THE UNIVERSITY OF DANANG
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ MINH TÂM

AN INVESTIGATION INTO LOSS AND GAIN
IN THE VIETNAMESE TRANSLATIONAL EQUIVALENTS
OF STYLISTIC DEVICES USED IN THE NOVEL SERIES
“THE LORD OF THE RINGS” BY J. R. R. TOLKIEN

MASTER THESIS IN
LINGUISTICS AND CULTURAL STUDIES OF
FOREIGN COUNTRIES

Da Nang, 2020


THE UNIVERSITY OF DANANG
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ MINH TÂM

AN INVESTIGATION INTO LOSS AND GAIN
IN THE VIETNAMESE TRANSLATIONAL EQUIVALENTS
OF STYLISTIC DEVICES USED IN THE NOVEL SERIES
“THE LORD OF THE RINGS” BY J. R. R. TOLKIEN
Major: ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
Code: 822 02 01

MASTER THESIS IN
LINGUISTICS AND CULTURAL STUDIES OF

FOREIGN COUNTRIES

SUPERVISOR: Assoc. Prof. Dr. NGUYỄN THỊ QUỲNH HOA

Da Nang, 2020


i


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ABSTRACT
Thanks to their special capability to express meaning, stylistic devices play
an important role in the success of the novel series The Lord of The Rings. Tolkien‟s
writing style, especially, using stylistic devices effectively and skillfully contributes
to the success of the novel. The aim of this study is to identify lexical stylistic
devices and syntactical stylistic devices in the novel series The Lord of The Rings
and investigate loss and gain in terms of lexis, structure, and meaning in their
Vietnamese translational equivalents. Based on Galperin's theory of stylistic
devices, the study discovers that the lexical stylistic devices employed include
simile, repetition, metaphor, and personification, whereas the rhetorical question is
the only syntactical stylistic device found. The data of the study collected from this
novel were quoted, described and analyzed on the stylistic aspects under qualitative
and quantitative approaches. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that due to the
differences between the two languages, loss and gain phenomena are unavoidable
especially when stylistic devices in the novel series The Lord of The Rings were
translated into Vietnamese. Based on the translation shift theory of Catford, 150
samples of loss and gain were examined to identify occurrences of translation shifts.
Therefore, this thesis is carried out to point out and analyze these phenomena with

the hope of making a minor contribution to the teaching and learning stylistic
devices, especially to English-Vietnamese translation.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ...................................................................... i
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................iii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................. vi
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. vii
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... viii
Chapter One. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1
1.1. RATIONALE .................................................................................................. 1
1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. 3
1.2.1. Aims ..................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2. Objectives ............................................................................................ 3
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................. 3
1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 4
1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................................. 4
1.6. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY ............................................................... 4
Chapter

Two.

LITERATURE

REVIEW


AND

THEORETICAL

BACKGROUND ................................................................................................... 6
2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 6
2.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ................................................................. 9
2.2.1. Definition of Stylistic Devices .............................................................. 9
2.2.2. Functions of Stylistic Devices ............................................................ 10
2.2.3. Classification of Stylistic Devices ...................................................... 11
2.2.4. Related Translation Issues .................................................................. 19
2.2.5. Loss and Gain in Translation .............................................................. 24
2.3. THE NOVEL SERIES TLTR ......................................................................... 26
2.3.1. An Overview of the Novel Series TLTR ............................................. 27
2.3.2. The Vietnamese Translational Version of TLTR ................................. 28


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2.4. SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 29
Chapter Three. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................ 30
3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................... 30
3.2. RESEARCH METHODS .............................................................................. 30
3.3. DATA COLLECTION .................................................................................. 30
3.3.1. Samples .............................................................................................. 30
3.3.2. Sampling criteria ................................................................................ 31
3.4. DATA ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 31
3.5. RESEARCH PROCEDURE .......................................................................... 32
3.6. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ................................................................. 32
Chapter Four. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ................................................ 33

4.1. STYLISTIC DEVICES IN THE NOVEL SERIES TLTR .............................. 33
4.1.1. Lexical SDs ........................................................................................ 33
4.1.2. Syntactical SDs .................................................................................. 47
4.1.3. Frequency of Occurrences of SDs in the novel series TLTR ................ 51
4.2. LOSS IN THE VIETNAMESE TRANSLATIONAL VERSION OF
STYLISTIC DEVICES USED IN THE NOVEL SERIES TLTR .......................... 52
4.2.1. Loss in Lexis ...................................................................................... 53
4.2.2. Loss in Structure ................................................................................ 57
4.2.3. Loss in Meaning ................................................................................. 58
4.2.4. Frequency of loss in the Vietnamese translation used in TLTR ........... 59
4.3. GAIN IN THE VIETNAMESE TRANSLATIONAL VERSION OF
STYLISTIC DEVICES USED IN THE NOVEL SERIES TLTR .......................... 60
4.3.1. Gain in Lexis ...................................................................................... 60
4.3.2. Gain in Structure ................................................................................ 67
4.3.3. Gain in Meaning ................................................................................. 70
4.3.4. Frequency of gain in the Vietnamese translation used in TLTR ........... 71
4.4. SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 72
Chapter Five.CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS .................................. 73


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5.1. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................... 73
5.2. IMPLICATIONS ........................................................................................... 74
5.2.1. For teaching and learning of SDs ........................................................ 74
5.2.2. For translating SDs ............................................................................. 75
5.3. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ................................................................. 77
5.4. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................ 77
REFERENCES
APPENDIX

QUYẾT ĐỊNH GIAO ĐỀ TÀI (Bản sao)


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Adj

Adjective

Art

Article

Aux

Auxiliary

N

Noun

NP

Noun phrase

Prep

Preposition


S

Subject

SD

Stylistic device

SDs

Stylistic devices

SL

Source Language

TL

Target Language

TLTR

The Lord of The Rings

V

Verb


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LIST OF TABLES

Table

Name of Tables

Page

4.1.

Frequency of Occurrences of SDs in the novel series TLTR

51

4.2.

Samples and percentage of loss in the Vietnamese translation

59

4.3.

Samples and percentage of gain in the Vietnamese translation

71


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Name of Figures

Page

4.1.

Percentage of Occurrences of SDs in the novel series TLTR

52

4.2.

Percentage of loss in translating SDs

60

4.3.

Percentage of gain in translating SDs

72


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Chapter One

INTRODUCTION
1.1. RATIONALE
In general, translation plays the role of connecting all languages around the
world. Translation, one of the oldest occupations in the world, is considered as a
bridge of mutual understanding among people who do not use the same language.
Most areas such as construction, health, finance, tourism ... use specialized
documents both in Vietnamese and foreign languages. With the trend of
international economic integration, translation services for business and cultural
exchange are extremely essential. That is the reason why it has become an
interesting field that attracts many linguists and translators. Unfortunately, we often
tend to ignore or refuse to realize its true importance.
Our life would be very different without translation. It enriches human life
by making it possible to communicate and share information across language
borders. Translation is the bridge connecting people, who do not have the same
languages, can understand each other and is considered one of the oldest
occupations in the world. Its achievement is undoubtedly invaluable sources to
broaden the knowledge of human beings through times.
Especially, translation brings stories closer to people. However, it can be
said that translation of novels is not easy because translation is not merely a
linguistic process. Translating novels can be considered as one of the most difficult
jobs in terms of language. It requires not only high accuracy but also high
consistency in terms of content, style, words and expressions, as well as a broad
cultural understanding.
The Lord of the Rings (TLTR) is an outstanding novel by English writer J. R.
R. Tolkien. Three parts of TLTR were published between 1954 and 1955. The
Fellowship of the Ring (July 29, 1954) is the first; the second volume is The Two
Towers (November 11, 1954) and the last one is The Return of the King (October
20, 1955). In Vietnam, Literature publisher associated with Nhã Nam Company to



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publish Chúa tể của những chiếc nhẫn in 2018. It consists of three volumes (Đồn
Hộ Nhẫn; Hai Tịa Tháp và Nhà Vua Trở Về) by translators Nguyễn Thị Thu Yến,
Đặng Trần Việt, Tâm Thủy and An Lý. They are the first translations in Viet Nam
and bring a lot of success and that is the reason why they are selected for this
research.
The plot of the novel series TLTR is about the war of the peoples of the
Middle-earth against a dark lord (who is the Lord of the Rings). The story brings
many valuable lessons to everyone. However, it is not easy to understand the
meaning of the novel series TLTR because this requires understanding all SDs that
J. R. R. Tolkien used. When translated into Vietnamese, the translational version
cannot help avoiding loss and gain phenomena, especially elaborate lexical,
meaning and syntactic features of the phenomena of loss and gain in their
translation of SDs.
Let us consider the following examples:
(1.1a) We didn‟t mean no harm, but they jump on us like cats on poor mice,
they did, precious. (Tolkien, 1954, p.801)
(1.1b) Bọn ta đâu có ý xấu, vậy mà họ nhảy lên bọn ta như mèo vồ chuột,
họ làm vậy đấy, bảo bối à. (Đặng Trần Việt, 2018, p.282)
It can be clearly seen that simile is used in the above example. In the English
sentence, we can see an adjective “poor” standing before a noun “mice”. On the
other side, in the Vietnamese translational sentence, we just see the noun “mice”,
there is no adjective following before the noun, but it is still easy for us to
understand the original sentence so it leads to loss phenomenon. The reduction does
not affect the readers‟ comprehension of the original.
The gain phenomenon likewise appears frequently in the novel series TLTR.
(1.2a) The art of Gandalf improved with age. There were rockets like a
flight of scintillating birds singing with sweet voices. There were green trees with
trunks of dark smoke: their leaves opened like a whole spring unfolding in a

moment. (Tolkien, 1954, p.35)


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(1.2b) Ngón nghề của Gandalf càng già càng nhuyễn. Có những chùm hỏa
tiễn như bầy chim lấp lánh ca hát bằng giọng du dương. Có những cái cây xanh
rờn thân tuyền khói đen; lá xịe ra như cả mùa xn trọn vẹn trải ra trong nháy mắt.
(Nguyễn Thị Thu Yến & Đặng Trần Việt, 2018, p.33).
It can be seen that simile is used in the above example. The word “rockets”
are translated “những chùm hỏa tiển” in the Vietnamese translational sentence.
The word “chùm” is added before the noun “rockets”, which makes gain
phenomenon in the Vietnamese translational version.
With a passion in literature and a deep interest in doing research in the area
of translation, I would like to carry out a research project entitled “An Investigation
into Loss and Gain in the Vietnamese Translational Equivalents of Stylistic
Devices Used in the Novel Series the Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien”. It is
hoped that this piece of work can provide a better insight into the process of
translating the SDs from English into Vietnamese.

1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
1.2.1. Aims
The aim of this study is to identify SDs manifested in the novel series TLTR
and to investigate loss and gain in the Vietnamese translation of the SDs used in the
novel series TLTR. The study is also expected to help Vietnamese learners of
English have a better insight relating to loss and gain in English – Vietnamese
translation, especially in translated versions of literary texts.
1.2.2. Objectives
For the above aim to be achieved, the following objectives are set:
- To identify SDs in the novel series TLTR were transferred into Vietnamese.

- To figure out types of loss and gain in the Vietnamese translational
equivalents of SDs used in the novel series TLTR.

1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In order to achieve the aims and objectives of the study, the following
questions are set:


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1. What SDs are employed in the novel series TLTR?
2. How is loss demonstrated in the Vietnamese translational equivalents of
the SDs in the novel series TLTR?
3. How is gain demonstrated in the Vietnamese translational equivalents of
the SDs in the novel series TLTR?

1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
In this study, the researcher investigates the loss and gain phenomena shown
in the Vietnamese translation of the SDs in the novel series TLTR which were
translated by translators Nguyễn Thị Thu Yến & Đặng Trần Việt (Part I The
Fellowship of the Ring - Đoàn Hộ Nhẫn); Đặng Trần Việt (Part II The Two Towers Hai Tòa Tháp) and Tâm Thủy & An Lý (Part III The Return of the King - Nhà Vua
Trở Về). They are the first and only translation to appear in Viet Nam. Within the
scope of the study, the thesis examines the loss and gain in terms of lexis, structure
and meaning.

1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
By investigating the loss and gain phenomena shown in the Vietnamese
translation of the SDs in the novel series TLTR which were translated by translators
Nguyễn Thị Thu Yến & Đặng Trần Việt (Part I The Fellowship of the Ring - Đoàn
Hộ Nhẫn); Đặng Trần Việt (Part II The Two Towers - Hai Tòa Tháp) and Tâm Thủy

& An Lý (Part III The Return of the King - Nhà Vua Trở Về), the researcher, to
some extent, hopes to contribute to the understanding of loss and gain phenomena
in translation.
The study can be a useful document for translators to understand more about
the differences between the original English novel and the Vietnamese translated
version in general, understand the inevitable problem of loss and gain when
translating SDs in particular.

1.6. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This thesis is composed of five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1, “Introduction”, mentions the rationale, aims and objectives, and


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the significance of the study.
Chapter 2, “Literature Review and Theoretical Background”, presents the
previous researchers related to SDs and loss and gain in translation process of SDs.
Theoretical matters relates to the study such as SDs, definition of translation, loss
and gain in translation and the overview of the novel series TLTR.
Chapter 3, “Research Methodology”, states the methods and the procedures
of the research. This chapter also offers the description of samples and how the data
are collected, described and analyzed.
Chapter 4, “Findings and Discussion”, is the main section of the study
which seeks and analyzes the SDs used in the novel series TLTR and loss and gain
in the translation process of the stylistics in the Vietnamese version.
Chapter 5, “Conclusions and Implications” – is intended for the summary of
the development of the study and a brief re-statement of the findings. It also
suggests implications for learning, teaching and translating SDs in English and
Vietnamese. It points out the limitations and puts forward some suggestions for

further research.


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Chapter Two
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW
In this section, a review of literature on previous studies relating to SDs as
well as translation will be covered.
Up to now, there have been a number of studies relating to SDs used in
language conducted by a lot of English and Vietnamese researchers. Many linguists
such as Galperin (1977), Vendonk (2003) and Simpson (2004) have done a lot of
researches on linguistics including SDs to find out their semantic, syntactic as well
as pragmatic features, especially their positive effect.
As Galperin (1977: 29) concludes, “Stylistic device (SD) is a conscious and
intentional literary use of some of the fact of the language (including expressive
means) of the language forms are raised to a generalized level and thereby present a
generative model”.
SDs are the use of language in a specific way in a linguistic unit (in terms of
words, sentences and texts) in a certain context in order to increase the image's
appeal, attractiveness in expression and impress with readers about an image, an
emotion, or a story.
Besides, in Stylistics, Vendonk (2003) mentioned the study of style in
language. It examined how style was used in literary and non-literary texts, and how
familiarity with style was a matter of socialization. Also, the author discussed the
relationship between text and discourse, the production and reception of meaning as
a dynamic contextualized interaction, the question of perspective and the variable
representation of reality, and how stylistics can complement literary criticism.
Furthermore, in Stylistics, Simpson (2004) stated that to do stylistics is to

explore language, and more specially, to explore creativity in language use. Doing
stylistics thereby enriches our ways of thinking about language and, as observed:
exploring language offers a substantial purchase on our understanding of texts.
In Vietnam, there have been a number of linguists studied and interested in


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SDs such as Đinh Trọng Lạc (1998), Cù Đình Tú (2001) and Nguyễn Thái Hòa
(1997). In the books entitled “Dẫn luận phong cách học” by Nguyễn Thái Hòa
(1997) and “Phong cách học Tiếng Việt” by Đinh Trọng Lạc and Nguyễn Thái Hòa
(1998), a clear definition of SD in Vietnames is pointed out and the authors also list
a range of various SDs. Especially, according to Đinh Trọng Lạc (1998), he gave a
detailed presentation of different SDs and each SD with its own definition, function
and classification. Cù Đình Tú (2001) added more about SDs on his work “Phong
cách học và đặc điểm tu từ Tiếng Việt.”
Also, in Giáo trình lí luận văn học, by a group of Vietnamese linguists such
as Trần Đình Sử, Phan Huy Dung, La Khắc Hòa, Phùng Ngọc Khiêm and Lê Lưu
Oanh (2007), a clear definition of SDs is pointed out. They found that the artistic
measure of literary writing is a way of using words to build artistic images,
expressing the concept of life.
The activity of translation has played a tremendous importance in English
language. It has become interesting domain that attracts many linguists and
translators such as Bassnett (1980); Hatim and Mason (1990). The issue of
translation has been researched for a long time.
Translation is considered as a process through which the translator decodes
the source language (SL) and encodes his understanding of the target language
(TL). Translation also denotes both the process of transferring a text from one
language into another and the product resulting from this process.
As for the foreign studies, Hatim and Mason (1990:1) conclude, “Translation

is useful text case for examining the whole issue of the role of language in social
life”. They also analyzed the relation between translation and other factors that
related to translating process such as context, structure and pragmatics. By doing
that, the authors wanted to provide learners and translators with the basic
knowledge in doing translation.
In Translation Studies, as Bassnett (1988: 30) concludes, “ One principle that
when the sameness connot exist between the two languages during the process of


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translation, the question of loss and gain in translation is inevitable”.
In Viet Nam, in the books entitled Mất mát trong dịch thuật, Nguyễn
Thượng Hùng (2006) presented the absence of any factors in stylistics of a language
in comparison with the other language is a problem, which seems inevitable in
translation.
Moreover, there have been some studies in relation to the research of the
issues in the area of translation such as Trần Thị Mai Lê (2011) discussed loss
and gain of meaning in the Vietnamese translational version of The World is Flat
by Thomas L. Friedman and Nguyễn Thị Lành (2015) carried out the thesis with
the title “An Investigation into Stylistic Device in Perfect Spy by Larry Berman
and their Vietnamese Translational Equivalents” to find out the SDs such as
simile and metaphor as well as the ways to transfer these SDs in the Vietnamese
version. Recently, relating Trịnh Cơng Sơn‟s songs, Hồ Thị Hồi Nhân (2014)
conducted “An Investigation into Loss and Gain in Vietnamese-English
Translational Versions of Trịnh Công Sơn‟s Songs”. The study focused on the
loss and gain phenomena manifested in the English translational songs of the
talented composer-Trịnh Công Sơn as well as added the voice to the variety of
loss and gain in translation. Lê Thị Oanh (2015) studied on loss and gain in
meaning in the English translations of cognitive metaphors expressing the notion

of “self” in Trinh Công Sơn‟ songs. The thesis was conducted with the aim to
examine cognitive metaphors expressing the notion of self and loss and gain in
meaning in English translations of the cognitive metaphors of self in Trinh Cong
Son‟s songs.
In summary, most of the previous studies, in both English and Vietnamese,
there is no study that has a concern on loss and gain in the Vietnamese translation of
SDs used in the novel series TLTR by Tolkien. This thesis is expected to give a
partial contribution to further research relating to loss and gain in translation of
SDs, especially in English – Vietnamese translation.


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2.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.2.1. Definition of Stylistic Devices
SDs are also called rhetorical devices or figures of speech. In speaking and
writing, in addition to common language uses, language can be used in a special
way called SDs. Rhetorical devices are special ways of combining language in a
specific context in order to create an impression of an image, emotion and attitudes.
Using correct rhetorical device will create special values in expression. That is the
reason why many linguists and researchers are interested in SDs and they
discovered them in their own ways. It also means that there is a variety of
definitions of SDs.
As Galperin (1977: 62) concludes, “SD is an abstract partner, a mould into
which any content can be poured. As is known, the typical is not only that which is
frequent use, but that also which reveals the essence of a phenomenon with the
greatest and most evident force”.
Also, Kramsch (1998: 22) concludes, “A stylistic use of a language unit
acquires what we call a stylistic meaning, and a SD is the realization of an already
well-known abstract scheme designed to achieve a particular artistic effect.”

In Vietnam, in 99 phương tiện và biện pháp tu từ Tiếng Việt, Đinh Trọng Lạc
(1996) showed that the SDs are the languages in which they always carry some kind
of additional information, either emotive or logical.
SDs refer to any of a variety of techniques to give an additional and/or
supplemental meaning, idea, or feeling. Also known as figures of speech or rhetorical
devices, the goal of these techniques is to create imagery, emphasis, or clarity within a
text in hopes of engaging the reader.
The birth of SDs is a natural process in the development of language media.
Language units which are used with more or less definite aims of communication in
various passages of writing and in various functional styles gradually begin to develop
new features, a wider range of functions, thus causing polyfunctionality.
To conclude, SDs are used intentionally to express language user‟s deep


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thoughts, make the written texts more effective and persuasive. SDs or rhetorical
devices can be defined as distinctive linguistic expressions to serve their own purposes
and create certain artistic effects on listeners or readers. In this thesis, the definitions of
SDs given by Galperin are chosen as the theoretical background of this study.
2.2.2. Functions of Stylistic Devices
SDs are considered as distinctive linguistic expressions which make writing
more effective, persuasive and successful for various purposes. As Bazerman (2000:
39) concludes, “the basic function of rhetoric is the use of words by human agents
to form attitudes or to include actions in other human agents” and “It is rooted in the
essential function of language itself, a function which is wholly realistic, and is
continually born a new”.
According to Galperin (1977), in detail, SDs can help:
- To emphasize and highlight an attitude or opinion
- To amuse or entertain the reader

- To impress someone‟s position or situation on someone
- To criticize or satirize the issue that the writer mentions
- To make a train of thought more obvious to the audience
- To awaken the understanding, sympathy and pity for someone‟s situation
- To make remarks statements vivid and unforgettable
- To make something clear and understandable to the audience
In this flow of thinking, it is very essential to say that SDs are the means to
beautify the writer‟s intention. However, if used carelessly or excessively or too
frequently, almost any one of these devices probably seems to be affected, they will
make artistic works unnatural or mechanical. Meanwwhile, if stylistic devices are
used in the appropriate way, they will make the reader think as well as catch the
audience‟s attention to writer‟s works.
To sum up, SDs or rhetorical devices are used in writing to make it more
effective and persuasive. In our study, many problems related to functions of SDs
are based on the theory of Galperin.


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2.2.3. Classification of Stylistic Devices
According to Galperin (1977), SDs are divided into three kinds based on
their specific features and functions: phonetic, lexical and syntactical SDs.
2.2.3.1. Phonetic Stylistic Devices
The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and
sense (Galperin, 1977). The way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds will have
little or no aesthetic value if it is taken separately effect. The way a separating word
sounds may produce a certain euphonic impression, but this is a matter of individual
perception and feeling and therefore, subjective.
The stylistic approach to the utterance is confined to the way a word, a
phrase or a sentence sounds. The sound of most words taken separately will have

little or no aesthetic value. It is in combination with other words that a word may
acquire a desired phonetic effect.
2.2.3.2. Lexical Stylistic Devices
The main function of the word is to denote the objects, people, the action or
states of being, etc. Thus, the denotative meaning is the major semantic
characteristic of the word. Besides, the word in context may acquire additional
lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries. The interrelation between two types of
lexical meaning – dictionary and contextual ones is called “transferred meaning”.
Related to contextual logical meanings, the lexical SDs are divided into the
following types:
a. Simile
There are some simile‟s definitions both in English and Vietnamese.
Simile is the comparison between two objects of different kinds which have
at least one common point.
According to Galerin (1977), simile is a comparison between two different
things that resemble each other in at least one way. In formal prose, the simile is a
device both of art and explanation comparing an unfamiliar thing (an object, event,
process, etc.) knows to the reader.


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A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two unlike things. To make
the comparison, similes most often use the connecting words "like" or "as," but can
also use other words that indicate an explicit comparison. Other possibilities are:
A is (not) like B
A is more/less than B
A is as… as B
A is similar to B
A is…, so is B

A does …, so does B
Let us consider these examples
Life is just like an ice-cream, enjoy it before it melts.
(Rike Apriliani, 1896, p.68 )
I wandered lonely as a cloud
(William Wordsworth, 1804, p.34)
In 99 phương tiện và biện pháp Tu từ Tiếng Việt Đinh Trọng Lạc (1996: 68)
concludes, “So sánh tu từ hay cịn gọi là so sánh hình ảnh, là một biện pháp tu từ ngữ
nghĩa, trong đó người ta đối chiếu hai đối tượng khác loại của thực thể khách quan
không đồng nhất với nhau hồn tồn mà chỉ có một nét giống nhau nào đó nhằm diễn
tả bằng hình ảnh một lối tri giác mới mẻ về đối tượng.” (Simile, also called figurative
comparison, it is a kind of semantic trope in two different unentirely homogeneous
classes of thing in the objective reality were compared to express figuratively a new
way of perception about thing compared).
As Cù Đình Tú (2001: 259) concludes, “ So sánh tu từ là phương pháp biểu hiện
ý tưởng rõ ràng, cụ thể, sinh động”. (Simile is a way to express an idea clearly,
concretely and lively).
Example:
“Tình anh như nước dâng cao
Tình em như dải lụa đào tẩm hương”
(Ca dao)


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Simile increases the attractiveness for the mentioned things, make the
sentence more vivid and interesting. The simile also evokes our imagination so in
poetry there are many similes.
Let‟s analyze the following example:
“Mặt trời xuống biển như hịn lửa,

Sóng đã cài then đêm sập cửa
Đoàn thuyền đánh cá lại ra khơi”
(Huy Cận)
The poet cleverly used vivid images “mặt trời”, “biển” and “hòn lửa” in
combination with simile to create a scene that is turning into night. The comparison
image “như hòn lửa” in the verse helps readers to imagine the magnificence of the
sunset.
b. Repetition
Repetition is a SD that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to
make an idea clearer and more memorable. There are several types of repetition
commonly used in both prose and poetry. As a rhetorical device, it could be a word,
a phrase, or a full sentence, or a poetical line repeated to emphasize its significance
in the entire text.
Galperin (1977: 211) asserted:
Repetition is also one of the devices having its origin in the emotive language. Repetition
when applied to the logical language simply an instrument of grammar. Its origin is to be
seen in the excitement accompanying the expression of a feeling being brought to its
highest tension.

Let us have a look at the following example:
She said she knew I could feed it on what other folks eats; and the child
kinder pined and cried, and cried, and cried, day and night, and got all gone to skin
and bones, and missis got sot again it, and she said‟ twan‟t nothing‟ but crossness.
(Stowe, 1852, p.202)
In this example, it can be clearly seen that the writer used “and cry” three
times in an utterance to portray the image of a poor child. Living in poor condition,
he is nothing but skin and bone and that is the reason why he cries and cries and


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cries day and night.
Repetition can be regarded as the typical SD in speeches. It is also resorted to
in order to persuade the audience, to add weight to the speaker‟s opinion.
Repetition used as a SD aims at emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the
reader on the key-word of the utterance. Repetition is classified according to
compositional patterns: anaphora, epiphora, chain repetition, or anadiplosis.
When writers use repetition as a SD, it not only aims at making a direct
emotional impact on readers but also aims at logical emphasis, an emphasis
necessary to fix the reader‟s attention on the key word of the utterance.
As Lê Bá Hán (2007: 40) concludes, “Điệp ngữ là một hình thức tu từ có đặc
điểm: một từ, cụm từ, câu hoặc đoạn thơ văn được lặp lại với dụng ý nhấn mạnh
hoặc gây ấn tượng cho người đọc, người nghe”. (Repetition is a rhetorical form is
characterized by: a word, phrase, sentence or verse text is repeated with emphasis or
intended to impress the reader, the listener).
Let us have a look at the following example:
“Chị vẫn tin chữ hợp cuối trang Kiều
Hoa mai nở hai lần hoa có hậu
Chị vẫn tin có mùa thu xanh đền cho cuốc kêu tháng sáu
Vẫn tin có ngày hái quả cho anh”
(Hữu Thỉnh)
Those are the verses in "Tờ lịch cuối cùng". The words "vẫn tin" repeats
three times in order to emphasize her belief in a gathering day. In the previous two
repetitions, we also see the subject “chị” before “vẫn tin”. However, by the third
repetition, the author omits the subject “chị” to increase the emphasis again. It is an
expression of flexibility in using repetition.
c. Metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech that says that one thing is another different
thing.
Many linguists and researchers in the world and in Vietnam have given a

numerous definitions of metaphor.


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As Galperin (1977: 136) concludes, “A metaphor is a relation between the
dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of
certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts”.
Metaphor compares two different things in a figurative sense. Unlike in a
simile (A is like B), like and as is not used in metaphor (A is B), a metaphor is a
relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the
similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts.
In Giáo trình ngơn ngữ học, Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2008: 319) concludes, “Ẩn
dụ là sự chuyển đổi tên gọi dựa vào sự giống nhau giữa các sự vật, hiện tượng được
so sánh với nhau”. (Metaphor is a transformation of names based on similarities
between things, phenomena being compared to each other).
Metaphors can be considered as a way of comparison, but if considering
metaphor and simile as two stylistic devices in the language, metaphor and simile
have a noticeable difference. Metaphor is different from logic comparison, a device
focusing on the aspects of comparison directly, simply in order to find out the
likeness between objects in the same class. Logic comparison seems to be a very
simple rhetorical device that draws less attention from the language users.
Metaphor, in contrast to logic comparison, carries more affirmative characteristic in
comparing to simile; when focusing on a certain aspect of comparison, it requires a
higher level of cognitive competence. Let us consider the example below:
I had a father – one of your Kentucky gentlemen – who didn‟t think enough
ofme to keep me from being sold with his dogs and horses, to satisfy the estate,
when he died. (Stowe, 1852, p.104)
“Kentucky gentlemen” in the above example is a metaphor which refers to
the people who have high power and position in Kentucky. George‟s father is one of

“Kentucky gentlemen”, which means that his father is very rich and his powerful
influence spreads over the regions in Kentucky. In this situation, he use this
metaphor to say of his father of high social standing. Nevertheless, it was his father
that did not think enough of him to keep him from being sold with his dogs and