ANALYSIS OF SOME VEGETABLE OILS FOR
POTENTIAL BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

A THESIS

Submitted by
M. RAJAKOHILA
Reg. No. 8492

BIOTECHNOLOGY - BOTANY
(Interdisciplinary)
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY
TIRUNELVELI 627 012

DECEMBER - 2018


MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY
TIRUNELVELI - 627 012

CERTIFICATE

The research work embodied in the present Thesis entitled “ANALYSIS OF
SOME VEGETABLE OILS FOR POTENTIAL BIODIESEL PRODUCTION” has
been carried out in the PG and Research Department of Chemistry, Sri Paramakalyani
College, Alwarkurichi. The work reported herein is original and does not form part of any
other thesis or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an
earlier occasion or to any other scholar.

I understand the University’s policy on plagiarism and declare that the thesis and
publications are my own work, except where specifically acknowledged and has not been
copied from other sources or been previously submitted for award or assessment.

M. RAJAKOHILA
RESEARCH SCHOLAR

Dr. K. KALIRAJAN
JOINT SUPERVISOR
Associate Professor
PG and Research Department of Chemistry
Sri Paramakalyani College
Alwarkurichi - 627 412.

Dr. P. NAGENDRA PRASAD
SUPERVISOR
Associate Professor & Head (Rtd)
Department of Biotechnology
Sri Paramakalyani College
Alwarkurichi - 627 412.


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am most thankful to God Almighty for sustaining and keeping me in His grace
and providential protection throughout my life.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to my guide
Dr. P. Nagendra Prasad, Associate Professor & Head (Rtd), Department of
Biotechnology, Sri Paramakalyani College, Alwarkurichi who showed the path and light
to continue my research career and his excellent guidance, constant encouragement and
all other considerations provided me the environment to reach my goal.

I express my gratitude to my co-guide, Dr. K. Kalirajan, Associate Professor, PG
and Research Department of Chemistry, Sri Paramakalyani College, Alwarkurichi for his
guidance and encouragement.
I express my heartful thanks to Dr. R. Venkataraman, Principal and
Dr. G. Devarajan, Secretary, Sri Paramakalyani College, Alwarkurichi for their advice
and suggestions to carry out my work successfully.
I am very much thankful to Dr. S. Selvaraj, Associate Professor & Head, all
teaching faculties and non-teaching members of PG and Research Department of
Chemistry, Sri Paramakalyani College, Alwarkurichi for their encouragement and
support.
I express my sincere thanks to the management of SPKC for all their support in
proving the lab facilities and library facilities to me throughout my studies. I also
thankful to the Staff Members, Research Scholars and Non Teaching Staff members of
Sri Paramakalyani College, Alwarkurichi for their encouragement in due course of this
study.
My sincere thanks to my family members and all my friends who all behind the
successful completion of this thesis.
M. RAJAKOHILA


TABLE OF CONTENTS
SL.No

Title

Page No

ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

INTRODUCTION

1

1.1.

Energy

1

1.2.

Types of Energy Sources

1

1.2.1.Non – Renewable Energy

2

1.2.2. Renewable Energy

2

1.3.

Fossil Fuel


3

1.4.

Need for Alternate fuel

4

1.5.

Feasible Alternate energy sources

5

1.5.1.Biofuel

5

1.5.2.Biodiesel

6

1.5.3.Biodiesel Production Method

10

1.5.4.Blending or Dilution

11


1.5.5.Biodiesel Standard

12

1.6.

Physico -Chemical Analysis of vegetable oil.

13

1.7.

Corrosion

14

1.7.1.Corrosion Inhibitors

14

1.7.2.Green Inhibitors

15

Objectives

15

REVIEW OF LITERATURE


16

1

1.8.

2


BIOENERGY CROPS

41

3.1.

Introduction

41

3.2.

Classification of vegetable oil

41

3.3.

Bioenergy crops selected for present study

42


3.3.1.Argemone mexicana

43

3

3.3.1.1. Scientific classification

43

3.3.1.2. Botanical name

44

3.3.1.3. Common name

44

3.3.1.4. Distribution

44

3.3.1.5. Description

44

3.3.1.6. Ecology

46


3.3.1.7. Chemical Constituents

46

3.3.1.8. Medicinal uses and other

46

3.3.2.Cleome viscosa

47

3.3.2.1.Scientific classification

47

3.3.2.2. Botanical name

47

3.3.2.3. Common name

48

3.3.2.4. Distribution

48

3.3.2.5. Description


48

3.3.2.6. Ecology

50

3.3.2.7. Chemical Constituents

50

3.3.2.8. Medicinal uses and other

50

3.3.3. Pongamia pinnata

51

3.3.3.1.Scientific classification

51

3.3.3.2. Botanical Name

51

3.3.3.3. Common name

51


3.3.3.4. Distribution

52

3.3.3.5. Description

52

3.3.3.6. Ecology

53

3.3.3.7. Chemical Constituents

53

3.3.3.8. Medicinal uses and others

55


3.3.4. Hevea brasiliensis

56

3.3.4.1. Scientific classification

56


3.3.4.2. Botanical Name

56

3.3.4.3. Common name

56

3.3.4.4. Distribution

56

3.3.4.5. Description

57

3.3.4.6. Ecology

57

3.3.4.7. Chemical constituents

59

3.3.4.8. Medicinal Uses and others

59

3.3.5. Sapindus trifoliatus


60

3.3.5.1. Scientific classification

60

3.3.5.2. Botanical name

60

3.3.5.3. Common name

60

3.3.5.4. Distribution

60

3.3.5.5. Description

61

3.3.5.6. Ecology

63

3.3.5.7. Chemical constituents

63


3.3.5.8. Medicinal uses and others

63

MATERIALS AND METHODS

65

4.1.

Collection of plants

65

4.2.

Extraction of oil

65

4.3.

Preparation of Blends

66

4.4.

Properties of biodiesel blends


66

4.4.1. Analysis of physical properties of biodiesel blends

67

4

4.4.1.1. Viscosity

67

4.4.1.2. Density

67

4.4.1.3. Specific Gravity

68

4.4.1.4. Conductivity

68

4.4.1.5. Dissolved Oxygen

68

4.4.1.6. Total dissolved solids


69


4.4.1.7.Determination of pH

69

4.4.1.8. Flash Point

69

4.4.1.9.Fire Point

70

4.4.1.10. Cloud Point

70

4.4.1.11. Pour Point

71

4.4.1.12. Smoke Point

71

4.4.1.13.Carbon Residue

71


4.4.2. Ultrasonic Properties Analysis

72

4.4.2.1. Principle and Instrumentation of Ultrasonic

72

Interferometer
4.4.2.2. Ultrasonic Velocity

74

4.4.2.3. Adiabatic compressibility

74

4.4.2.4. Acoustic impedance

75

4.4.2.5. Relaxation time

75

4.4.3. Analysis of chemical properties of biodiesel blends

76


4.4.3.1.Acid value

76

4.4.3.2. Saponification value

77

4.4.3.3. Iodine value

78

4.4.3.4. Cetane number

78

4.4.3.5. Higher Heating value

79

4.4.3.6. Average Molecular Weight of Total Free Fatty

79

Acid
4.4.3.7. Percentage of Free Fatty Acid

80

4.4.4. Statistical Analysis


80

4.4.5. Analysis of Fuel Efficiency of Biodiesel Blends

80

4.4.6. Analysis of Corrosion Parameters

81

4.4.6.1. Preparation of specimen

81

4.4.6.2. Inhibitor

81

4.4.6.3. Gravimetric measurements

82

4.4.6.4. SEM analysis

83


RESULT


84

Analysis of physical Property

87

5.1.1 Viscosity

87

5.1.2 Density

87

5.1.3 Specific Gravity

87

5.1.4 Conductivity

91

5.1.5 Dissolved Oxygen

91

5.1.6 Total dissolved Solids

94


5.1.7 pH

94

5.1.8. Flash Point

94

5.1.9. Fire Point

98

5.1.10. Pour Point

98

5.1.11. Cloud Point

98

5.1.12. Smoke Point

102

5.1.13. Carbon Residue Analysis

102

Ultrasonic Study


105

5.2.1. Ultrasonic Velocity

105

5.2.2. Adiabatic Compressibility

105

5.2.3. Acoustic Impedance

105

5.2.4. Relaxation Time

109

Analysis of Chemical properties

109

5.3.1. Acid Value

109

5.3.2. Saponification Value

112


5.3.3. Iodine Value

112

5.3.4. Cetane Number

112

5.3.5. Higher Heating Value

116

5.3.6. Average Molecular Weight of Total Fatty Acid

116

5.3.7. Percentage of Free Fatty Acid

116

5.4.

Fuel Efficiency

120

5.5.

Corrosion Study


121

5
5.1

5.2.

5.3.


5.5.1. Variation of mild steel weight loss in acid medium with
different

concentration

of

selected

bioinhibitors

121

at

different duration
5.5.2. Variation of Corrosion rate in acid medium with different

126


concentration of selected bioinhibitors at different duration
5.5.3. Variation of Corrosion inhibition efficiency in acid medium

130

with different concentration of selected bioinhibitors at
different duration
5.5.4. Morphological study of Mild steel using Scanning Electron

135

Microscope

6

DISCUSSION

140

7

SUMMARY

160

8

CONCLUSION

162


9

REFERENCES

164

10

APPENDICES
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
REPRINTS OF JOURNAL PUBLICATION
BIO-DATA


LIST OF TABLES
TABLE

PAGE
TITLE
NO

NO
3.1

List of bioenergy crops screened

42

5.1.


Viscosity of selected biodiesel blends

88

5.2.

Density of selected biodiesel blends

89

5.3.

Specific Gravity of selected biodiesel blends

90

5.4.

Conductivity for different biodiesel blends.

92

5.5.

Dissolved Oxygen of selected biodiesel blends

93

5.6.


Total Dissolved Solids of selected biodiesel blends

95

5.7.

pH of selected biodiesel blends

96

5.8.

Flash Point of selected biodiesel blends

97

5.9.

Fire Point of selected biodiesel blends

99

5.10.

Pour Point of selected biodiesel blends

100

5.11.


Cloud Point of selected biodiesel blends

101

5.12.

Smoke Point of selected biodiesel blends

103

5.13.

Carbon Residue of selected biodiesel blends

104

5.14.

Ultrasonic Velocity of selected biodiesel blends

106

5.15.

Ultrasonic Adiabatic Compressibility of selected biodiesel blends

107

5.16.


Acoustic Impedance of selected biodiesel blends

108

5.17.

Relaxation Time of selected biodiesel blends

110

5.18.

Acid Value of selected biodiesel blends

111

5.19.

Saponification Value of selected biodiesel blends

113

5.20.

Iodine Value of selected biodiesel blends

114

5.21.


Cetane Number of selected biodiesel blends

115

5.22.

Higher Heating Value of selected biodiesel blends

117

5.23.

Average Molecular weight of Total Fatty Acid of selected biodiesel

118

blends
5.24.

Percentage of Free Fatty Acid of selected biodiesel blends

119

5.25.

Fuel Efficiency of selected biodiesel Blends.

120



5.26.

Variation of mild steel weight loss in acid medium with different

122

concentration of bioinhibitors after 24 hours duration
5.27.

Variation of mild steel weight loss in acid medium with different

122

concentration of bioinhibitors after 48 hours duration
5.28.

Variation of mild steel weight loss in acid medium with different

124

concentration of bioinhibitors after 72 hours duration
5.29.

Variation of mild steel weight loss in acid medium with different

124

concentration of bioinhibitors after 96 hours duration
5.30.


Variation of mild steel weight loss in acid medium with different

125

concentration of bioinhibitors after 120 hours duration
5.31.

Variation of corrosion rate at different concentration of selected

127

bioinhibitors after 24 hours duration
5.32.

Variation of corrosion rate at different concentration of selected

127

bioinhibitors after 48 hours duration
5.33.

Variation of corrosion rate at different concentration of selected

128

bioinhibitors after 72 hours duration
5.34.

Variation of corrosion rate at different concentration of selected


128

bioinhibitors after 96 hours duration
5.35.

Variation of corrosion rate at different concentration of selected

129

bioinhibitors after 120 hours duration
5.36.

Variation of corrosion inhibition efficiency at different concentration of

131

selected bioinhibitors after 24 hours duration
5.37.

Variation of corrosion inhibition efficiency at different concentration of

131

selected bioinhibitors after 48 hours duration
5.38.

Variation of corrosion inhibition efficiency at different concentration of

132


selected bioinhibitors after 72 hours duration
5.39.

Variation of corrosion inhibition efficiency at different concentration of

132

selected bioinhibitors after 96 hours duration
5.40.

Variation of corrosion inhibition efficiency at different concentration of
selected bioinhibitors after 120 hours duration

134


LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE

PAGE
TITLE

NO
5.1

NO.
Scanning electron micrograph of mild steel as received and Mild steel after

136


120 hours immersion in 1 N HCL without and with Argemone oil
bioinhibitor
5.2

Scanning electron micrograph of mild steel after 120 hours immersion in 1

137

N HCL without and with Cleome oil bioinhibitor
5.3

Scanning electron micrograph of mild steel after 120 hours immersion in 1

137

N HCL without and with Pongamia oil inhibitor
5.4

Scanning electron micrograph of mild steel after 120 hours immersion in 1

139

N HCL without and with Rubber oil bioinhibitor
5.5

Scanning electron micrograph of mild steel after 120 hours immersion in 1
N HCL without and with Soapnut oil bioinhibitor

139



LIST OF PLATES

PLATE NO

TITLE

PAGE NO.

Plate 3.1.

Bioenergy crop – Argemone mexicana

45

Plate 3.2.

Bioenergy crop – Cleome viscosa

49

Plate 3.3.

Bioenergy crop – Pongamia pinnata

54

Plate 3.4.


Bioenergy crop – Hevea brasiliensis

58

Plate 3.5.

Bioenergy crop – Sapindus trifoliatus

62

Plate 4.1.

Seed Powder & Seed oil of selected bioenergy crops

85

Plate 4.2.

Weight loss measurement of mild steel in 1N HCl
medium with and without selected bioinhibitors.

86


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ANOVA

Analysis Of Variance

AOCS


American Oil Chemists’ Society

ASTM

American Standard Test Method

AV

Acid Value

B

Blends of Biodiesel

B0

Petro diesel

B5

5 percent Blend of Biodiesel

B10

10 percent Blend of Biodiesel

B20

20 percent Blend of Biodiesel


B100

Biodiesel in pure form

BIS

Bureau of Indian Standards

BSFC

Break Specific Fuel Consumption

BTE

Break Thermal Efficiency

CARB

California Air Resources Board

CI Engine

Compression Ignition Engine

CKO

Crude Karanja Oil

CN


Cetane Number

CO

Carbon Monoxide

CO2

Carbon Dioxide

DI Engine

Direct Injection Engine

DO

Dissolved Oxygen

EC

Electrical Conductivity


EN

European Nationale

EPA


Environmental Protection Agency

FA

Fatty Acid

FAME

Fatty Acid Methyl Ester

FFA

Free Fatty Acid

FP

Flash Point

GC

Gas Chromatography

GOI

Government Of India

HC

Hydro Carbon


HCl

Hydrochloric Acid

H3PO

4

Phosphoric Acid

HHV

Higher Heating Value

HSD

High Speed Diesel

IE

Inhibition Efficiency

IEA

International Energy Agency

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change


IR

Infra Red

ISI

Indian Standard Institution

IV

Iodine Value

KCl

Potassium Chloride

KI

Potassium Iodide

KOH

Potassium Hydroxide

M

Molar


MHz


Mega Hertz

Mmpy

Millimetre per year

MT

Million Tons

N

Normality

N

Nitrogen

NaCl

Sodium Chloride

NaOH

Sodium Hydroxide

NFTS

Nitrogen Fixing Trees


NOx

Generic term for Nitric Oxide and Nitrogen Dioxide

NMR

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

O

Oxygen

P

Phosphorus

ppm

Parts per million

P value

Probability Value

RT

Relaxation Time

S


Sulphur

SEM

Scanning Electron Microscope

SV

Saponification Value

TDS

Total Dissolved Solids

US

The United Nation

V/V

Volume/Volume

WEO

Waste Edible oil


INTRODUCTION
1.1. Energy

Energy is the most fundamental requirement for human existence and
activities. It is our most essential resource without which life would cease. In India,
the concept of energy as “Shakthi” has been almost at the focus of philosophic,
scientific and metaphysical thought from time immemorial. According to the science
of Physics, Energy means the ability to do work. The laws of thermodynamics
describes that energy can be transformed from one form to the other but can neither be
created nor destroyed, some energy is always dispersed into unavailable form of heat
energy and no spontaneous transformation of energy from one to another form is 100
% efficient.
Energy is an integral component of any socio-economic development for
raising the standard and quality of life. The development of a country depends on the
continuous supply of energy for its conservation. In the globe the energy requirement
is largely met with fossil fuel for various sector such as industry, transport,
agriculture, domestic sector, etc. require energy from sources like wood, coal,
petroleum products, nuclear power, solar and wind (Elamathi et al., 2005; Kumar and
Varunchauhan, 2013). In recent years, there has been a growing debate on availability
of energy in the form of petroleum, liquid natural gas and coal. Most industrialized
countries depend on oil and natural gas for their energy needs (Chopra, 2004).

1.2. Types of Energy Sources
All forms of energy are stored in different forms based on the energy sources
that we use every day. They are non- renewable and renewable energy. Energy
sources are the main driver of economic growth and social development of a country

1


(Obichukwu and Ausaji, 2015). Human energy consumption has grown steadily along
with population and finally reached a stage of extinction (Nayak et al., 2017a).
1.2.1. Non – Renewable Energy

Non- renewable energy is the energy source that we are using up and cannot
recreate in a short period. Once a non-renewable energy source is depleted, it will not
be replaced with in the span of human time scales. Non- renewable energy sources are
taken from the ground as liquids, gases and solids in which crude oil is the only
natural liquid commercial fossil fuel. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are the major
non renewable fossil fuel sources because they were formed over a millions and
millions of years by the action of heat from the Earth’s core and pressure from rock
and soil on the dead plants and animals (Vijalakshmi et al., 2007).
1.2.2. Renewable Energy
Renewable resources are the resources that can be replenished by the
environment over relatively short periods. This type of resource is much more
desirable to use because it can be compensated by the nature. Some examples of
renewable energy sources are solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, geothermal
energy and biomass energy (Nayak et al., 2014). Energy generated by using wind,
tides, solar, geothermal heat and biomass including farm and animal waste as well as
human excreta is also known as non-conventional energy (Nayak et al., 2017b).
The use of renewable energy is not new. Nearly five generations (125 Years)
ago, wood supplied nearly 90% of our energy needs. Due to convenience and low
prices of fossils fuels, wood use has been fallen. Now, the biomass that would
normally present a disposal problem is converted into electricity (Vijayalakshmi et al.,
2007). Combustion of fossil fuels pollutes water, harm plant and animal life, create
toxic wastes and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Global climate changes and

2


geopolitical factors have forced countries to exploit renewable energy resources
(Colsea and Ciocoiu, 2013). Renewable energy resources can avoid these impacts and
risks, can help in conserving fossil resources for future generations and can lessen our
dependence on extraneous sources of oil. The production of bio fuel from renewable

sources decreases cost of production by 60-90% compared to the energy production
from fossil sources (Alex et al., 2016).

1.3. Fossil Fuel
Petroleum and its different products have a dominant role not only in the
overall development of country but also as a source of energy for domestic, industrial,
agricultural, transport service and feed stock for fertilizer, chemical and other
industries. Majority of the world’s energy needs are supplied through petrochemical
sources, coal and natural gases but these sources are finite and at current usage rates
will be consumed shortly (Srivastava and Prasad, 2000). However, the use of these
sources for energy causes climate change leading to various kinds of catastrophes
such as global warming, acid rain, etc (Houghton et al., 2001). In our country the
main source of energy is fossil fuel. About 85% of the sources are consumed by the
industry, transport and residential sectors. India relies heavily on coal for meeting
more than half of its total energy requirement. India ranks 3rd in coal production and
accounts for 100% of the world’s coal reserves. The demand of coal is found to
increase but the source is not sufficient to meet the demand. The single largest source
of energy in India after Coal is Petroleum. India imports about 2/3 of its petroleum
requirements and 70% of its oil requirements from foreign countries every year.
India is sixth in the world in energy demand accounting about 3.5% of world
commercial energy consumption. The transport sector globally is dependent on liquid
fossil fuels. As a result, the world’s demand for crude oil has increased by 751 MT

3


from 2000 to 2014. The last 15 years have seen a drastic increase of 19.6% in
consumption of crude oil (Statistical review of world energy and resources, 2014).
The world is also facing the challenge of gradual degradation of environment due to
the burning of fossil fuels. The global surface temperatures are likely to increase by

1.1˚C to 6.4˚C between 1990 and 2100 (IPCC, 2014).
The transport sector worldwide has considerably increased the fuel
consumption reaching 63 % of the total, especially in the last decade (Carlinia et al.,
2014). Recent research expects that the amount of petrol in the world can be used
merely for next 46 years. Hence, interest in research for an effective substitute for
petroleum diesel is increasing. Currently India produces only 30% of the total
petroleum fuels required for its consumption and the remaining 70% is imported,
which costs about Rs. 80,0000 million per year. It is evident that mixing of 5% of
biodiesel fuel to the present diesel fuel can save Rs.40, 000 million per year (Nantha
Gopal et al., 2014).

1.4. Need for Alternate fuel
Fossil diesel contributes almost 80% of the world’s energy needs
(Ali et al., 2008; Kesari and Rangan, 2010; Huang et al., 2012). Nevertheless the
reservoirs of fossil fuels are depleting rapidly all over the world. Therefore, the
renewable fuels are the best alternative source available for the same. Now a day, due
to limited resources of fossil fuels, rising crude oil prices and increasing concerns for
environment, there has been renewed focus on vegetable oil and animal fats as an
alternative to petroleum fuels (Anbumani and Singh 2010).
India alone requires around 140 million metric tons of diesels per year, out of
which around 40 million metric tons only produced locally. This gap is likely to go up
further as the diesel consumption rate is expected to increase by 14 percent per

4


annum. In order to import diesel, the Government of India spends lot of foreign
exchange equivalent to 2 lakh crore rupees per year, a colossal drain of valuable
foreign exchange (IEA, 1998; Agarwal, 2000).
The total world energy requirement is met 84% by non-renewable energy

and 16% by renewable energy resources (Moghaddam et al., 2015). In the nonrenewable energy contribution, 80% comes from fossil fuels and 4% from nuclear
energy. For the renewable energy supply, 6% comes from clean energy and 10% from
bio energy (Conconi and Crnkovic, 2013; Azad et al., 2015). Bio energy is currently
the largest source of renewable energy (IEA 2014). Diesel engines operating on
biodiesel have lower emissions of carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons,
particulate matter and air toxics than when operated on petroleum-based diesel fuel
(Rodriguez et al., 2014).

1.5. Feasible Alternate energy sources
In this context, fuels of biological origin have drawn a great deal of attention
during the last few decades. Some alternatives are liquid or gaseous forms of biofuel
obtained from different types of biomass. Biomass refers to all plant material and
animal product when pulp, livestock and human waste. Among various biomass
sources, plant oils and fats from bio energy crops have a bright future (Lang et al.,
2001; Sajjadi et al., 2016). An energy crop is a plant domesticated for use in
agriculture and is produced as a low cost and low maintenance harvest to be used to
produce biofuel or directly exploited for its energy content.
1.5.1. Biofuel
Energy is fixed in the universe that cannot be created or destroyed. The
Sun maintains endless source of energy due to constant nuclear reactions in the solar
system. Only the green plant has the power to transform Sun’s energy into potential

5


energy by photosynthesis. Mankind has been using energy from time immemorial by
raising and harvesting plant materials. Plant products like oil, wood, dried leaves and
others have been used as energy sources in developing countries (Solmon, 2007). The
primary products from the plants could be used as food and fuel. Biofuels are
renewable liquid fuels derived from biological raw materials like botafuels and

zoofuels. The biofuel have the potential to improve performance and emission
characteristics of the engine due to more oxygen content (Tomic et al., 2014).
Biofuels are also said to be carbon neutral as the amount of carbon dioxide released
by their combustion is same as absorbed by plants during their growth (Sorate and
Bhale, 2014). Biofuels have been used for years as a way to increase energy selfsufficiency, reduce import costs, and strengthen domestic agricultural development
(Kovarik, 2013; Araujo, 2017). At present biofuel are gaining worldwide acceptance
as a solution for problems of environmental degradation, energy security, restricting
imports, rural employment and agricultural economy (Planning commission, 2003).
Global production of biofuel has been growing rapidly in recent years, rising from
about 18 billion liters in 2000 to 110 billion liters in 2013. It is expected to reach to
140 billion liters by 2018. Current consumption of biofuel globally constitutes about
3.5% of transportation fuels by energy content, and this could expand to about 4% by
2018 (IEA, 2014). Biofuels obtained from edible crops are already being in practice in
transport industry. These biofuel increase the fuel security at the expense of food
security (Nonhebel, 2012). This problem can be solved by using non-edible crops to
produce biofuel.
1.5.2. Biodiesel
Among liquid biofuel, the next possible alternative energy source to fossil fuel
is the vegetable oils, the hydrocarbon class ester which is gaining acceptance in many

6


countries (Ma and Hanna, 1999). Biodiesel obtained from vegetable oils is considered
the most suitable alternative to diesel around the world (Barnwal and Sharma, 2005;
Issariyakul and Dalai, 2014) because their properties are similar to diesel fuel and are
renewable, easily available and environmental friendly (Agarwal and Das, 2001;
Encinar et al., 2002; Ramadhas et al., 2005a). This alternative diesel fuel is termed as
biodiesel. The name bio-diesel was introduced in the United States during 1992 by the
National Soy Diesel Development Board (presently National Bio-diesel Board) which

has pioneered the commercialization of biodiesel in the US (Ramadhas et al., 2004).
In 1994, the Biodiesel Development Board came into existence in India.
Biodiesel has been widely accepted as petro-diesel substitute has the potential
to revolutionize the motor fuel industry because some of its physicochemical
properties, such as cetane number, heat content, viscosity, cloud point and pour point
which are very similar to those of diesel No2 (Fillires et al., 1995; Vicente et al.,
2005). Biodiesel has a very high flash point (300°F), almost 3 times higher than petrodiesel making it one of the safest of all alternative fuels, from a combustibility point.
Biodiesel is a plant derived product hence it contains oxygen in its molecule (up to
10%), that ensures more complete combustion of hydrocarbons and making it a
cleaner burning fuel than petrol and diesel (Sastry et al., 2006).
The biodiesel has the power to harmonize sustainable development, energy
conservation, management, efficiency and environmental preservation. The use of
vegetable oils as alternative fuels had been found around for 100 years ago when the
inventor of the diesel engine Rudolph Diesel, first tested peanut oil (Bobade and
Khyade, 2012a). In 1912, he stated that "the use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may
seem insignificant today. But such oils may in the course of time become as important
as petroleum and the coal tar products of present time." As per his sayings after 100

7


years the usage of biodiesel for vegetable oil has come to usage due to the depletion of
the fossil fuel and the increase demand.
The biodiesel industry chose Rudolf Diesel's birthday to honor him for his
foresight in recognizing the valuable role of vegetable oil based fuel. Rudolf Diesel's
prime model, a single 10 ft (3 m) iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its
own power for the first time in Augsburg, Germany, on August 10, 1893. In
remembrance of this event, August 10 has been declared "International Biodiesel
Day". National Biodiesel Day (US) takes place on March 18, the date of Rudolf
Diesel's birthday. Biodiesel is a proven fuel technology for producing and using

biodiesel has been known for more than 50 years. They have practically no sulfur
content, offer no storage difficulty, carbon dioxide neutral and have excellent
lubrication properties which can be used for spark-ignited engines due to their low
volatility and high cetane number (Goering et al., 1982; Bagby et al., 1987; Scholl
and Sorenson, 1993; Recep et al., 2001). Furthermore, the biodiesel price is nearly 1.5
times greater than the diesel gasoline petroleum price (Uprety et al., 2016; Ali et al.,
2016; Roschat et al., 2016)
World annual petroleum consumption and vegetable oil production is about
4.018 and 0.107 billion tons (Demirbas, 2009). Currently, more than 95% of the world
biodiesel comes from edible oil. Cost of edible oils is very higher than petroleum
diesel and we use edible oils for biodiesel production leads food oil crisis. The above
problem can solve by using cheapest, low cost non edible plant oils (Leung et al.,
2010). Non-edible vegetable oils are not suitable for human food due to the presence
of some toxic components in the oils (Ahmad et al., 2011). Production of biodiesel
from non-edible oils feedstock can overcome the problems of food verse fuel,
environmental and economic issues related to edible vegetable (Gui et al., 2008;

8


Atabani et al., 2013). It is renewable, biodegradable, environmentally friendly, nontoxic, portable, readily available and eco-friendly fuel (Agarwal and Rajamanoharan,
2007; Lapuerta et al., 2008; Singh and Singh, 2010). The Planning Commission,
Government of India, had set up a Committee on Development of Biofuel in 2002.
The committee submitted its report Planning Commission’s ‘Vision 2020’ in April
2003 called for plantation of non-edible oil yielding plants on large areas of waste and
degraded lands in the country (Gupta, 2002).
Chemically, biodiesel is defined as “the mono alkyl esters” of long chain fatty
acids derived from renewable lipid feedstock (Harrington, 1986; Korbitz, 1999; You
et al., 2013; Rahimi et al., 2014; Thliveros et al., 2014; Vijay Kumar et al., 2017).
Vegetable oil can be used directly or mixed with diesel oil to operate a diesel engine.

Several researchers (Forson et al., 2004; Misra and Murthy, 2010; Tziourtzioumis and
Stamatelos, 2017) have tested the use of vegetable oil and diesel blends. Just like
petroleum diesel fuel biodiesel operates in compression ignition engine (Knothe et al.,
1997; Keskin et al., 2008; Lin et al., 2009; Qi et al., 2009; Ghobadian et al., 2009).
Blends up to 20% is normally called as B20 (20% biodiesel with 80% petroleum
diesel fuel) can be used in all diesel equipment and are compatible with most storage
and distribution equipment, requires no engine modification and enhance the engine
life (Mo et al., 2016). Biodiesel is non- toxic, safe to handle and transport because it
is biodegradable. Biodiesel has desirable degradation attributes which degrade more
rapidly than diesel fuel. In general, biodegradability of biodiesel is 4 times faster than
diesel (Dorado et al., 2003; Ramadhas et al., 2004) and degrades within 21 days (Egle
et al., 2007). It can be stored anywhere like petroleum diesel fuel and is quite stable
during long-term storage (Ryan et al., 1984; Knothe and Dunn, 2003; Shiela et al.,
2004).

9