ELECTRO-OPTICS
HANDBOOK
Ronald W. Waynant Editor
Marwood N. Ediger Editor
Food and Drug Administration
Rockville, Maryland
Second Edition
McGRAW-HILL, INC.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Electro-optics handbook / Ronald W. Waynant, editor, Marwood N. Ediger, editor.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-07-068716-1 (hc)
1. Electrooptical devices—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Waynant, Ronald W.
II. Ediger, Marwood N., date.
TA1750.E44 2000
621.36—dc21
99-044081
Copyright ᭧ 2000 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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ISBN 0-07-068716-1
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To our wives and families who tolerated this project and to
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mostly to those chapter authors who wrote new chapters or
revised their work and made this edition current.
xv
CONTRIBUTORS
Georg F. Albrecht, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California (
CHAP.
5)
John E. Bowers, University of California at Santa Barbara (
CHAP.
29)

George R. Carruthers, E. O. Hulburt Center for Space Research, Naval Research Laboratory, Wash-
ington, D.C. (
CHAP.
15)
Y. J. Chen, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
(
CHAP.
22)
James J. Coleman, Microelectronics Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois (
CHAP.
6)
Charles M. Davis, Centerville, Virginia (
CHAP.
21)
J. G. Eden, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois (
CHAP.
20)
Marwood N. Ediger, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, Maryland (
CHAP.
1)
T. J. Harris, Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, Maryland (
CHAP.
11)
Masamitsu Haruna, Department of Electronic Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan (
CHAP.
26)
P T. Ho, Joint Program for Advanced Electronic Materials, Department of Electrical Engineering, Uni-
versity of Maryland, College Park, Maryland (
CHAPS.
9, 22)

Michael Ivanco, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, Chalk River Laboratories, Chalk River, Ontario
(
CHAP.
7)
Tung H. Jeong, Chairman, Department of Physics, Lake Forest College, Lake Forest, Illinois (
CHAP.
19)
S. B. Kim, Department of Chemistry, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
(
CHAP.
20)
Beth A. Koelbl, Nulight, Virginia Station, Virginia (
CHAP.
28)
Chi. H. Lee, Joint Program for Advanced Electronic Materials, Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland (
CHAP.
9)
Thomas Liljeberg, University of California at Santa Barbara (
CHAP.
29)
James T. Luxon, Associate Dean, Graduate Studies, Extension Services and Research, GMI Engineering
and Management Institute, Flint, Michigan (
CHAP.
25)
Sharon Miller, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, Maryland (
CHAP.
2)
Hiroshi Nishihara, Department of Electronic Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan (
CHAP.

26)
John A. Pasour, Mission Research Corporation, Newington, Virginia (
CHAP.
8)
Stephen A. Payne, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California (
CHAP.
5)
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
Martin Peckerar, Nonelectronic Processing Facility, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C.
(
CHAP.
22)
Jack C. Rife, Condensed Matter and Radiation Sciences Division, Naval Research Laboratory, Wash-
ington, D.C. (
CHAP.
10)
Paul A. Rochefort, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, Chalk River Laboratories, Chalk River, Ontario
(
CHAP.
7)
G. Rodriguez, Everitt Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois (
CHAP.
20)
Frederick A. Rosell, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Defense and Space Center, Baltimore, Mary-
land (
CHAP.
18)
Roland Sauerbrey, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Rice Quantum Institute,
Rice University, Houston, Texas (
CHAP.

3)
William T. Silfvast, Center for Research in Electro-Optics and Lasers, Orlando, Florida (
CHAP.
4)
Edward J. Sharp, Department of the Army, U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Fort Belvoir, Virginia
(
CHAP.
13)
David H. Sliney, Department of the Army, U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency, Edgewood,
Maryland (
CHAP.
23)
Suzanne C. Stotlar, Yorba Linda, California (
CHAPS.
16, 17)
Toshiaki Suhara, Department of Electronic Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan (
CHAP.
26)
M. E. Thomas, Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, Maryland (
CHAP.
11)
W. J. Tropf, Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, Maryland (
CHAP.
11)
Carlton M. Truesdale, Corning Industries, Corning, New York (
CHAP.
12)
M. J. C. van Gemert, College of Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas (
CHAP.
24)

Osamu Wada, Deputy Manager, Fujitsu Laboratires, Limited, Optical Semiconductor Devices Labo-
ratories, Atsugi Kanagawa, Japan (
CHAP.
27)
Ronald W. Waynant, Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, Maryland (
CHAP.
1)
Ashley J. Welch, College of Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas (
CHAP.
24)
Gary L. Wood, Director, Center for Night Vision and Electro-Optics, Department of the Army, U.S.
Army Research Laboratory, Fort Belvoir, Virginia (
CHAPS.
13, 14)
Li Yan, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland (
CHAP.
9)
Clarence J. Zarobila, Optical Technologies, Incorporated, Herndon, Virginia (
CHAP.
21)
McGraw-Hill Optical and Electro-Optical Engineering Series
Robert E. Fischer and Warren J. Smith, Series Editors
Published
Hecht
•
THE LASER GUIDEBOOK
Melzer & Moffitt •
HEAD MOUNTED DISPLAYS
Miller & Friedman •
PHOTONICS RULES OF THUMB

Mouroulis •
VISUAL INSTRUMENTATION
Smith •
MODERN OPTICAL ENGINEERING
Smith •
MODERN LENS DESIGN
Smith •
PRACTICAL OPTICAL SYSTEM LAYOUT
Waynant & Ediger •
ELECTRO
-
OPTICS HANDBOOK
Wyatt •
ELECTRO
-
OPTICAL SYSTEM DESIGN
Other Books of Interest
Optical Society of America
•
HANDBOOK OF OPTICS
,
SECOND EDITION
,
VOLUMES I
,
II
Keiser •
OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS
Syms, Cozens •
OPTICAL WAVES AND DEVICES

Chomycz •
FIBER OPTICAL INSTALLATIONS
ABOUT THE EDITORS
R
ONALD
W. W
AYNANT
is Editor in Chief of IEEE Circuits and Devices Maga-
zine and senior optical engineer at the Food and Drug Administration’s Elec-
tro-Optical Branch. He also gathered the distinguished contributors for and
edited the first edition of this Handbook. He resides in Clarksville, Maryland.
M
ARWOOD
N. E
DIGER
has over 12 years’ experience in the use of lasers in
medical applications. Marwood lives in Vienna, Virginia.
vii
CONTENTS
Contributors xv
Preface to Second Edition xvii
Preface to First Edition xix
Acronyms xxi
Chapter 1. Introduction to Electro-Optics Ronald W. Waynant and
Marwood N. Ediger 1.1
1.1 Introduction / 1.1
1.2 Types of Light Sources / 1.1
1.3 Materials / 1.4
1.4 Detectors / 1.5
1.5 Current Applications / 1.6

1.6 References / 1.7
Chapter 2. Noncoherent Sources Sharon Miller 2.1
2.1 Introduction / 2.1
2.2 Definition of Terms / 2.1
2.3 Characteristics / 2.6
2.4 Measurements and Calibration / 2.10
2.5 Sources of Noncoherent Optical Radiation / 2.21
2.6 References / 2.35
Chapter 3. Ultraviolet, Vacuum-Ultraviolet, and X-Ray Lasers
Roland Sauerbrey 3.1
3.1 Lasers in the Electromagnetic Spectrum / 3.1
3.2 Principles of Short-Wavelength Laser Operation / 3.4
3.3 Ultraviolet and Vacuum Ultraviolet Lasers / 3.11
3.4 X-Ray Lasers and Gamma-Ray Lasers / 3.36
3.5 References / 3.43
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 4. Visible Lasers William T. Silfvast 4.1
4.1 Introduction / 4.1
4.2 Visible Lasers in Gaseous Media / 4.2
4.3 Visible Lasers In Liquid Media—Organic Dye Lasers / 4.14
4.4 Visible Lasers in Solid Materials / 4.18
4.5 References / 4.21
Chapter 5. Solid-State Lasers Georg F. Albrecht and Stephen A. Payne 5.1
5.1 Introduction / 5.1
5.2 Solid-State Laser Devices / 5.2
5.3 Solid-State Laser Materials / 5.34
5.4 Future Directions / 5.56
5.5 References / 5.57
Chapter 6. Semiconductor Lasers James J. Coleman 6.1
6.1 Compound Semiconductors and Alloys / 6.1

6.2 Energy Band Structure / 6.3
6.3 Heterostructures / 6.6
6.4 Double Heterostructure Laser / 6.7
6.5 Stripe Geometry Lasers / 6.10
6.6 Index-Guided Stripe Geometry Lasers / 6.12
6.7 Materials Growth / 6.13
6.8 Quantum Well Heterostructure Lasers / 6.14
6.9 Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers / 6.17
6.10 Laser Arrays / 6.18
6.11 Modulation of Laser Diodes / 6.21
6.12 Reliability / 6.23
6.13 References / 6.25
Chapter 7. Infrared Gas Lasers Michael Ivanco and Paul A. Rochefort 7.1
7.1 Introduction / 7.1
7.2 Gas Laser Theory / 7.1
7.3 Specific Gas Lasers / 7.12
7.4 Conclusions / 7.30
7.5 References / 7.30
Chapter 8. Free-Electron Lasers John A. Pasour 8.1
8.1 Introduction / 8.1
8.2 FEL Theory / 8.3
8.3 FEL Components / 8.8
8.4 FEL Devices / 8.14
8.5 Future Directions / 8.17
8.6 Conclusions / 8.20
8.7 References / 8.20
CONTENTS ix
Chapter 9. Ultrashort Optical Pulses: Sources and Techniques Li Yan,
P T. Ho, and Chi. H. Lee 9.1
9.1 Principles of Ultrashort Pulse Generation / 9.1

9.2 Methods of Generation / 9.5
9.3 Ultrashort Pulse Laser Systems / 9.18
9.4 Methods of Pulse Width Measurements / 9.26
9.5 Conclusions / 9.31
9.6 References / 9.32
Chapter 10. Optical Materials—UV, VUV Jack C. Rife 10.1
10.1 Fundamental Physical Properties / 10.3
10.2 Transmissive UV Optics / 10.7
10.3 Reflective UV Optics / 10.16
10.4 Damage and Durability / 10.26
10.5 Fabrication / 10.31
10.6 References / 10.37
Chapter 11. Optical Materials: Visible and Infrared W. J. Tropf, T. J. Harris,
and M. E. Thomas 11.1
11.1 Introduction / 11.1
11.2 Types of Materials / 11.1
11.3 Applications / 11.2
11.4 Material Properties / 11.5
11.5 Property Data Tables / 11.9
11.6 References / 11.71
Chapter 12. Optical Fibers Carlton M. Truesdale 12.1
12.1 Theory of Fiber Transmission / 12.1
12.2 Materials for the Fabrication of Optical Fiber / 12.10
12.3 Fabrication Methods / 12.12
12.4 Fiber Losses / 12.16
12.5 Pulse Broadening / 12.19
12.6 References / 12.26
Chapter 13. Nonlinear Optics Gary L. Wood and Edward J. Sharp 13.1
13.1 Introduction / 13.1
13.2 Linear Optics: The Harmonic Potential Well / 13.1

13.3 Nonlinear Optics: The Anharmonic Potential Well / 13.4
13.4 Second-Order Nonlinearities:
␹ / 13.7
13.5 The Third-Order Susceptibilities:
␹ / 13.9
13.6 Propagation Through Nonlinear Materials / 13.12
13.7 Acknowledgments / 13.27
13.8 References / 13.27
x CONTENTS
Chapter 14. Phase Conjugation Gary L. Wood 14.1
14.1 Phase Conjugation: What It Is / 14.1
14.2 Phase Conjugation: How to Generate It / 14.5
14.3 Applications / 14.30
14.4 References / 14.34
Chapter 15. Ultraviolet and X-Ray Detectors George R. Carruthers 15.1
15.1 Overview of Ultraviolet and X-Ray Detection Principles / 15.1
15.2 Photographic Film / 15.1
15.3 Nonimaging Photoionization Detectors / 15.2
15.4 Imaging Proportional Counters / 15.7
15.5 Photoemissive Detectors / 15.9
15.6 Solid-State Detectors / 15.27
15.7 Scintillation Detectors / 15.34
15.8 References / 15.35
Chapter 16. Visible Detectors Suzanne C. Stotlar 16.1
16.1 Introduction / 16.1
16.2 The Human Eye as a Detector / 16.3
16.3 Photographic Film / 16.6
16.4 Photoelectric Detectors / 16.6
16.5 Thermal Detectors / 16.15
16.6 Other Detectors / 16.19

16.7 Detection Systems and Selection Guide / 16.19
16.8 References and Further Reading / 16.21
Chapter 17. Infrared Detectors Suzanne C. Stotlar 17.1
17.1 Introduction / 17.1
17.2 Photographic Film / 17.1
17.3 Photoelectric Detectors / 17.2
17.4 Thermal Detectors / 17.13
17.5 Other Detectors / 17.21
17.6 Detection Systems and Selection Guide / 17.21
17.7 References and Further Reading / 17.23
Chapter 18. Imaging Detectors Frederick A. Rosell 18.1
18.1 Introduction / 18.1
18.2 Photosurfaces / 18.2
18.3 Imaging Tubes / 18.5
18.4 Solid-State Imaging Devices / 18.10
18.5 Imaging System Performance Model / 18.13
18.6 Modulation Transfer Functions / 18.19
18.7 Applications / 18.22
18.8 References / 18.23
CONTENTS xi
Chapter 19. Holography Tung H. Jeong 19.1
19.1 Introduction / 19.1
19.2 Theory of Holographic Imaging / 19.1
19.3 Volume Holograms—A Graphic Model / 19.6
19.4 Material Requirements / 19.9
19.5 General Procedures / 19.12
19.6 Current Applications / 19.13
19.7 References / 19.15
Chapter 20. Laser Spectroscopy and Photochemistry G. Rodriguez,
S. B. Kim, and J. G. Eden

20.1
20.1 Introduction / 20.1
20.2 Laser-Induced Fluorescence and Absorption Spectroscopy / 20.3
20.3 Photoionization and Photoelectron Spectroscopy / 20.12
20.4 Multiphoton Spectroscopy / 20.21
20.5 Nonlinear Laser Spectroscopy / 20.24
20.6 Photochemistry / 20.39
20.7 Concluding Comments / 20.45
20.8 Acknowledgments / 20.46
20.9 References / 20.46
Chapter 21. Fiber-Optic Sensors Charles M. Davis and Clarence J. Zarobila 21.1
21.1 Introduction / 21.1
21.2 Fiber-Optic Sensor Transduction / 21.1
21.3 Fiber-Optic Sensor Components / 21.9
21.4 Temperature Sensors / 21.13
21.5 Static and Dynamic Pressure Sensors / 21.15
21.6 Accelerometers / 21.19
21.7 Rate-of-Rotation Sensors / 21.21
21.8 Magnetic /Electric Field Sensors / 21.22
21.9 References / 21.25
Chapter 22. High-Resolution Lithography for Optoelectronics
Martin Peckerar, P T. Ho, and Y. J. Chen 22.1
22.1 Introduction / 22.1
22.2 Fundamentals of Lithography / 22.2
22.3 Lithographic Techniques Useful In Optoelectronic Device Fabrication / 22.6
22.4 Examples / 22.22
22.5 Concluding Remarks / 22.33
22.6 Acknowledgments / 22.34
22.7 References / 22.34
xii CONTENTS

Chapter 23. Laser Safety in the Research and Development Environment
David H. Sliney 23.1
23.1 Introduction / 23.1
23.2 Biological Effects / 23.2
23.3 Safety Standards / 23.4
23.4 Risk of Exposure / 23.4
23.5 Laser Hazard Classification / 23.7
23.6 Laser Hazard Assessment / 23.12
23.7 Laser System Safety / 23.13
23.8 The Safe Industrial Laser Laboratory / 23.14
23.9 Laser Eye Protection / 23.16
23.10 Laser Accidents / 23.23
23.11 Electrical Hazards / 23.24
23.12 Visitors and Observers / 23.24
23.13 Delayed Effects and Future Considerations / 23.24
23.14 Conclusions and General Guidelines / 23.25
23.15 References / 23.26
Chapter 24. Lasers in Medicine Ashley J. Welch and M. J. C. van Gemert 24.1
24.1 Introduction / 24.1
24.2 Optical-Thermal Interactions / 24.3
24.3 Medial Applications / 24.17
24.4 Ablation / 24.23
24.5 Photochemical Interactions / 24.26
24.6 Photoacoustic Mechanisms / 24.27
24.7 Future Directions / 24.28
24.8 References / 24.29
Chapter 25. Material Processing Applications of Lasers James T. Luxon 25.1
25.1 Material Processing Lasers / 25.1
25.2 Laser Characteristics For Material Processing: Advantages and
Disadvantages / 25.4

25.3 Laser Surface Modification / 25.6
25.4 Welding / 25.8
25.5 Cutting and Drilling / 25.11
25.6 Marking / 25.12
25.7 Microelectronics Applications / 25.13
25.8 Bibliography / 25.14
Chapter 26. Optical Integrated Circuits Hiroshi Nishihara,
Masamitsu Haruna, and Toshiaki Suhara 26.1
26.1 Features of Optical Integrated Circuits / 26.1
26.2 Waveguide Theory, Design, and Fabrication / 26.1
26.3 Grating Components For Optical Integrated Circuits / 26.9
26.4 Passive Waveguide Devices / 26.17
26.5 Functional Waveguide Devices / 26.24
26.6 Examples of Optical Integrated Circuits / 26.31
26.7 References / 26.35
CONTENTS xiii
Chapter 27. Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits Osamu Wada 27.1
27.1 Introduction / 27.1
27.2 Categories and Features / 27.1
27.3 Materials, Basic Devices and Integration Techniques / 27.3
27.4 Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits / 27.15
27.5 System Applications / 27.27
27.6 Summary / 27.33
27.7 References / 27.33
Chapter 28. Optical Amplifiers Beth A. Koelbl 28.1
28.1 Introduction / 28.1
28.2 Optical Fiber Amplifiers / 28.1
28.3 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers / 28.7
28.4 Planar Waveguide Amplifiers / 28.8
28.5 Performance Parameters / 28.8

28.6 Applications / 28.14
28.7 Conclusions / 28.15
28.8 References / 28.15
Chapter 29. High-Speed Semiconductor Lasers and Photodetectors
Thomas Liljeberg and John E. Bowers 29.1
29.1 High-Speed Lasers / 29.1
29.2 High-Speed Laser Structures / 29.4
29.3 High-Speed Photodetectors / 29.7
29.4 Summary / 29.12
29.5 References / 29.13
Index follows Section 29
xvii
PREFACE TO
SECOND EDITION
It’s often difficult to predict which areas of a field will become rejuvenated and grow rapidly
or spin off to fit with another to form something new. The field of electro-optics is also
unpredictable, but currently it has numerous forces acting on it. First is the development of
new optical sources such as ultrafast lasers and fiber lasers to compete with semiconductor
devices for pumping and lasing. The vast riches that can be obtained by work outside the
visible seem to be opening up. Sources and fibers for telecommunications are moving ahead
rapidly and new display devices may eventually bring an end to the vacuum tube cathode
ray tubes. We believe that the material in this book will find an interested audience for many
years.
This second edition of the Electro-Optics Handbook both updates individual chapters
where needed and adds additional chapters where new fields have emerged. Electro-optics
remains a dynamic area and that will continue and broaden into many new areas. Our thanks
to Steve Chapman for his help getting this edition in progress and to Marcia Patchan and
Petra Captein for much of the work to move it toward composition.
Ronald W. Waynant
Marwood N. Ediger

xix
PREFACE TO
FIRST EDITION
Our concept for a new handbook on electro-optics integrates sources, materials, detectors
and ongoing applications. The field of electro-optics now encompasses both incoherent op-
tical sources and lasers that operate from the millimeter wavelength region to the x-ray
region. In this handbook we provide coverage of the most important laser sources in this
wavelength range. Having chosen a broad range of wavelengths from our sources, we then
define the properties of the materials through which these sources might travel. From there
we consider the detectors that might be used to observe them. When all the components
have been covered, we consider the applications for which electro-optical systems can be
used.
The applications for electro-optics systems is growing at a phenomenal rate and will most
likely do so for the next fifty years or more. Applications range from the astronomical to
the microscopic. Laser systems can track the moon and detect small quantities of atmospheric
pollution. Laser beams can trap and suspend tiny bacteria and help measure their mechanical
properties. They can be used to clip sections of DNA. The applications that we have included
in this handbook are only the beginning of applications for this field.
This handbook is intended as a reference book. It can be used as a starting place to learn
more about sources, materials, detectors and their use and applications. Most chapters have
a considerable list of references to original research articles, or else refer to books that contain
such lists of references. Liberal use is made of tables of data and illustrations that clarify
the text. The authors are all experts in their fields.
We make no statement that this handbook is complete although it was our goal to work
toward complete coverage of this field. It is a dynamic field continually advancing and
changing. We hope to follow these changes and to strive for further completeness in future
editions. We believe electro-optics will be part of a new field with new ways of transferring
knowledge. We hope to use these new fields to find additional ways to present data and
knowledge that will be even more comprehensive.
We are indebted to Daniel Gonneau of McGraw-Hill for suggesting this project and then

providing the encouragement and motivation to see it through. As editors we are grateful to
the authors who made great sacrifices to complete their contributions and who made our job
quite pleasant. We hope that references are made to the authors and their sections because
it is with these authors that the knowledge presented here really resides. We would be remiss
not to mention Paul Sobel for his help and encouragement during the finishing stages of this
book and to thank Eve Protic for her help during the many stages of production.
Ronald W. Waynant
Marwood N. Ediger
xxi
ACRONYMS
2DEG two-dimensional electron gas
2PA two photon absorption
III-V Group III, group V of
periodic table
3HG third harmonic generation
AEL accessible emission limit
AFRRG Active Fiber Ring Resonator
Gyroscope
AM amplitude modulation
AMVSB Amplitude Modulation—
Vestigal Side Band
ANSI American National Standards
Institute
AO acousto-optic
AON All Optical Networks
APD avalanche photodiode
APDs avalanche photodiodes
APM additive pulse mode locking
AR anti reflection
ARFG Active Reentrant Fiber

Gyroscope
ASE amplified spontaneous
emission
AWG arrayed waveguide grating
BEFWM Brillouin enhanced four wave
mixing
BFA Brillouin fiber amplifier
BH buried heterostructure
BLIP background-limited infrared
performance
C/S coupler/splitter
CAD computer-aided design
CAIBE chemically assisted ion-beam
etching
CARS coherent anti-stokes Raman
spectroscopy
CBE chemical beam epitaxy
CCD charge coupled device
CDRH Center for Devices and
Radiological Health (of FDA)
CET Cooperative Energy Transfer
Ch choroid
CID charge-injection device
CIE Commission International de
I’Eclairage
CMBH capped mesa buried
heterostructure
COD catastrophic optical damage
CPM colliding-pulse mode-locked
CSBC channel substrate buried

crescent
CSO composite second order
cw continuous wave
D* detectivity
DBR distributed Bragg reflector
DCG dichromated gelatin
DCPBH double channel planar buried
heterostructure
DFB distributed feedback
DFDL distributed feedback dye
lasers
DIN Deutsche Institu¨tfu¨r
Normung
xxii ACRONYMS
DM depth of modulation
DODCI diethyloxadicarbon-cyanine
iodide
DOES double heterostructure
optoelectronic switches
DoF depth of focus
D-MQW diluted multi-quantum well
DUT device under test
DWDM dense wavelength division
multiplex
EA electron affinity
EB electron beam
EBCCD electron bombarded charge
coupled device
EBS electron bombardment silicon
ECL emitter-coupled logic

EDFA erbium doped fiber amplifiers
EKE electronic Kerr effect
EL exposure limits
EMI/ESD electromagnetic impulse /
electrostatic discharge
EO electro-optic
E/O electrical to optical
ESA excited state absorption
FAFAD fast axial flow with axial
discharge
FBGs Fiber Bragg Gratings
FDA Food and Drug
Administration
FDH flame hydrolysis deposition
FEL free electron laser
FELs free electron lasers
FET field-effect transistors
FET-SEED field-effect transistors self-
electro-optic effect devices
FFT fast Fourier transform
FGC focusing grating coupler
FHD flame hydrosis deposition
FID free-induction decay
FM frequency modulation
FOG Fiber Optic Gyroscope
FOGs Fiber Optic Gyroscopes
FOV field of view
FTFTD fast transverse flow with
transverse discharge
FTP Fourier transform plane

FWHM full width half-maximum
FWM four wave mining
G-R generation-recombination
GRIN-SCH graded index waveguide
separate confinement
heterostructure
GRO Gamma Ray Observatory
GSMBE gas source molecular beam
epitaxy
GVD group velocity dispersion
GVDC group velocity dispersion
compensation
HAZ heat-affected zone
HbO oxyhemoglobin (blood)
HBT heterojunction bipolar
transistors
HEAO High Energy Astronomy
Observatory
HEMTs high-electron-mobility
transistors
HID high intensity discharge
HOE holographic optical element
HpD hematoporphyrin derivative
HR high reflection
HR high resistivity
HUD head-up display
IC integrated circuit
ICI International Commission on
Illumination
IDT interdigital transducer

IEC International Electrotechnical
Commission
ILD injection laser diodes
IML impedance matching layer
IO image orthicon
IODPU integrated optic disk pickup
IOSA integrated optic spectrum
analyzer
IPC imaging proportional counter
ir infrared
ITU International
Telecommunications Union
ACRONYMS xxiii
JFETs junction FETs
KTP KTiOPO
4
, potassium
tellurium phosphate
LANs local area networks
LAVA laser assisted vascular
anastomosis
LDV laser Doppler velocimeter
LED light emitting diode
lidar light detection and ranging
LIF laser induced fluorescence
LIS laser isotope separation
LiTaO
3
lithium tantalate
LLLTV low light level television

LLNL Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory
LM light microscopy
LPE liquid phase epitaxy
LSI large scale integration
LSO laser safety officer
LTE local thermal equilibrium
LURE Laboratoire pour I’Utilisation
du Rayonment
Electromagnetic
␮m micrometers (microns) ϭ 10
Ϫ
6
meters
MAMA multianode microchannel
array
MBE molecular beam epitaxy
MCP microchannel plate
MES metal semiconductor
MESFET metal semiconductor field-
effect transistors
ml mode-locked
MMIC monolithic microwave
integrated circuit
MO magneto-optic
MOCVD metal organic chemical vapor
deposition
MOPA master oscillator power
amplifier
MOS metal-oxide-semiconductor

MOVPE metal organic vapor phase
epitaxy
MPE maximum permissible
exposure
MPI multiphoton ionization
MQW multiple quantum well
MSM metal semiconductor metal
MSM-PD metal semiconductor-metal
photodiode
MTBF mean time between failure
MTF modulation transfer function
NA numerical aperture
NALM nonlinear amplifying loop
mirror
NDFA neodymium doped fiber
amplifiers
NEP noise-equivalent power
NF noise figure
NHZ nominal hazard zone
NIST National Institute of Standards
and Technology
nm nanometers
ϭ 10
Ϫ
9
meters
NO nitric oxide
NLO non-linear optic
NOHA nominal ocular hazard area
NRL Naval Research Laboratory

NRZ non-return-to-zero
OA optical amplifier
OD optical density
O/E optical to electrical
OEIC optoelectronic integrated
circuits
OFA optical fiber amplifiers
OIC optical integrated circuit
OKE orientational Kerr effect
OODR optical-optical double
resonance
OPD optical path difference
OPO optical parametric oscillator
ORL optical return loss
OSSE Oriented Scintillation
Spectrometer Experiment
OTDM optical time division
multiplexing
OTDR optical time-domains
reflectometers
PAC photoactive compounds
xxiv ACRONYMS
PBH planar buried heterostructure
PC photoconductive
PDFA praseodymium doped fiber
amplifiers
PDG polarization dependant gain
PDT photodynamic therapy
PE pigment epithelium
PECVD plasma enhanced chemical

vapor deposition
PES photoelectron spectroscopy
PFA parametric fiber amplifiers
PFL pulse forming line
PGC phase-generated carrier
PHASAR optical phased array
PHB polarization hole burning
PIC photonic integrated circuit
PLL phase-locked-loop
PM polarization maintaining
PMD polarization mode dispersion
PMMA polymethyl methacrylade
PMT photomultiplier tube
PPCM passive phase conjugate
mirror
PVF polyvinyl fluoride
PWA planar waveguide amplifiers
PWS port wine stains
PZT lead zirconate
PZT piezoelectric transducer
QAM quadrature amplitude
modulated
QE quantum-effect
QW quantum-well
RC resistance-capacitance
RE rare earth
REC rare earth cobalt
REMPT resonantly enhanced
multiphoton ionization
RFA Raman FA

RGH rare gas halide
RIBE reactive-ion-beam etching
RIE reactive ion etching
RIKES Raman-induced Kerr-effect
spectroscopy
RIMS resonance ionization mass
spectroscopy
RIN relative intense noise
RPM resonant passive mode-
locking
SAFAD slow axial flow with axial
discharge
SAM-APD separate absorption and
multiplication layers
SAW surface acoustic waves
SBN strontium barium nitrate
SBS stimulated Brillouin scattering
SCH separate confine
heterostructure
SEBIR secondary electron
bombardment-induced
response
SEC secondary electron conduction
SEED self-electro-optic effect
devices
SELFOC self-focusing
SEVA slowly varying envelope
approximation
SFPMA stimulated four photon mixing
amplifiers

SHG second harmonic generation
SI semi-insulating
SIBC semi-insulating buried cresent
lasers
SIT silicon intensified tube
SLA semiconductor light laser
amplifiers
SLB super lattice buffer
SLD superluminescent diodes
SLM single longitudinal mode
SMF spectral matching factor
SNR signal to noise ratio
SNR
D
signal to noise ratio of a
display
SNR
DT
signal to noise ratio of a
display at threshold
SNR
VO
signal to noise ratio of video
(for white noise)
SOA semiconductor optical
amplifiers
ACRONYMS xxv
SPM self-phase modulation
SQW single-quantum-well
SRS stimulated Raman scattering

TCDD tetra chlorodibenzo-p dioxin
TCE trichloroethane
TDFA thulium doped fiber amplifiers
TDM time division multiplexing
TEA transversely excited
atmospheric
TEA trienthylamine
TEM transmission electron
microscopy
TGFBS twin-grating focusing beam
splitter
TGS triglycerine sulfide
TGSe triglycerine selanate
THG third harmonic generation
TIA Telecommunications Industry
Assoc
TIR total internal reflection
TMAE tetraKis-(dimethylamino)
ethylene
TMAH trimethylaluminum hydride
TO thermo-optic
TPF two-photon fluorescence
TVL threshold limit values
TVL/PH television lines / picture height
uv ultraviolet
VCO voltage-controlled oscillator
VCSEL vertical cavity surface
emitting lasers
VLSI very large scale integration
VLSIs very large scale integrated

circuits
VSPD variable sensitivity
photodetector
VSTEP vertical to surface
transmission electrophotonic
vuv vacuum ultraviolet
WADM wavelength add / drop
multiplexer
WDM wavelength division
multiplexing
XGM cross-gain modulation
XPM cross phase modulation
YAG yttrium aluminum garnet
YEDFA ytterbium erbium doped fiber
amplifiers
YLF LiYF
4
, lithium yttrium
fluoride
1.1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRO-OPTICS
Ronald W. Waynant and Marwood N. Ediger
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The field of electro-optics has become increasingly more important in the last 20 years as
its prodigies and applications have found their way into most facets of science, industry, and
domestic use. This near-revolution, which essentially started with the advent of the laser, has
been the result of extensive parallel and often symbiotic development of sources, materials,
and microelectronics. The combination of these technologies has enabled a great variety of

compact devices with ever greater intelligence and performance. If source development was
instrumental in initiating the field, materials and detectors were the binding elements. Vast
improvements in optical materials have made fiber optics feasible and the availability of
high-quality, affordable fibers has, in turn, made optical circuits and a variety of optical
sensors possible. Refinement and development of new materials have resulted in an aston-
ishing variety of devices to modulate, polarize, frequency-shift, and otherwise control co-
herent radiation. In turn, detectors have achieved greater performance and smaller size and
cost.
The second edition of this handbook attempts to cover a broad spectral bandwidth—from
x-rays to far infrared. A primary motivation in extending the short-wavelength limit of the
source spectrum, and the handbook’s coverage of it, is the demand for higher resolving
powers in materials and device fabrication applications as well as medical and biological
imaging. Figure 1.1 depicts the size of objects of interest in the biological, materials science,
and electronics worlds, and the wavelength necessary to resolve them as prescribed by the
Rayleigh criterion. The infrared boundaries of the spectrum are also continually being
strained by sources, materials, and detectors in the development of a variety of applications
such as imaging, optical diagnostics, and spectroscopy.
Each chapter of this handbook falls into one of four categories: sources, materials, and
their properties (e.g., nonlinear optics), detectors, and applications. In the remainder of this
chapter we present some simple overlying principles of each category and a topical map to
aid the reader in finding the desired information.
1.2 TYPES OF LIGHT SOURCES
Chapter 2 takes a detailed look at incoherent sources, and Chaps. 3 through 8 are devoted
to the numerous laser sources grouped in part by media and in part by wavelength. Ultrashort
1.2 CHAPTER ONE
FIGURE 1.1 Relation of object size and resolving wavelength.
pulse lasers and techniques are covered in Chap. 9. Chapter 28 picks up the new field of
fiber lasers and amplifiers—an important new direction.
Although the activity in the field of electro-optics has often been mirrored by events in
laser development, incoherent sources still have an important role. Lasers are much newer

and more space is devoted to them in the chapters to follow; however, the inescapable fact
is that lamps currently have a much greater effect on our everyday lives than do lasers. With
hundreds of millions of plasma discharge lamps and billions of incandescent light bulbs in
constant use on a worldwide basis, power expenditure on lighting alone approaches the
Terawatt level. Even the 22 percent or lower efficiency of most lamps still exceeds that of
most lasers.
Arc lamps are characterized by high currents (several amperes) and high pressures (at-
mospheres) with ballast resistors used to prevent complete runaway. The lamps can be ex-
ceedingly bright. Examples include high-pressure (3 to 10 atmosphere) mercury vapor arc
lamps, high-pressure metal halide lamps, high-pressure xenon arc lamps, high-pressure so-
dium arc lamps, as well as xenon flash lamps and rf excited lamps. They are used where
high brightness is required for such purposes as movie projection, solar simulation, large-
area illumination, and other special-purpose illumination.
Lower-pressure discharges (a few Torr) are used to excite atomic gases such as mercury
vapor, hydrogen, cesium, the rare gases, and other elements. The best-known example of
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRO-OPTICS 1.3
FIGURE 1.2 Location of generic lasers on the wavelength scale.
these low-pressure lamps is the fluorescent lamp. The low-pressure discharge gives rise to
emissions characteristic of the gas in the tube. Mercury is especially valuable, since a mer-
cury discharge gives about 90 percent of its emission in the mid-ultraviolet at 253.7 nm.
This mid-ultraviolet emission is capable of exciting a thin phosphor coating on the inside of
the glass tube. The phosphor subsequently fluoresces rather uniformly over the visible spec-
trum, thereby giving off ‘‘white’’ light. The entire process is quite efficient compared with
incandescent bulbs. An essentially similar energy transfer process produces compact fluo-
rescent tubes, germicidal ultraviolet lamps, low-pressure sodium lamps, neon signs, glow
lamps, and hollow-cathode lamps.
There is still work to do to understand and improve lamps. Because of the great usage
for fundamental necessities of life, improvements such as greater efficiency, lower emission
of ultraviolet (uv) and infrared (ir), and longer life can be of great benefit. The current
understanding of nonequilibrium plasmas, near local thermal equilibrium (LTE), and LTE

plasmas can be found in several references.
1,2
An improved understanding of the mechanisms
of these plasmas is the key to producing better light sources.
Lasers are of such importance to modern electro-optics that six chapters have been de-
voted to them. They are categorized both according to the spectral region in which they emit
and according to the type of material used to obtain lasing. This categorization seems to suit
the majority of lasers rather well. In Chap. 3 x-ray, vacuum-ultraviolet (vuv), and uv lasers
are covered. Most of the lasers in this spectral region are gaseous (atom, ion, or plasma),
but occasionally a solid medium is available and more are expected in the future. Chapter
4 considers visible lasers including dye lasers, except solid-state lasers, which have become
important enough to warrant both Chap. 5 on conventional solid-state lasers and Chap. 6 on
solid state semiconductor lasers. The lasers in these two chapters fall over parts of the visible
and infrared. The remainder of the infrared belongs largely to gas lasers and is covered in
Chap. 7. Figure 1.2 gives an overview of where the various generic types of lasers fall on
the wavelength scale. Specific lasers, most of which have been commercialized or otherwise
have noteworthy characteristics, are denoted in detail in Fig. 1.3. Further information on
specific lasers can be found in several places in the open literature.
3,4
Chapter 8 covers free electron lasers (FELs) which operate by magnetically perturbing
an accelerated electron beam and which have vast tunability. To date these lasers have op-
erated primarily in the infrared, but they are anticipated to operate tunably in the visible in
the near future and eventually may provide ultraviolet and x-ray beams.
1.4 CHAPTER ONE
FIGURE 1.3 Detailed location of specific lasers.
Many lasers have yielded to a variety of techniques that produced incredibly short
pulsewidths—some only a few femtoseconds wide—and these lasers will be used in a wide
variety of electro-optics, physics, chemistry, and biology experiments which will yield new
information, new insight, and further progress and products. The techniques for producing
ultrashort pulses are given in Chap. 9. Applications of these lasers will grow rapidly as soon

as the production of the ultrashort lasers themselves becomes solidly commercialized. Chap-
ter 29—new—points to high-speed semiconductor lasers and photodetectors which may
branch into better communications devices and span other new applications.
It is interesting to reflect on the reasons that so many lasers occur in the visible and near
infrared. It is primarily a matter of materials, pumping sources, and the basic physics of
lasers themselves. Because the human eye responds to radiation in the 400 to 700-nm region,
considerable development of materials which transmit in the visible has taken place. Infrared
instruments, especially military instruments, have also encouraged development of infrared
materials. Most optical sources, lamps, arcs, and flashlamps (and now diode lasers) emit
most easily in the infrared as well. In addition, the small signal gain of a laser is directly
proportional to the square of the wavelength. Related factors increase the dependence of
gain on wavelength to the third or fourth power. For all these reasons, it is much harder to
make uv, vuv, or x-ray lasers than it is to make infrared lasers.
1.3 MATERIALS
Materials that are nonabsorbing over a broad bandwidth are critical to source (and detector)
development. We first consider the linear optical properties of materials—the responses that
are proportional to the incident electric field. Optical materials are covered in two chapters