likely be true if unemployment
were concentrated in certain geographically isolated areas.
A Sharon’s argument is about a normal level of unemployment; how rarely or frequently that level is
exceeded is outside the scope of her argument.
B Correct.  is statement properly identifi es an assumption that underlies Sharon’s argument.
C Although Sharon’s argument is compatible with saying that even more than 90 percent of the
population knows someone who is unemployed, nothing suggests that she assumes that this is
true.
D Sharon’s argument is not based on the fi gure Roland cites and does not assume its accuracy or
inaccuracy; her argument merely points out that his fi gure is not inconsistent with a normal rate
of unemployment.
E  e fear of losing a job is not part of Sharon’s argument; this statement is irrelevant.
 e correct answer is B.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
72. Community activist: If Morganville wants to keep its central shopping district healthy, it should prevent the
opening of a huge SaveAll discount department store on the outskirts of Morganville. Records from other small
towns show that whenever SaveAll has opened a store outside the central shopping district of a small town,
within fi ve years the town has experienced the bankruptcies of more than a quarter of the stores in the shopping
district.
The answer to which of the following would be most useful for evaluating the community activist’s reasoning?

(A) Have community activists in other towns successfully campaigned against the opening of a SaveAll store
on the outskirts of their towns?
(B) Do a large percentage of the residents of Morganville currently do almost all of their shopping at stores in
Morganville?
(C) In towns with healthy central shopping districts, what proportion of the stores in those districts suffer
bankruptcy during a typical fi ve-year period?
(D) What proportion of the employees at the SaveAll store on the outskirts of Morganville will be drawn from
Morganville?
(E) Do newly opened SaveAll stores ever lose money during their fi rst fi ve years of operation?
Argument Evaluation
Situation
Morganville should stop SaveAll from opening a store on its outskirts if it wants to keep
its shopping district healthy. Other small towns have experienced bankruptcies in
25 percent of the stores in their central shopping district within fi ve years after such
openings.
Reasoning Which option provides the information that it would be most useful to know in evaluating the
argument?  e argument contends that if SaveAll opens a store in Morganville, then that
will somehow undermine the health of the shopping district. Two basic questions arise
when evaluating the bankruptcy data from other small towns: (1) Did the opening of
SaveAlls cause any of these bankruptcies? No information is given about bankruptcy
rates in small towns without SaveAlls. (2) Is a 25 percent bankruptcy rate over fi ve years
unhealthy?
A  is has to do with the likelihood that the SaveAll will open; and not with what will happen if
it does.
B  e conclusion would be supported just as well—or as poorly—if this question were answered
with a yes as with a no.
C Correct.  is option provides the information that it would be most useful to know in evaluating
the argument.
D  is may be important in determining the eff ect the SaveAll would have on Morganville
residents, but the argument has only to do with SaveAll’s eff ect on the economic health of the

shopping district.
E Whether SaveAlls tend to make or lose money in their fi rst fi ve years has no obvious bearing on
whether they are apt to undermine the health of the town’s shopping districts.
 e correct answer is C.
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73. In comparison to the standard typewriter keyboard, the EFCO keyboard, which places the most-used keys
nearest the typist’s strongest fingers, allows faster typing and results in less fatigue. Therefore, replacement of
standard keyboards with the EFCO keyboard will result in an immediate reduction of typing costs.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the conclusion drawn above?
(A) People who use both standard and EFCO keyboards report greater difficulty in the transition from
the EFCO keyboard to the standard keyboard than in the transition from the standard keyboard to the
EFCO keyboard.
(B) EFCO keyboards are no more expensive to manufacture than are standard keyboards and require less
frequent repair than do standard keyboards.
(C) The number of businesses and government agencies that use EFCO keyboards is increasing each year.
(D) The more training and experience an employee has had with the standard keyboard, the more costly it is
to train that employee to use the EFCO keyboard.
(E) Novice typists can learn to use the EFCO keyboard in about the same amount of time that it takes them to
learn to use the standard keyboard.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
Compared to the standard typewriter keyboard, the EFCO keyboard promotes faster
typing while producing less fatigue. Replacing standard keyboards with EFCO
keyboards promises immediate reduction of typing costs.
Reasoning What point would weaken the conclusion about reduced typing costs? Whenever a word like
immediate is part of an argument, it is wise to be alert. Given the comparison with the

standard keyboard, it could well be that over the longer term the EFCO keyboard will
save money. What problems might there be initially, however, that would counteract the
possibility of immediate savings? Personnel must fi rst be retrained on the new EFCO
keyboard, and it is possible that the costs of the training could off set any short-term
savings. If the more experience employees have had with the standard keyboard, the
more costly the initial training, then adopting the new keyboard could have high short-
term costs that preclude immediate savings.
A  e greater ease of changing from the standard keyboard to the EFCO keyboard for typists
experienced in both would support, not weaken, the conclusion.
B  e fewer repairs required by EFCO keyboards should save money in the long run; immediate
costs will not go up since the price of both keyboards is the same.  e conclusion is not
weakened.
C  e increasing use of EFCO keyboards supports the conclusion, because it suggests that other
offi ces have found the switch advantageous.
D Correct.  is statement properly identifi es information that weakens the conclusion that savings
will be immediate.
E For new typists, training time is the same for both keyboards; this statement does not weaken the
conclusion.
 e correct answer is D.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
74. In the past the country of Malvernia has relied heavily on imported oil. Malvernia recently implemented a program
to convert heating systems from oil to natural gas. Malvernia currently produces more natural gas each year than
it uses, and oil production in Malvernian oil fi elds is increasing at a steady pace. If these trends in fuel production
and usage continue, therefore, Malvernian reliance on foreign sources for fuel is likely to decline soon.
Which of the following would it be most useful to establish in evaluating the argument?
(A) When, if ever, will production of oil in Malvernia outstrip production of natural gas?
(B) Is Malvernia among the countries that rely most on imported oil?
(C) What proportion of Malvernia’s total energy needs is met by hydroelectric, solar, and nuclear power?

(D) Is the amount of oil used each year in Malvernia for generating electricity and fuel for transportation
increasing?
(E) Have any existing oil-burning heating systems in Malvernia already been converted to natural-gas-burning
heating systems?
Argument Evaluation
Situation
Malvernia has relied heavily on imported oil, but recently began a program to convert
heating systems from oil to natural gas. Malvernia produces more natural gas than it
uses, so it will probably reduce its reliance on imported oils if these trends continue.
Reasoning Which option provides the information that it would be most useful to know in evaluating the
argument? In other words, we are looking for the option which—depending on whether
it was answered yes or no—would either most weaken or most strengthen the argument.
 e argument indicates that Malvernia will be using less oil for heating and will be
producing more oil domestically. But the conclusion that Malvernia’s reliance on foreign
oil will decline, assuming the current trends mentioned continue, would be seriously
undermined if there was something in the works that was bound to off set these trends,
for instance, if it turned out that the country’s need for oil was going to rise drastically in
the coming years.
A Since both counteract the need for imported oil, it makes little diff erence to the argument
whether domestic oil production exceeds domestic natural gas.
B Whether there are many countries that rely more on foreign oil than Malvernia would have little
impact on whether Malvernia’s need for foreign oil can be expected to decline.
C Since there is no information in the argument about whether Malvernia can expect an increase or
decrease from these other energy sources, it does not matter how much they now provide.
D Correct.  is option provides the information that it would be most useful to know in evaluating
the argument.
E  e argument tells us that a program has begun recently to convert heating systems from oil to
gas. So, even if no such conversions have been completed, the argument still indicates that they
can be expected to occur.
 e correct answer is D.

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75. An overly centralized economy, not the changes in the climate, is responsible for the poor agricultural
production in Country X since its new government came to power. Neighboring Country Y has experienced the
same climatic conditions, but while agricultural production has been falling in Country X, it has been rising in
Country Y.
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument above?
(A) Industrial production also is declining in Country X.
(B) Whereas Country Y is landlocked, Country X has a major seaport.
(C) Both Country X and Country Y have been experiencing drought conditions.
(D) The crops that have always been grown in Country X are different from those that have always been grown
in Country Y.
(E) Country X’s new government instituted a centralized economy with the intention of ensuring an equitable
distribution of goods.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
Two countries sharing similar climate conditions diff er widely in agricultural production,
one experiencing a rise and the other a decline.  e decline is blamed on an overly
centralized economy.
Reasoning What point most weakens the argument that the economy is to blame? If a factor other than
the economy could account for the diff erences in agricultural production, then the
argument is weakened. If the two countries grow diff erent kinds of crops that may react
diff erently to the same climate conditions, then the types of crops, rather than the
economy could be responsible for the diff erences in production.
A  is weakly suggests that the overly centralized economy of Country X is to blame for its poor
agricultural production; this strengthens the argument more than it weakens it.
B  e availability of a seaport does not explain the diff erences in agricultural production.

C Similar climate conditions have already been established in the argument.
D Correct.  is statement properly identifi es a factor that weakens the argument.
E  e government’s intention when instituting the economy does not have any bearing on whether
the economy is responsible for the decline or not.
 e correct answer is D.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
76. Because no employee wants to be associated with bad news in the eyes of a superior, information about serious
problems at lower levels is progressively softened and distorted as it goes up each step in the management
hierarchy. The chief executive is, therefore, less well informed about problems at lower levels than are his or her
subordinates at those levels.
The conclusion drawn above is based on the assumption that
(A) problems should be solved at the level in the management hierarchy at which they occur
(B) employees should be rewarded for accurately reporting problems to their superiors
(C) problem-solving ability is more important at higher levels than it is at lower levels of the management
hierarchy
(D) chief executives obtain information about problems at lower levels from no source other than their
subordinates
(E) some employees are more concerned about truth than about the way they are perceived by their superiors
Argument Construction
Situation
No employee wants to report bad news to a superior, so information about problems is
softened and distorted as it goes up the ranks of management. As a result, chief
executives know less about problems at lower levels than their subordinates do.
Reasoning What assumption is being made in this argument?  is passage contends that information
travels step by step upward through an organization, and that information becomes
increasingly distorted along the route with each additional individual’s reluctance to be
candid with a superior about problems. What must be true about this information fl ow to
support the conclusion? In order to conclude that chief executives are less well informed

about problems than their subordinates, the argument must logically assume that they
have no source of information except their subordinates.
A  is argument is not about how problems should be solved, only about how chief executives learn
of them.
B No recommendation for solving the problem is assumed; only the method of discovering the
problem is assumed.
C Problem-solving ability plays no role in the argument.
D Correct.  is statement properly identifi es an assumption that underlies the argument.
E  is statement undermines the assertion made in the fi rst sentence of the passage and so cannot
be assumed.
 e correct answer is D.
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77. Although the earliest surviving Greek inscriptions written in an alphabet date from the eighth century B.C.,
the fact that the text of these Greek inscriptions sometimes runs from right to left and sometimes
from left to right indicates that the Greeks adopted alphabetic writing at least two centuries before these
inscriptions were produced. After all, the Greeks learned alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians, and
presumably, along with the alphabet, they also adopted the then-current Phoenician practice with respect to
the direction of text. And although Phoenician writing was originally inconsistent in direction, by the
eighth century B.C. Phoenician was consistently written from right to left and had been for about
two centuries.
In the argument given, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
(A) The fi rst and the second each describe evidence that has been used to challenge the position that the
argument seeks to establish.
(B) The fi rst is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to
establish; the second is that position.
(C) The fi rst is evidence that forms the basis for an objection to the position that the argument seeks to

establish; the second is a consideration that is introduced to counter the force of that evidence.
(D) The fi rst and the second each provide evidence in support of the position that the argument seeks to
establish.
(E) The fi rst provides evidence in support of the position that the argument seeks to establish; the second is
that position.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
 e oldest surviving Greek inscriptions written in an alphabet are from the eighth
century B.C. and run from both left to right and right to left.  erefore, it is likely that
the Greeks adopted alphabetic writing at least two centuries before these inscriptions
were made.  e Greeks adopted their alphabet from the Phoenicians, who wrote in both
directions up until two centuries prior to the eighth century.
Reasoning What roles do the two boldfaced portions play in the argument?  e conclusion of the
argument is that the Greeks adopted alphabetic writing at least two centuries before the
oldest surviving Greek inscriptions were written in the eighth century B.C.  e fi rst and
second boldfaced portions work together to support this conclusion.
A  e fi rst and second portions are not used to challenge the position the argument seeks to
establish, but to support it.
B  e fi rst is evidence for the conclusion, not for an objection to it; the second is as well.
C  e fi rst is evidence for the conclusion, not for an objection to it; the second is as well.
D Correct.  is option correctly identifi es the roles played by the boldfaced portions.
E  e second boldfaced portion is not the conclusion, but evidence for that conclusion.
 e correct answer is D.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
78. A recent report determined that although only 3 percent of drivers on Maryland highways equipped their vehicles
with radar detectors, 33 percent of all vehicles ticketed for exceeding the speed limit were equipped with them.
Clearly, drivers who equip their vehicles with radar detectors are more likely to exceed the speed limit regularly
than are drivers who do not.

The conclusion drawn above depends on which of the following assumptions?
(A) Drivers who equip their vehicles with radar detectors are less likely to be ticketed for exceeding the speed
limit than are drivers who do not.
(B) Drivers who are ticketed for exceeding the speed limit are more likely to exceed the speed limit regularly
than are drivers who are not ticketed.
(C) The number of vehicles that were ticketed for exceeding the speed limit was greater than the number of
vehicles that were equipped with radar detectors.
(D) Many of the vehicles that were ticketed for exceeding the speed limit were ticketed more than once in the
time period covered by the report.
(E) Drivers on Maryland highways exceeded the speed limit more often than did drivers on other state
highways not covered in the report.
Argument Construction
Situation
Although only 3 percent of drivers on Maryland’s highways have radar detectors in their
vehicles, 33 percent of vehicles recently ticketed for driving over the speed limit on
Maryland highways have had radar detectors. Drivers who have radar detectors are thus
more likely to exceed the speed limit regularly than drivers who do not.
Reasoning What assumption must be true for the conclusion to be drawn?  e argument moves from a
particular example, that is, the percentage of vehicles ticketed for exceeding the speed
limit that were equipped with radar detectors, to a generalization about the regular
driving behaviors of all drivers who have radar detectors in their vehicles.  e reasoning
links the example to the generalization with an assumption. What can the assumption
be? Only if the drivers ticketed in this instance are assumed to make a regular habit of
exceeding the speed limit can the conclusion be drawn that drivers with radar detectors
are more likely to do so regularly than drivers who are not ticketed.
A While this statement about being ticketed may be true, the conclusion pertains to the recurrent
exceeding of the speed limit, so this statement is not relevant.
B Correct.  is statement properly identifi es the conclusion’s necessary assumption about ticketed
drivers’ being more likely to drive in excess of the speed limit than nonticketed drivers.
C  is statement is about the number of vehicles ticketed, not about the regular habits of drivers, so

it is not assumed for the conclusion.
D While this additional information could help support the conclusion, it is not a necessary
assumption in the conclusion because it is about the particular example of the drivers in
Maryland, not about drivers’ habits in general.
E Learning that Maryland drivers are not representative of other drivers undermines the conclusion
about all drivers, so it is clearly not assumed.
 e correct answer is B.
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79. In countries where automobile insurance includes compensation for whiplash injuries sustained in
automobile accidents, reports of having suffered such injuries are twice as frequent as they are in
countries where whiplash is not covered. Presently, no objective test for whiplash exists, so it is true that
spurious reports of whiplash injuries cannot be readily identifi ed. Nevertheless, these facts do not warrant the
conclusion drawn by some commentators that in the countries with the higher rates of reported whiplash
injuries, half of the reported cases are spurious. Clearly, in countries where automobile insurance does not
include compensation for whiplash, people often have little incentive to report whiplash injuries that
they actually have suffered.
In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?
(A) The fi rst is a claim that the argument disputes; the second is a conclusion that has been based on that claim.
(B) The fi rst is a claim that has been used to support a conclusion that the argument accepts; the second is
that conclusion.
(C) The fi rst is evidence that has been used to support a conclusion for which the argument provides further
evidence; the second is the main conclusion of the argument.
(D) The fi rst is a fi nding whose implications are at issue in the argument; the second is a claim presented in
order to argue against deriving certain implications from that fi nding.
(E) The fi rst is a fi nding whose accuracy is evaluated in the argument; the second is evidence presented to
establish that the fi nding is accurate.

Argument Evaluation
Situation
Reported whiplash injuries are twice as common in countries where car insurance
companies pay compensation for such injuries as they are in countries where insurance
companies do not. Although there is no objective test for whiplash, this does not mean,
as some suggest, that half of the reports of such injuries are fake. It could simply be that
where insurance will not pay for such injuries, people are less inclined to report them.
Reasoning What roles do the two boldfaced portions play in the argument?  e fi rst portion tells us about
the correlation between reported cases of whiplash in countries and the willingness of
insurance companies in those countries to compensate for whiplash injuries.  e argument
next states that whiplash is diffi cult to objectively verify.  e argument then asserts that
although this last fact, taken together with the fi rst boldfaced portion, has led some to infer
that over half of the reported cases in countries with the highest whiplash rates are spurious,
such an inference is unwarranted.  e second boldfaced portion then helps to explain why
such an inference is not necessarily warranted by off ering an alternative explanation.
A  e claim made in the fi rst boldfaced portion is never disputed in the argument; at dispute is how
to account for the fact that this claim is true.  e second is not the argument’s conclusion.
B In a manner of speaking, perhaps, the argument uses the fi rst portion to support its conclusion;
but there is no indication that it has been used elsewhere to do so. In any case, the second
boldfaced portion is not the argument’s conclusion.
C  e fi rst has been used to support a conclusion that the argument rejects; the second boldfaced
portion is not the argument’s conclusion.
D Correct.  is option correctly identifi es the roles played in the argument by the boldfaced portions.
E  e accuracy of the fi rst boldfaced portion is never questioned in the argument; nor is the second
intended to somehow help show that the fi rst is accurate. Rather, the argument assumes that the
fi rst portion is accurate.
 e correct answer is D.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations

80. Products sold under a brand name used to command premium prices because, in general, they were superior to
nonbrand rival products. Technical expertise in product development has become so widespread, however, that
special quality advantages are very hard to obtain these days and even harder to maintain. As a consequence,
brand-name products generally neither offer higher quality nor sell at higher prices. Paradoxically, brand names
are a bigger marketing advantage than ever.
Which of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the paradox outlined above?
(A) Brand names are taken by consumers as a guarantee of getting a product as good as the best rival
products.
(B) Consumers recognize that the quality of products sold under invariant brand names can drift over time.
(C) In many acquisitions of one corporation by another, the acquiring corporation is interested more in
acquiring the right to use certain brand names than in acquiring existing production facilities.
(D) In the days when special quality advantages were easier to obtain than they are now, it was also easier to
get new brand names established.
(E) The advertising of a company’s brand-name products is at times transferred to a new advertising agency,
especially when sales are declining.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
In both quality and price, brand-name and nonbrand products have now become similar.
Yet brand names off er a bigger marketing advantage than ever.
Reasoning How can this paradox be explained? It is given that a brand-name product’s only distinction
from its rival products is likely to be a recognizable name. How, then, can brand names
give products a bigger marketing advantage? Could consumers be relying on their
outdated knowledge and believing that brand names continue to guarantee that a
product’s quality is at least as good as, and possibly higher than, that of the rival products
at the same price? If so, they would choose to purchase the brand-name product trusting
they would, at a minimum, get comparable quality for the same price.
A Correct.  is statement correctly identifi es the consumer behavior that explains the marketing
advantage of brand names.
B Consumers would be less likely to buy brand-name products if they were unsure of their quality,
so this statement does not resolve the paradox.

C Corporations value brand names, but this statement does not say why, nor does it explain the
marketing advantage of brand names.
D Although it was easier in the past both to obtain special quality advantages and to establish new
brand names, these facts are not linked other than coincidentally and do not explain why brand
names are a marketing advantage now.
E  e shift from one advertising agency to another to counteract falling sales does not account for
the general marketing advantage brand names enjoy.
 e correct answer is A.
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81. When demand for a factory’s products is high, more money is spent at the factory for safety precautions and
machinery maintenance than when demand is low. Thus the average number of on-the-job accidents per
employee each month should be lower during periods when demand is high than when demand is low and less
money is available for safety precautions and machinery maintenance.
Which of the following, if true about a factory when demand for its products is high, casts the most serious
doubt on the conclusion drawn above?
(A) Its employees ask for higher wages than they do at other times.
(B) Its management hires new workers but lacks the time to train them properly.
(C) Its employees are less likely to lose their jobs than they are at other times.
(D) Its management sponsors a monthly safety award for each division in the factory.
(E) Its old machinery is replaced with modern, automated models.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
Because more money is spent on safety precautions and machinery maintenance at a
factory when demand for its product is high, the average number of job-related accidents
per employee at the factory should be lower when demand is high.
Reasoning What point casts doubt on the conclusion? Consider what other conditions can result from

high demand for a factory’s products. What if, when demand is high, more employees are
hired to meet the demand? If, in the eff ort to increase production, there is not enough
time for proper training, then it is likely that the new, poorly trained employees will have
more job-related accidents than experienced, well-trained workers.
A If employers consented to employees’ request and diverted money from safety to wages, this
statement might cast doubt on the conclusion. However, no such reallocation of resources is
implied, and the passage conclusively states that more money is spent on safety precautions and
machinery maintenance when demand for the product is high.  erefore this statement is
irrelevant.
B Correct.  is statement properly identifi es a point that undermines the conclusion.
C Increased job security could result in an increased number of workers, which might increase the
total number of accidents. However, the conclusion is about the number of accidents per employee,
so this point is irrelevant.
D Actively promoting safety with an award would tend to support the argument, not weaken it.
E Replacing outdated machinery with more modern machinery could result in a safer workplace;
this point could strengthen the conclusion.
 e correct answer is B.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
82. A sudden increase in the production of elephant ivory artifacts on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa
occurred in the tenth century. Historians explain this increase as the result of an area opening up as a new
source of ivory and argue on this basis that the important medieval trade between North Africa and East Africa
began at this period.
Each of the following, if true, provides some support for the historians’ account described above EXCEPT:
(A) In East Africa gold coins from Mediterranean North Africa have been found at a tenth-century site but at no
earlier sites.
(B) The many surviving letters of pre-tenth-century North African merchants include no mention of business
transactions involving East Africa.
(C) Excavations in East Africa reveal a tenth-century change in architectural style to refl ect North African

patterns.
(D) Documents from Mediterranean Europe and North Africa that date back earlier than the tenth century
show knowledge of East African animals.
(E) East African carvings in a style characteristic of the tenth century depict seagoing vessels very different
from those used by local sailors but of a type common in the Mediterranean.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
 ere was a sudden increase in the production of ivory artifacts in an area of North
Africa in the tenth century. Historians say this was brought about by a new source of
ivory opening up, and argue from this that important trade between North Africa and
East Africa began at this time.
Reasoning Which option does NOT provide support for the historians’ account?  e historians’ account
posits new trade between North and East Africa opening in the tenth century and infers
this from the increase in ivory production in North Africa that occurred at about this
time.  us, an option that identifi es some connection between North and East Africa
which predates the tenth century would not support but rather undermine the historians’
account.
A  at gold coins may have fi rst been traded between East Africa and North Africa supports the
idea that important trade between these areas opened up at this time.
B  is is support for the historians’ conclusion, because if there had been important trade between
East Africa and North Africa prior to the tenth century, there likely would have been some
mention of it in at least some of the letters that survive from that period.
C  is change in architectural design suggests that North Africa began to infl uence East Africa
around this time. Opening up of new trade would explain the emergence of this new infl uence.
D Correct.  is is the one option that does not support the historians’ account.
E  e fact that East African carvings that are possibly from tenth century depict ships not from
East Africa but possibly from North Africa would support the idea that trade was occurring at
this time.
 e correct answer is D.
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83. Journalist: In physics journals, the number of articles reporting the results of experiments involving particle
accelerators was lower last year than it had been in previous years. Several of the particle accelerators at major
research institutions were out of service the year before last for repairs, so it is likely that the low number of
articles was due to the decline in availability of particle accelerators.
Which of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the journalist’s argument?
(A) Every article based on experiments with particle accelerators that was submitted for publication last year
actually was published.
(B) The average time scientists must wait for access to a particle accelerator has declined over the last
several years.
(C) The number of physics journals was the same last year as in previous years.
(D) Particle accelerators can be used for more than one group of experiments in any given year.
(E) Recent changes in the editorial policies of several physics journals have decreased the likelihood that
articles concerning particle-accelerator research will be accepted for publication.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
A journalist attributes the low number of articles about particle accelerators in physics
journals to the fact that several accelerators at major research institutions had been out of
service the previous year.
Reasoning What point undermines the journalist’s argument?  e journalist assumes that the
researchers’ lack of access to the accelerators is responsible for the decline in the number
of articles. What else could explain fewer articles? What if the decline is due, not to the
availability of the accelerators for experiments, but to policies regarding publishing
articles related to such experiments? An alternate explanation is that changes in the
editorial policies of physics journals, rather than the eff ect of the out-of-service
accelerators, could well be responsible for the lower number of published articles about
particle-accelerator research.

A  is statement rules out the possibility that submitted articles were not published, and
eliminating this alternate explanation tends to support the argument.
B A decline in waiting time would seem to promote more articles about accelerator research being
written and published, not fewer.
C While the decline in articles could be explained by a decline in the number of journals, this
statement eliminates that alternate explanation.
D If the accelerators can be used for multiple experiments, then it is reasonable to expect more
articles related to them, not fewer.
E Correct.  is statement properly identifies a point that undermines the journalist’s reasoning.
 e correct answer is E.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
84. Many people suffer an allergic reaction to certain sulfi tes, including those that are commonly added to wine as
preservatives. However, since there are several winemakers who add sulfi tes to none of the wines they produce,
people who would like to drink wine but are allergic to sulfi tes can drink wines produced by these winemakers
without risking an allergic reaction to sulfi tes.
Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
(A) These winemakers have been able to duplicate the preservative effect produced by adding sulfi tes by
means that do not involve adding any potentially allergenic substances to their wine.
(B) Not all forms of sulfi te are equally likely to produce the allergic reaction.
(C) Wine is the only beverage to which sulfi tes are commonly added.
(D) Apart from sulfi tes, there are no substances commonly present in wine that give rise to an allergic reaction.
(E) Sulfi tes are not naturally present in the wines produced by these winemakers in amounts large enough to
produce an allergic reaction in someone who drinks these wines.
Argument Construction
Situation
People who are allergic to certain sulfi tes can avoid risking an allergic reaction by
drinking wine from one of the several producers that does not add sulfi tes.
Reasoning On what assumption does the argument depend? Drinking wine to which no sulfi tes have

been added will not prevent exposure to sulfi tes if, for instance, sulfi tes occur naturally in
wines. In particular, if the wines that do not have sulfi tes added have sulfi tes present
naturally in quantities suffi cient to produce an allergic reaction, drinking these wines will
not prevent an allergic reaction.  e argument therefore depends on assuming that this is
not the case.
A  e argument does not require this because the conclusion does not address allergic reactions to
substances other than sulfi tes.
B  e argument specifi cally refers to “certain sulfi tes” producing allergic reactions. It is entirely
compatible with certain other forms of sulfi tes not producing allergic reactions in anyone.
C  is is irrelevant.  e argument does not claim that one can avoid having an allergic reaction to
sulfi tes from any source just by restricting one’s wine consumption to those varieties to which no
sulfi tes have been added.
D Once again, the argument’s conclusion does not address allergic reactions to substances other
than sulfi tes in wine.
E Correct.  e argument relies on this assumption.
 e correct answer is E.
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85. Networks of blood vessels in bats’ wings serve only to disperse heat generated in flight. This heat is generated
only because bats flap their wings. Thus paleontologists’ recent discovery that the winged dinosaur Sandactylus
had similar networks of blood vessels in the skin of its wings provides evidence for the hypothesis that
Sandactylus flew by flapping its wings, not just by gliding.
In the passage, the author develops the argument by
(A) forming the hypothesis that best explains several apparently conflicting pieces of evidence
(B) reinterpreting evidence that had been used to support an earlier theory
(C) using an analogy with a known phenomenon to draw a conclusion about an unknown phenomenon
(D) speculating about how structures observed in present-day creatures might have developed from similar

structures in creatures now extinct
(E) pointing out differences in the physiological demands that flight makes on large, as opposed to small,
creatures
Argument Evaluation
Situation
 e network of blood vessels in bats’ wings is compared with a similar structure in the
wings of the dinosaur Sandactylus to explain how the dinosaur fl ew.
Reasoning How is this argument developed?  e author fi rst shows that a physical characteristic of
bats’ wings is directly related to their style of fl ight.  e author then argues that the
similar structure found in the wings of Sandactylus is evidence that the dinosaur had a
style of fl ight similar to that of bats.  e structure of this argument is a comparison, or
analogy, between a known phenomenon (bats) and an unknown one (Sandactylus).
A  e evidence of the blood vessels in the wings does not confl ict with other evidence.
B  e evidence of the blood vessels in the wings is used to support only one theory—that
Sandactylus fl ew by fl apping its wings as well as by gliding; no evidence is discussed in relation to
any earlier theory.
C Correct.  is statement properly identifi es how the argument compares the wings of bats and of
Sandactylus in order to draw a conclusion about how the dinosaur fl ew.
D  e argument is not about how the structures in the bats developed from the structures in the
dinosaurs, but rather about how Sandactylus fl ew.
E  e comparison between bats and Sandactylus points out similarities, not diff erences.
 e correct answer is C.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
86. Keith: Compliance with new government regulations requiring the installation of smoke alarms and sprinkler
systems in all theaters and arenas will cost the entertainment industry $25 billion annually. Consequently, jobs
will be lost and profits diminished. Therefore, these regulations will harm the country’s economy.
Laura: The $25 billion spent by some businesses will be revenue for others. Jobs and profits will be gained as
well as lost.

Laura responds to Keith by
(A) demonstrating that Keith’s conclusion is based on evidence that is not relevant to the issue at hand
(B) challenging the plausibility of the evidence that serves as the basis for Keith’s argument
(C) suggesting that Keith’s argument overlooks a mitigating consequence
(D) reinforcing Keith’s conclusion by supplying a complementary interpretation of the evidence Keith cites
(E) agreeing with the main conclusion of Keith’s argument but construing that conclusion as grounds for
optimism rather than for pessimism
Argument Construction
Situation
Keith argues that the cost of new regulations will result in a loss of jobs and profi ts,
hurting the national economy. Laura points out that while one industry will suff er, others
will gain by supplying the goods and services required by the regulations.
Reasoning What is the strategy Laura uses in the counterargument? Laura uses the same evidence, the
$25 billion spent on meeting new regulations, but comes to a diff erent conclusion. While
Keith focuses on the losses to one industry, Laura looks at the gains to other industries.
By suggesting a consequence that Keith did not mention, she places the outcome in a
more positive light.
A Laura accepts the relevance of Keith’s evidence and uses it herself when she replies that the $25
billion spent by some businesses will be revenue for others.
B Laura does not challenge Keith’s evidence; she uses the same evidence as the basis of her own
argument.
C Correct.  is statement properly identifi es the strategy Laura employs in her counterargument.
Laura points out that Keith did not consider that, in this case, losses for one industry mean gains
for others.
D Laura rejects rather than reinforces Keith’s conclusion; while he notes the losses in jobs and
profi ts that will harm the economy, she points out that jobs and profi ts will be gained as well as lost.
E Laura does not agree with Keith’s main conclusion that the regulations will harm the national
economy; she argues instead that gains in other industries will compensate for the losses in one
industry.
 e correct answer is C.

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87. In the United States, of the people who moved from one state to another when they retired, the percentage
who retired to Florida has decreased by three percentage points over the past ten years. Since many local
businesses in Florida cater to retirees, these declines are likely to have a noticeably negative economic effect
on these businesses and therefore on the economy of Florida.
Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument given?
(A) People who moved from one state to another when they retired moved a greater distance, on average,
last year than such people did ten years ago.
(B) People were more likely to retire to North Carolina from another state last year than people were
ten years ago.
(C) The number of people who moved from one state to another when they retired has increased signifi cantly
over the past ten years.
(D) The number of people who left Florida when they retired to live in another state was greater last year than
it was ten years ago.
(E) Florida attracts more people who move from one state to another when they retire than does any other
state.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
Of those people who move to another state when they retire, the percentage moving to
Florida has declined.  is trend is apt to harm Florida’s economy because many
businesses there cater to retirees.
Reasoning Which of the options most weakens the argument?  e argument draws its conclusion from
data about the proportion of emigrating retirees moving to Florida. Yet what matters
more directly to the conclusion (and to Florida’s economy) is the absolute number of
retirees immigrating to Florida.  at number could have remained constant or even risen
if the absolute number of emigrating retirees itself increased while the proportion going

to Florida decreased.
A  is has no obvious bearing on the argument one way or another. It makes it more likely,
perhaps, that a person in a distant state will retire to Florida, but less likely that one in a
neighboring state will do so.
B  is has no bearing whether fewer people have been retiring to Florida over the last ten years.
C Correct.  is is the option that most seriously weakens the argument.
D  is makes it more likely that Florida’s economy will be harmed because of decreasing numbers of
retirees, but has no real bearing on the argument which concludes specifi cally that declines in the
proportion of emigrating retirees moving to Florida will have a negative eff ect on the state’s economy.
E  is is irrelevant. At issue is how the numbers of retirees in Florida from one year compare to the
next, not how those numbers compare with numbers of retirees in other states.
 e correct answer is C.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
88. Businesses are suffering because of a lack of money available for development loans. To help businesses, the
government plans to modify the income-tax structure in order to induce individual taxpayers to put a larger
portion of their incomes into retirement savings accounts, because as more money is deposited in such
accounts, more money becomes available to borrowers.
Which of the following, if true, raises the most serious doubt regarding the effectiveness of the government’s
plan to increase the amount of money available for development loans for businesses?
(A) When levels of personal retirement savings increase, consumer borrowing always increases
correspondingly.
(B) The increased tax revenue the government would receive as a result of business expansion would not
offset the loss in revenue from personal income taxes during the first year of the plan.
(C) Even with tax incentives, some people will choose not to increase their levels of retirement savings.
(D) Bankers generally will not continue to lend money to businesses whose prospective earnings are
insufficient to meet their loan repayment schedules.
(E) The modified tax structure would give all taxpayers, regardless of their incomes, the same tax savings for
a given increase in their retirement savings.

Evaluation of a Plan
Situation
Because the lack of available money for development loans is harming businesses, the
government plans to modify the income-tax structure, encouraging taxpayers to put
more money into retirement accounts.  is plan is intended to ensure that with more
money put into these accounts, more money will in turn be available to business
borrowers.
Reasoning What potential fl aw in this plan might prevent it from being eff ective? What is the
expectation behind the plan?  e government’s plan supposes that the money invested in
retirement accounts will be available to business borrowers in the form of development
loans. Consider what circumstances might hinder that availability. What if consumer
borrowers compete with businesses? If it is known that, historically, increased savings in
personal retirement accounts corresponds with increased consumer borrowing, then the
government’s eff ort to target businesses as the benefi ciaries of this plan could well fail.
A Correct.  is statement properly identifi es a reason that the government’s plan could be less
eff ective in meeting its goal.
B A predicted revenue shortfall does not directly aff ect the plan’s eff ectiveness in reaching its stated
goal, and might be deemed an acceptable cost of achieving that goal.
C As long as the total amount deposited in personal retirement accounts increases suffi ciently, the
decision of some people not to increase their contributions will not keep the plan from achieving
its goal.
D  e plan would increase the money available specifi cally for development loans, not existing
loans.
E  e universal tax savings does not aff ect the eff ectiveness of the plan.
 e correct answer is A.
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89. Since it has become known that several of a bank’s top executives have been buying shares in their own
bank, the bank’s depositors, who had been worried by rumors that the bank faced impending fi nancial collapse,
have been greatly relieved. They reason that, since top executives evidently have faith in the bank’s fi nancial
soundness, those worrisome rumors must be false. Such reasoning might well be overoptimistic, however, since
corporate executives have been known to buy shares in their own company in a calculated attempt
to dispel negative rumors about the company’s health.
In the argument given, the two boldfaced portions play which of the following roles?
(A) The fi rst describes evidence that has been taken as supporting a conclusion; the second gives a reason
for questioning that support.
(B) The fi rst describes evidence that has been taken as supporting a conclusion; the second states a contrary
conclusion that is the main conclusion of the argument.
(C) The fi rst provides evidence in support of the main conclusion of the argument; the second states that
conclusion.
(D) The fi rst describes the circumstance that the argument as a whole seeks to explain; the second gives the
explanation that the argument seeks to establish.
(E) The fi rst describes the circumstance that the argument as a whole seeks to explain; the second provides
evidence in support of the explanation that the argument seeks to establish.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
Top executives at a bank that has been rumored to be in fi nancial trouble have been
buying shares in the bank. Bank depositors see this as a good sign, because they believe
that it indicates that the executives have faith in the bank. However, corporate executives
sometimes do this just to dispel rumors about a company’s health.
Reasoning What is the role that the two boldfaced portions play in the argument?  e fi rst boldfaced
portion states that bank executives are buying bank shares, which the passage indicates is
taken by bank depositors to be evidence of the executives’ faith in the bank.  e passage
then tells us what some have inferred from this, and fi nally off ers in the second boldfaced
statement evidence that undermines this inference.
A Correct.  is option correctly identifi es the roles played by the boldfaced portions.
B  is correctly describes the fi rst statement’s role, but the second statement is not off ered as a

conclusion—no evidence is given for it; rather it is evidence for something else.
C Again, the second statement is not off ered as a conclusion; no evidence is given for it.
D  e second statement is not itself off ered as an explanation of why these bank executives are
investing in the bank; if it were, that would mean that the bank executives are doing so because
corporate executives are known to do such things in a calculated eff ort to dispel worries.
Furthermore the argument does not conclude that this other explanation (which the boldfaced
portion points to) is correct, only that the one inferred by depositors may not be.
E Again, the argument is not so much seeking to establish an explanation of its own as it is trying
to undermine that inferred by the depositors.
 e correct answer is A.
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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
90. A new law gives ownership of patents—documents providing exclusive right to make and sell an invention—to
universities, not the government, when those patents result from government-sponsored university research.
Administrators at Logos University plan to sell any patents they acquire to corporations in order to fund
programs to improve undergraduate teaching.
Which of the following, if true, would cast the most doubt on the viability of the college administrators’ plan
described above?
(A) Profit-making corporations interested in developing products based on patents held by universities are
likely to try to serve as exclusive sponsors of ongoing university research projects.
(B) Corporate sponsors of research in university facilities are entitled to tax credits under new federal
tax-code guidelines.
(C) Research scientists at Logos University have few or no teaching responsibilities and participate little if at
all in the undergraduate programs in their field.
(D) Government-sponsored research conducted at Logos University for the most part duplicates research
already completed by several profit-making corporations.
(E) Logos University is unlikely to attract corporate sponsorship of its scientific research.
Evaluation of a Plan
Situation

Universities own the patents resulting from government-sponsored research at their
institutions. One university plans to sell its patents to corporations to fund a program to
improve teaching.
Reasoning Which point casts doubt on the university’s plan?  e university’s plan assumes there will be
a market for its patents, and that the corporations will want to buy them. What might
make this untrue? If some of the corporations have already done the same or similar
research, they will not be prospective buyers of the university’s patents.
A  is point is irrelevant to the plan to sell patents in order to fund a program.
B  e university plans to sell the patents to the corporations, not to invite the corporations to
sponsor research.
C  is point is irrelevant to the university’s plan to sell off patents since the plan does not specify
that the research scientists will be involved in the programs to improve undergraduate teaching.
D Correct.  is statement properly identifi es a factor that casts doubt on the university’s plan to sell
its patents to corporations.
E  e plan concerns selling patents resulting from government-sponsored research, not attracting
corporate sponsorship for research.
 e correct answer is D.
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91. Environmentalist: The commissioner of the Fish and Game Authority would have the public believe that increases
in the number of marine fish caught demonstrate that this resource is no longer endangered. This is a specious
argument, as unsound as it would be to assert that the ever-increasing rate at which rain forests are being cut
down demonstrates a lack of danger to that resource. The real cause of the increased fish-catch is a greater
efficiency in using technologies that deplete resources.
The environmentalist’s statements, if true, best support which of the following as a conclusion?
(A) The use of technology is the reason for the increasing encroachment of people on nature.
(B) It is possible to determine how many fish are in the sea in some way other than by catching fish.

(C) The proportion of marine fish that are caught is as high as the proportion of rain forest trees that are cut
down each year.
(D) Modern technologies waste resources by catching inedible fish.
(E) Marine fish continue to be an endangered resource.
Argument Construction
Situation
A public offi cial argues that increased catches show that marine fi sh are no longer
endangered. An environmentalist attacks the position and cites technology as the cause
of the increased catch.
Reasoning What conclusion do the environmentalist’s statements support?  e environmentalist casts
doubt by saying the commissioner would have the public believe that the increased catch
shows that the fi sh are no longer endangered; the phrasing indicates that the
environmentalist believes just the reverse.  e environmentalist does believe the marine
fi sh are endangered, and, after attacking the commissioner’s argument as specious,
or false, and off ering an analogy to make that argument look ridiculous, the
environmentalist gives an alternate explanation for the increased catch that is consistent
with that belief.
A Although the environmentalist claims that technology causes people’s greater encroachment on
nature in this single instance, there is nothing in the argument to suggest that such encroachment
caused by technology is a general trend.
B  e environmentalist’s claims imply that the number of fi sh caught is not a reliable indicator of
how many are left in the ocean but do not give any indication that it is possible to fi nd out by any
other means, either.
C  e environmentalist creates an analogy between fi sh caught and rain forest trees cut down but
does not compare their proportion.
D Nothing about how the fi sh can be used, including whether they are edible or inedible, plays any
role in the environmentalist’s argument.
E Correct.  is statement properly identifi es a conclusion supported by the environmentalist’s
statements:  e marine fi sh are endangered.
 e correct answer is E.

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8.6 Critical Reasoning Answer Explanations
92. In the country of Veltria, the past two years’ broad economic recession has included a business downturn in the
clothing trade, where sales are down by about 7 percent as compared to two years ago. Clothing wholesalers
have found, however, that the proportion of credit extended to retailers that was paid off on time fell sharply in
the fi rst year of the recession but returned to its prerecession level in the second year.
Which of the following, if true, most helps to explain the change between the fi rst and the second year of the
recession in the proportion of credit not paid off on time?
(A) The total amount of credit extended to retailers by clothing wholesalers increased between the fi rst year
of the recession and the second year.
(B) Between the fi rst and second years of the recession, clothing retailers in Veltria saw many of their costs,
rent and utilities in particular, increase.
(C) Of the considerable number of clothing retailers in Veltria who were having fi nancial diffi culties before the
start of the recession, virtually all were forced to go out of business during its fi rst year.
(D) Clothing retailers in Veltria attempted to stimulate sales in the second year of the recession by discounting
merchandise.
(E) Relatively recession-proof segments of the clothing trade, such as work clothes, did not suffer any
decrease in sales during the fi rst year of the recession.
Argument Evaluation
Situation
Two years of recession in Veltria included a downturn in the clothing trade where sales
are down 7 percent from two years ago. Yet, in the second year of the recession, the
proportion of credit extended from clothing wholesalers to retailers that was paid off on
time has returned to its prerecession level, after having fallen sharply during the fi rst year.
Reasoning Which option would most help to explain the change between the fi rst and second year in the
proportion of credit paid off on time?  e apparent discrepancy in the passage that needs
explaining is between the downturn in the clothing trade over the last two years and the
return to prerecession rates in the proportion of credit extended to clothing retailers that
was paid on time. How can the proportion this past year be similar to what it would be

in a normal year? After all, one would expect retailers to have a harder time paying off
credit in a recession. And what changed in the past year to bring this about? If the fi rst
year of the recession drove out of business many of the retailers who were most apt to get
behind in their payments to wholesalers, then that would explain how the rate at which
credit was being paid on time could be as high in the second year of the recession as it
was before the recession.
A  e fact that the absolute amount of credit that was extended to retailers went up in the second
year does not help to explain why the proportion that was paid on time also went up.
B If anything, this would suggest that more retailers would have trouble paying their credit to
wholesalers on time.
C Correct.  is is the option that most helps to explain the phenomenon.
D Just because retailers tried to stimulate sales does not mean that they succeeded, and the passage
tells us that the downturn in sales in the clothing trade continued into the second year.
E  is does not change the fact that there was a downturn in sales of clothing during the fi rst year.
Furthermore, the question is why the rate of unpaid credit dropped in the second year of the
recession.
 e correct answer is C.
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The Offi cial Guide for GMAT
®
Review 12th Edition
93. Commentator: The theory of trade retaliation states that countries closed out of any of another country’s
markets should close some of their own markets to the other country in order to pressure the other country to
reopen its markets. If every country acted according to this theory, no country would trade with any other.
The commentator’s argument relies on which of the following assumptions?
(A) No country actually acts according to the theory of trade retaliation.
(B) No country should block any of its markets to foreign trade.
(C) Trade disputes should be settled by international tribunal.
(D) For any two countries, at least one has some market closed to the other.

(E) Countries close their markets to foreigners to protect domestic producers.
Argument Construction
Situation
 e theory of trade retaliation is explained as the action and reaction of closing markets
between trading nations; no country would ever trade with another, the observation is
off ered, if every country acted according to the theory.
Reasoning What assumption underlies this argument? What makes the commentator conclude that no
country would be trading if the theory were operative?  e commentator must perceive
of some condition as a given here.  e argument assumes an initial action, a country’s
closing of a market to a trading partner, that is followed by a reaction, the retaliatory
closing of a market by that partner. In this unending pattern of action-reaction, at least
one of the two countries must have a market closed to the other.
A  e argument does not assume that no country acts according to the theory, just that not all
countries do so.
B  e commentator’s argument is about what the theory of trade retaliation predicts, not about
what trade policies countries ought to follow, and a statement about the latter is not an
assumption for the former.
C  is alternative scenario—trade disputes settled by international tribunal rather than by trade
retaliation—plays no role in the argument.
D Correct.  is statement properly identifi es the assumption required to create the never-ending
action-reaction pattern.
E  e argument does not pertain to countries’ initial reasons for closing their markets to foreign
trade, only to the consequences of doing so.
 e correct answer is D.
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