20

19

Francium
(223)

Fr

87

Cesium
132.9055

Cs

55

Rubidium
85.4678

Rb

37

Potassium
39.0983

57

89

Radium
(226)

Actinium
(227)

Ac

88

Ra

Lanthanum
138.9055

Barium
137.327

La

56

Ba

Yttrium
88.9058

Strontium

87.62

H

Li Be
Na Mg
K Ca Sc
Rb Sr Y
Cs Ba La
Fr Ra Ac

Ti
Zr
Hf
Rf

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Th Pa U Np Pu AmCm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

He
B C N O F Ne
Al Si P S Cl Ar
V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg — — — — —
—


6B
(6)

7B
(7)

Thorium
232.0381

Th

90

Cerium
140.116

58

Ce

Dubnium
(268)

105

Db

Tantalum
180.9479


73

Ta

Niobium
92.9064

41

Nb

Vanadium
50.9415

V

23

43

Tc

Manganese
54.9380

25

Mn

8B

(8)

92

91

61

Pm

Hassium
(277)

108

Hs

Osmium
190.23

76

Os

Ruthenium
101.07

44

Ru


Iron
55.845

26

Fe

Protactinium
231.0359

Pa

Uranium
238.0289

U

8B
(9)
8B
(10)

1B
(11)

2B
(12)

47


111

Rg

110

Ds

Gold
196.9666

79

Au

Silver
107.8682

Platinum
195.084

78

Pt

Palladium
106.42

Ag


46

Pd

Copper
63.546

29

Cu

Nickel
58.6934

28

Ni

Plutonium
(244)

94

Pu

Samarium
150.36

62


Sm

96
Americium
(243)

Curium
(247)

Cm

95

Am

Gadolinium
157.25

64

Gd
Europium
151.964

63

Eu

Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium

(281)
(280)
(276)

109

Mt

Iridium
192.217

77

Ir

Rhodium
102.9055

45

Rh

Cobalt
58.9332

27

Co

Berkelium

(247)

97

Bk

Terbium
158.9254

65

Tb

—
(285)

112

—

Mercury
200.59

80

Hg

Cadmium
112.411


48

Cd

Zinc
65.38

30

Zn

Californium
(251)

98

Cf

Dysprosium
162.500

66

Dy

—
(284)

113


—

Thallium
204.3833

81

Tl

Indium
114.818

49

In

Gallium
69.723

31

Ga

Aluminum
26.9815

Einsteinium
(252)

99


Es

Holmium
164.9303

67

Ho

—
(287)

114

—

Lead
207.2

82

Pb

Tin
118.710

50

Sn


Germanium
72.64

32

Ge

Silicon
28.0855

Fermium
(257)

100

Fm

Erbium
167.259

68

Er

—
(288)

115


—

Bismuth
208.9804

83

Bi

Antimony
121.760

51

Sb

Arsenic
74.9216

33

As

Phosphorus
30.9738

P

15


Nitrogen
14.0067

7

N

5A
(15)

Mendelevium
(258)

101

Md

Thulium
168.9342

69

Tm

—
(293)

116

—


Polonium
(209)

84

Po

Tellurium
127.60

52

Te

Selenium
78.96

34

Se

Sulfur
32.065

S

16

Oxygen

15.9994

8

O

6A
(16)

36

Nobelium
(259)

102

No

Ytterbium
173.054

70

Yb

Astatine
(210)

85


At

Iodine
126.9045

I

53

Bromine
79.904

Lr

Lawrencium
(262)

103

Lutetium
174.9668

71

Lu

—
(294)

118


—

Radon
(222)

86

Rn

Xenon
131.293

54

Xe

Krypton
83.798

Kr

35

Br

Argon
39.948

18


Ar

Neon
20.1797

10

Ne

Helium
4.0026

He

2

8A
(18)

Chlorine
35.453

17

Cl

Fluorine
18.9984


9

F

7A
(17)

Elements for which the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has officially
sanctioned the discovery and approved a name are indicated by their chemical symbols in this
table. Elements that have been reported in the literature but not yet officially sanctioned and
named are indicated by atomic number. The name copernicium was proposed for element 112
in July 2009, but at that time this name had not been officially accepted by IUPAC.

Neptunium
(237)

93

Np

Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium
140.9076
144.242
(145)

Nd

60

Bohrium

(272)

107

Bh

Rhenium
186.207

75

Re

Pr

59

Seaborgium
(271)

106

Sg

Tungsten
183.84

74

W


Molybdenum Technetium
95.96
(98)

42

Mo

Chromium
51.9961

24

Cr

This icon appears throughout the
book to help locate elements of
interest in the periodic table. The
halogen group is shown here.

Actinides 7

Lanthanides 6

Rutherfordium
(267)

Rf


104

Hafnium
178.49

72

Hf

Zirconium
91.224

Zr

40

Y

39

38

Sr

Titanium
47.867

22

Ti


Scandium
44.9559

21

Sc

Calcium
40.078

Ca

Magnesium
24.3050

K

5B
(5)

14

Si

13

Al

12


Mg

Carbon
12.0107

Boron
10.811

6

C

4A
(14)

Beryllium
9.0122

B

5

Be

4

4B
(4)


Nonmetals, noble gases

Metalloids

3A
(13)

3B
(3)

An element

Transition metals

Main group metals

2A
(2)

Sodium
22.9898

Na

11

Lithium
6.941

Li


3

1A
(1)

Numbers in parentheses are mass
numbers of radioactive isotopes.

7

6

5

4

3

2

H

Hydrogen
1.0079

Atomic number
Symbol
Name
Atomic weight


7

6

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

3:40 PM

Group number,
IUPAC system

1

Au

Gold
196.9665


79

1/28/10

Group number,
U.S. system

Period
number

1

KEY

PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

FES.qxd
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3:40 PM

Page 3

Standard Atomic Weights

of the Elements 2009, IUPAC
Name
Actinium2
Aluminum
Americium2
Antimony
Argon
Arsenic
Astatine2
Barium
Berkelium2
Beryllium
Bismuth
Bohrium2
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Californium2
Carbon
Cerium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Curium2
Darmstadtium2
Dubnium2
Dysprosium

Einsteinium2
Erbium
Europium
Fermium2
Fluorine
Francium2
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Hassium2
Helium
Holmium
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
Krypton
Lanthanum
Lawrencium2
Lead
Lithium
Lutetium
Magnesium
Manganese
Meitnerium2
Mendelevium2
Mercury


Symbol

Atomic
Number

Ac
Al
Am
Sb
Ar
As
At
Ba
Bk
Be
Bi
Bh
B
Br
Cd
Ca
Cf
C
Ce
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu

Cm
Ds
Db
Dy
Es
Er
Eu
Fm
F
Fr
Gd
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
Hs
He
Ho
H
In
I
Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Lr
Pb
Li
Lu
Mg

Mn
Mt
Md
Hg

89
13
95
51
18
33
85
56
97
4
83
107
5
35
48
20
98
6
58
55
17
24
27
29
96

110
105
66
99
68
63
100
9
87
64
31
32
79
72
108
2
67
1
49
53
77
26
36
57
103
82
3
71
12
25

109
101
80

Based on Relative Atomic Mass of

C ϭ 12, where

12

in its nuclear and electronic ground state.1

Atomic
Weight
(227)
26.981 5386(8)
(243)
121.760(1)
39.948(1)
74.921 60(2)
(210)
137.327(7)
(247)
9.012 182(3)
208.980 40(1)
(272)
10.811(7)
79.904(1)
112.411(8)
40.078(4)

(251)
12.0107(8)
140.116(1)
132.905 4519(2)
35.453(2)
51.9961(6)
58.933 195(5)
63.546(3)
(247)
(281)
(268)
162.500(1)
(252)
167.259(3)
151.964(1)
(257)
18.998 4032(5)
(223)
157.25(3)
69.723(1)
72.64(1)
196.966 569(4)
178.49(2)
(277)
4.002 602(2)
164.930 32(2)
1.00794(7)
114.818(3)
126.904 47(3)
192.217(3)

55.845(2)
83.798(2)
138.905 47(7)
(262)
207.2(1)
[6.941(2)]†
174.9668(1)
24.3050(6)
54.938 045(5)
(276)
(258)
200.59(2)

Name
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium2
Nickel
Niobium
Nitrogen
Nobelium2
Osmium
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorus
Platinum
Plutonium2
Polonium2
Potassium

Praseodymium
Promethium2
Protactinium2
Radium2
Radon2
Rhenium
Rhodium
Roentgenium2
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Rutherfordium2
Samarium
Scandium
Seaborgium2
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Sulfur
Tantalum
Technetium2
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium2
Thulium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten

Uranium2
Vanadium
Xenon
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium
—2,3,4
—2,3
—2,3
—2,3
—2,3
—2,3

Symbol
Mo
Nd
Ne
Np
Ni
Nb
N
No
Os
O
Pd
P
Pt
Pu
Po

K
Pr
Pm
Pa
Ra
Rn
Re
Rh
Rg
Rb
Ru
Rf
Sm
Sc
Sg
Se
Si
Ag
Na
Sr
S
Ta
Tc
Te
Tb
Tl
Th
Tm
Sn
Ti

W
U
V
Xe
Yb
Y
Zn
Zr

12

C is a neutral atom

Atomic
Number
42
60
10
93
28
41
7
102
76
8
46
15
78
94
84

19
59
61
91
88
86
75
45
111
37
44
104
62
21
106
34
14
47
11
38
16
73
43
52
65
81
90
69
50
22

74
92
23
54
70
39
30
40
112
113
114
115
116
118

Atomic
Weight
95.96(2)
144.242(3)
20.1797(6)
(237)
58.6934(4)
92.906 38(2)
14.0067(2)
(259)
190.23(3)
15.9994(3)
106.42(1)
30.973 762(2)
195.084(9)

(244)
(209)
39.0983(1)
140.907 65(2)
(145)
231.035 88(2)
(226)
(222)
186.207(1)
102.905 50(2)
(280)
85.4678(3)
101.07(2)
(267)
150.36(2)
44.955 912(6)
(271)
78.96(3)
28.0855(3)
107.8682(2)
22.989 769 28(2)
87.62(1)
32.065(5)
180.947 88(2)
(98)
127.60(3)
158.925 35(2)
204.3833(2)
232.038 06(2)
168.934 21(2)

118.710(7)
47.867(1)
183.84(1)
238.028 91(3)
50.9415(1)
131.293(6)
173.054(5)
88.905 85(2)
65.38(2)
91.224(2)
(285)
(284)
(287)
(288)
(293)
(294)

1. The atomic weights of many elements vary depending on the origin and treatment of the sample. This is particularly true for Li; commercially available lithium-containing
materials have Li atomic weights in the range of 6.939 and 6.996. Uncertainties are given in parentheses following the last significant figure to which they are attributed.
2. Elements with no stable nuclide; the value given in parentheses is the atomic mass number of the isotope of longest known half-life. However, three such elements (Th,
Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and the atomic weight is tabulated for these.
3.. Not yet named.
4. The name copernicium was proposed for element 112 in July 2009, but at that time this name had not been officially accepted by IUPAC.

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Page i

FOURTH EDITION

Chemistry
THE MOLECULAR SCIENCE

John W. Moore
University of Wisconsin–Madison

Conrad L. Stanitski
Franklin and Marshall College

Peter C. Jurs
Pennsylvania State University

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

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Page ii

Chemistry: The Molecular Science, Fourth Edition
John W. Moore, Conrad L. Stanitski, Peter C. Jurs
Publisher: Mary Finch
Executive Editor: Lisa M. Lockwood
Acquisitions Editor: Kilean Kennedy
Senior Developmental Editor: Peter McGahey
Assistant Editors: Ashley Summers, Liz Woods
Editorial Assistant: Laura Bowen

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Page iii

To All Students of Chemistry
We intend that this book will help you to discover
that chemistry is relevant to your lives and careers,
full of beautiful ideas and phenomena, and of great
benefit to society. May your study of this fascinating
subject be exciting, successful, and fun!
We thank our wives—Betty (JWM), Barbara (CLS),
and Elaine (PCJ)—for their patience, support,
understanding, and love.

It does not do harm to the mystery
to know a little more about it.
Richard Feynman

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Page iv

© Dr. Donal R. Neu

About the Authors

John Moore, Conrad Stanitski, and Peter Jurs

John W. Moore received an A.B. magna cum laude from Franklin
and Marshall College and a Ph.D. from Northwestern University. He
held a National Science Foundation (NSF) postdoctoral fellowship
at the University of Copenhagen and taught at Indiana University
and Eastern Michigan University before joining the faculty of the
University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1989. At the University of
Wisconsin, Dr. Moore is W. T. Lippincott Professor of Chemistry and
Director of the Institute for Chemical Education. He was Editor of
the Journal of Chemical Education (JCE) from 1996 to 2009.
Among his many awards are the American Chemical Society (ACS)
George C. Pimentel Award in Chemical Education and the James
Flack Norris Award for Excellence in Teaching Chemistry. He is a
Fellow of the ACS and of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS). In 2003 he won the Benjamin
Smith Reynolds Award at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in
recognition of his excellence in teaching chemistry to engineering
students. Dr. Moore has recently received the third in a series of
major grants from the NSF to support development of online chemistry learning materials for the NSF-sponsored National Science
Distributed Learning (NSDL) initiative.
Conrad L. Stanitski is Distinguished Emeritus Professor of

Chemistry at the University of Central Arkansas and is currently
Visiting Professor at Franklin and Marshall College. He received
his B.S. in Science Education from Bloomsburg State College, M.A.
in Chemical Education from the University of Northern Iowa, and
Ph.D. in Inorganic Chemistry from the University of Connecticut.
He has co-authored chemistry textbooks for science majors, allied
health science students, nonscience majors, and high school
chemistry students. Dr. Stanitski has won many teaching awards,

including the CMA CATALYST National Award for Excellence in
Chemistry Teaching, the Gustav Ohaus–National Science Teachers
Association Award for Creative Innovations in College Science
Teaching, the Thomas R. Branch Award for Teaching Excellence
and the Samuel Nelson Gray Distinguished Professor Award from
Randolph-Macon College, and the 2002 Western Connecticut ACS
Section Visiting Scientist Award. He was Chair of the American
Chemical Society Division of Chemical Education (2001) and has
been an elected Councilor for that division. He is a Fellow of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). An
instrumental and vocal performer, he also enjoys jogging, tennis,
rowing, and reading.
Peter C. Jurs is Professor Emeritus of Chemistry at the Pennsylvania State University. Dr. Jurs earned his B.S. in Chemistry from
Stanford University and his Ph.D. in Chemistry from the
University of Washington. He then joined the faculty of
Pennsylvania State University, where he has been Professor of
Chemistry since 1978. Jurs’s research interests have focused on the
application of computational methods to chemical and biological
problems, including the development of models linking molecular
structure to chemical or biological properties (drug design). For
this work he was awarded the ACS Award for Computers in

Chemistry in 1990. Dr. Jurs has been Assistant Head for
Undergraduate Education at Penn State, and he works with the
Chemical Education Interest Group to enhance and improve the
undergraduate program. In 1995 he was awarded the C. I. Noll
Award for Outstanding Undergraduate Teaching. Dr. Jurs serves as
an elected Councilor for the American Chemical Society Computer
Division, and he was recently selected as a Fellow of the ACS.

iv
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Page v

Contents Overview
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

The Nature of Chemistry

1

Atoms and Elements

40

Chemical Compounds

75

Quantities of Reactants and Products

120


Chemical Reactions

161

Energy and Chemical Reactions

211

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

271

Covalent Bonding

327

Molecular Structures

375

Gases and the Atmosphere

424

Liquids, Solids, and Materials

478

Fuels, Organic Chemicals, and Polymers


533

Chemical Kinetics: Rates of Reactions

592

Chemical Equilibrium

655

The Chemistry of Solutes and Solutions

707

Acids and Bases

753

Additional Aqueous Equilibria

804

Thermodynamics: Directionality of Chemical Reactions

849

Electrochemistry and Its Applications

901


Nuclear Chemistry

957

The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements

995

Chemistry of Selected Transition Elements
and Coordination Compounds

1037

Appendices A–J A.1
Appendix K: Answers to Problem-Solving Practice Problems A.44
Appendix L: Answers to Exercises A.62
Appendix M: Answers to Selected Questions for Review and Thought A.81
Glossary G.1
Index I.1

v
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Page vi

Detailed Contents

1 The Nature of Chemistry

2.6 Isotopes and Atomic Weight 56

1

2.7 Amounts of Substances: The Mole 59

1.1 Why Care About Chemistry? 2

2.8 Molar Mass and Problem Solving 61

1.2 Molecular Medicine 3

2.9 The Periodic Table 62

1.3 How Science Is Done 6

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

1.4 Identifying Matter: Physical Properties 7

TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY

1.5 Chemical Changes and Chemical
Properties 11


Ernest Rutherford 45

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and
Atomic Force Microscopy 46

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

The Kilogram Redefined 50

Mass Spectrometer 56

1.6 Classifying Matter: Substances
and Mixtures 13

TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY

1.7 Classifying Matter: Elements
and Compounds 15

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Dmitri Mendeleev 62

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Periodic Table Stamp 66

1.8 Nanoscale Theories and Models 17


CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Preparing a Pure Sample of an
Element 67

ESTIMATION

1.9 The Atomic Theory 21
1.10 The Chemical Elements 23
1.11 Communicating Chemistry: Symbolism 27

The Size of Avogadro’s Number 60

3 Chemical Compounds

75

3.1 Molecular Compounds 76

1.12 Modern Chemical Sciences 29
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Susan Band Horwitz 4

3.2 Naming Binary Inorganic Compounds 79

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Atomic Scale Electric Switches 21


3.3 Hydrocarbons 80

ESTIMATION

How Tiny Are Atoms and Molecules? 23

3.4 Alkanes and Their Isomers 83

Sir Harold Kroto 26

3.5 Ions and Ionic Compounds 85

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

2 Atoms and Elements

3.6 Naming Ions and Ionic Compounds 91

40

3.7 Ionic Compounds: Bonding and
Properties 94

2.1 Atomic Structure and Subatomic
Particles 41

3.8 Moles of Compounds 98
3.9 Percent Composition 103

2.2 The Nuclear Atom 43

2.3 The Sizes of Atoms and the Units Used to
Represent Them 45
2.4 Uncertainty and Significant Figures 50
2.5 Atomic Numbers and Mass Numbers 53

3.10 Determining Empirical and Molecular
Formulas 104
3.11 The Biological Periodic Table 107
ESTIMATION

Number of Alkane Isomers 85

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS
ESTIMATION

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Pumping Iron: How Strong Is Your
Breakfast Cereal? 109

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Removing Arsenic from Drinking
Water 109

4
IBM Almaden Labs

Airport Runway Deicer Shortage 93


Is Each Snowflake Unique? 99

Quantities of Reactants
and Products 120

4.1 Chemical Equations 121
4.2 Patterns of Chemical Reactions 122

vi
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4.3 Balancing Chemical Equations 128
© Cengage Learning/Charles D. Winters

4.4 The Mole and Chemical Reactions:
The Macro-Nano Connection 131
4.5 Reactions with One Reactant in Limited

Supply 137
4.6 Evaluating the Success of a Synthesis:
Percent Yield 142
4.7 Percent Composition and Empirical
Formulas 145
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Antoine Lavoisier 122

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Alfred Nobel 125

ESTIMATION

How Much CO2 Is Produced by Your Car? 137

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

5

Smothering Fire—Water That Isn’t
Wet 141
Vinegar and Baking Soda:
A Stoichiometry Experiment 143

Chemical Reactions 161


6.10 Standard Molar Enthalpies of Formation 244
6.11 Chemical Fuels for Home and Industry 249
6.12 Foods: Fuels for Our Bodies 254
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST
ESTIMATION

5.2 Acids, Bases, and Acid-Base Exchange
Reactions 168
5.3 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 177
5.4 Oxidation Numbers and Redox Reactions 183
5.5 Displacement Reactions, Redox, and the
Activity Series 186
5.6 Solution Concentration 189
5.7 Molarity and Reactions in Aqueous
Solutions 196
5.8 Aqueous Solution Titrations 198
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Stream Cleaning with Chemistry 177

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Pennies, Redox, and the Activity
Series of Metals 190

Earth’s Kinetic Energy 214

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Work and Volume Change 231


CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Rusting and Heating 235

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Reatha Clark King 247

ESTIMATION

5.1 Exchange Reactions: Precipitation
and Net Ionic Equations 162

James P. Joule 213

Burning Coal 253

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

7

Charge Your iPod with a Wave
of Your Hand 256

Electron Configurations and the
Periodic Table 271

7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation and Matter 272
7.2 Planck’s Quantum Theory 274

7.3 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 279
7.4 Beyond the Bohr Model: The Quantum
Mechanical Model of the Atom 285
7.5 Quantum Numbers, Energy Levels,
and Atomic Orbitals 288
7.6 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 294
7.7 Atom Electron Configurations 296

6

Energy and Chemical Reactions 211

7.8 Ion Electron Configurations 302
7.9 Periodic Trends: Atomic Radii 306

6.1 The Nature of Energy 212

7.10 Periodic Trends: Ionic Radii 309

6.2 Conservation of Energy 215

7.11 Periodic Trends: Ionization Energies 311

6.3 Heat Capacity 220

7.12 Periodic Trends: Electron Affinities 314

6.4 Energy and Enthalpy 224

7.13 Energy Considerations in Ionic

Compound Formation 315

6.5 Thermochemical Expressions 230
6.6 Enthalpy Changes for Chemical
Reactions 232

ESTIMATION

Turning on the Light Bulb 279

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

6.7 Where Does the Energy Come From? 236
6.8 Measuring Enthalpy Changes:
Calorimetry 238
6.9 Hess’s Law 242

Using an Ultra-Fast Laser to Make a
More Efficient Incandescent Light
Bulb 279

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Niels Bohr 284

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Using a Compact Disc (CD) as a
Diffraction Grating 285


Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


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Covalent Bonding 327

10

Gases and the
Atmosphere 424

8.1 Covalent Bonding 328
8.2 Single Covalent Bonds and Lewis
Structures 329

10.1 The Atmosphere 425


8.3 Single Covalent Bonds in Hydrocarbons 334
8.4 Multiple Covalent Bonds 337

10.3 Kinetic-Molecular
Theory 429

8.5 Multiple Covalent Bonds
in Hydrocarbons 339

10.4 The Behavior of Ideal
Gases 433

8.6 Bond Properties: Bond Length
and Bond Energy 342

10.5 Quantities of Gases in
Chemical Reactions 442

8.7 Bond Properties: Bond Polarity
and Electronegativity 347

10.6 Gas Density and Molar
Mass 444

8.8 Formal Charge 350

10.7 Gas Mixtures and
Partial Pressures 446

8.9 Lewis Structures and Resonance 352

8.10 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 355
8.11 Aromatic Compounds 359
8.12 Molecular Orbital Theory 360
PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Gilbert Newton Lewis 329

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Linus Pauling 347

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Self-Darkening Eyeglasses 356

9

10.8 The Behavior of Real Gases 451
10.9 Ozone and Stratospheric Ozone
Depletion 454
10.10 Chemistry and Pollution
in the Troposphere 457
10.11 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, the
Greenhouse Effect, and Global
Warming 463
ESTIMATION

Molecular Structures 375

9.1 Using Molecular Models 376


© Breitling

10.2 Gas Pressure 427

Thickness of Earth’s Atmosphere 426

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Nitrogen in Tires 431

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Jacques Alexandre Cesar
Charles 435

9.2 Predicting Molecular Shapes: VSEPR 377

ESTIMATION

9.3 Atomic Orbitals Consistent with Molecular
Shapes: Hybridization 390

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Helium-Filled Balloon in Car 446

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

F. Sherwood Rowland 455


9.4 Hybridization in Molecules with
Multiple Bonds 395

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Susan Solomon 456

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Particle Size and Visibility 458

9.5 Molecular Polarity 398

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Removing CO2 from the Air 468

9.6 Noncovalent Interactions and Forces
Between Molecules 402
9.7 Biomolecules: DNA and the Importance
of Molecular Structure 410
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY

Infrared Spectroscopy 386

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY

Peter Debye 399


Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy 401

11

Helium Balloon Buoyancy 445

Liquids, Solids, and Materials 478

11.1 The Liquid State 479
11.2 Vapor Pressure 481
11.3 Phase Changes: Solids, Liquids,
and Gases 485

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Icy Pentagons 407

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Molecular Structure and Biological
Activity 410

11.4 Water: An Important Liquid with
Unusual Properties 497

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Rosalind Franklin 412


11.5 Types of Solids 499

ESTIMATION

Base Pairs and DNA 413

11.6 Crystalline Solids 501

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


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11.7 Network Solids 508

13.8 Catalysts and Reaction Rate

11.8 Materials Science 510

13.9 Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 629

11.9 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators 512

11.10 Silicon and the Chip 517
11.11 Cement, Ceramics, and Glass 520
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Surface Tension and Bird Feeding 481

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Stopping Windshields from
Fogging 485

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Melting Ice with Pressure 496

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Closest Packing of Spheres 507

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin 509

TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY

X-Ray Crystallography 510

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

12


Glassy Metals? 522

Fuels, Organic Chemicals,
and Polymers 533

625

13.10 Catalysis in Industry 634
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

ESTIMATION

Simulating First-Order and
Zeroth-Order Reactions 606

Pesticide Decay 609

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Kinetics and Vision 612

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Bimolecular Collisions Can Be
Complicated 615

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Ahmed H. Zewail 617


CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 630

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Catalysis and Hydrogen Fuel 636

14

Chemical Equilibrium 655

14.1 Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium 656
14.2 The Equilibrium Constant 659

12.1 Petroleum 534

14.3 Determining Equilibrium Constants 666

12.2 U.S. Energy Sources and Consumption 541

14.4 The Meaning of the Equilibrium
Constant 669

12.3 Organic Chemicals 545
12.4 Alcohols and Their Oxidation Products 546

14.5 Using Equilibrium Constants 672


12.5 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 554

14.6 Shifting a Chemical Equilibrium:
Le Chatelier’s Principle 678

12.6 Synthetic Organic Polymers 561

14.7 Equilibrium at the Nanoscale 687

12.7 Biopolymers: Polysaccharides
and Proteins 575

14.8 Controlling Chemical Reactions:
The Haber-Bosch Process 689

ESTIMATION

Burning Oil 543

TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST
TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY

Small Molecules, Big Results:
Molecular Possibilities for Drug
Development 545

ESTIMATION


Percy Lavon Julian 551

15

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
and Its Applications 552

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Making “Gluep” 568

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Stephanie Louise Kwolek 573

13

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Gas Chromatography 544

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

ix

Bacteria Communicate
Chemically 680

Generating Gaseous Fuel 686


PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Fritz Haber 690

The Chemistry of Solutes
and Solutions 707

15.1 Solubility and Intermolecular Forces 708
15.2 Enthalpy, Entropy, and Dissolving
Solutes 712

Chemical Kinetics: Rates
of Reactions 592

13.1 Reaction Rate 593
13.3 Rate Law and Order of Reaction 602
13.4 A Nanoscale View: Elementary
Reactions 608
13.5 Temperature and Reaction Rate:
The Arrhenius Equation 615
13.6 Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions 619

Heptane

Aqueous
NiCl2
Carbon
tetrachloride

13.7 Reaction Mechanisms 621

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

© Cengage Learning/Charles D. Winters

13.2 Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate 598


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15.3 Solubility and Equilibrium 714
15.4 Temperature and Solubility 717
15.5 Pressure and Dissolving Gases in Liquids:
Henry’s Law 718

17

Additional Aqueous Equilibria 804

17.1 Buffer Solutions 805


15.6 Solution Concentration: Keeping Track
of Units 721

17.2 Acid-Base Titrations 817

15.7 Vapor Pressures, Boiling Points,
Freezing Points, and Osmotic
Pressures of Solutions 727

17.4 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility
Product Constant, Ksp 827

15.8 Colloids 738

17.3 Acid Rain 825

17.5 Factors Affecting Solubility 830
17.6 Precipitation: Will It Occur? 838

15.9 Surfactants 740

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

15.10 Water: Natural, Clean, and Otherwise 741
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Bubbling Away: Catching
a Draught 720

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST


Jacobus Henricus van’t Hoff 733

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Thirsty Southern California
to Test Desalination 738

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Curdled Colloids 739

16

Acids and Bases 753

18

Ocean Acidification, a Global pH
Change Concern 831

Thermodynamics: Directionality
of Chemical Reactions 849

18.1 Reactant-Favored and Product-Favored
Processes 850
18.2 Chemical Reactions and Dispersal
of Energy 851
18.3 Measuring Dispersal of Energy: Entropy 853


16.1 The Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids
and Bases 754

18.4 Calculating Entropy Changes 860

16.2 Carboxylic Acids and Amines 760

18.5 Entropy and the Second Law
of Thermodynamics 860

16.3 The Autoionization of Water 762

18.6 Gibbs Free Energy 864

16.4 The pH Scale 764

18.7 Gibbs Free Energy Changes and Equilibrium
Constants 868

16.5 Ionization Constants of Acids and Bases 767
16.6 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength 772
16.7 Problem Solving Using Ka and Kb 776
16.8 Acid-Base Reactions of Salts 781
16.9 Lewis Acids and Bases 786
16.10 Additional Applied Acid-Base Chemistry 790
CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST
ESTIMATION


HCl Dissociation at the Smallest
Scale 755
Arnold Beckman 766

Using an Antacid 791

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Aspirin and Digestion 795

18.8 Gibbs Free Energy, Maximum Work, and
Energy Resources 874
18.9 Gibbs Free Energy and Biological
Systems 876
18.10 Conservation of Gibbs Free Energy 883
18.11 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Stability 886
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Ludwig Boltzmann 856

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Josiah Willard Gibbs 865

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS
ESTIMATION

19
© Cengage Learning/Charles D. Winters


Energy Distributions 854

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Ethanol Fuel and Energy 884

Gibbs Free Energy and Automobile Travel 886

Electrochemistry and Its
Applications 901

19.1 Redox Reactions 902
19.2 Using Half-Reactions to Understand Redox
Reactions 904
19.3 Electrochemical Cells 910

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


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Graphite

cathode
Insulating washer
Steel cover

21

The Chemistry of the Main Group
Elements 995

Zinc anode
(battery case)

21.1 Formation of the Elements 996

Wax seal

21.2 Terrestrial Elements 998

Sand cushion

21.3 Some Main Group Elements Extracted
by Physical Methods: Nitrogen, Oxygen,
and Sulfur 1002

Carbon rod
NH4Cl, ZnCl2, and
MnO2 paste
Porous separator
Wrapper


19.4 Electrochemical Cells and Voltage 914
19.5 Using Standard Reduction Potentials 919
19.6 E° and Gibbs Free Energy 923

21.4 Some Main Group Elements Extracted by
Electrolysis: Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium,
and Aluminum 1003
21.5 Some Main Group Elements Extracted by
Chemical Oxidation-Reduction: Phosphorus,
Bromine, and Iodine 1009
21.6 A Periodic Perspective: The Main Group
Elements 1012

19.7 Effect of Concentration on Cell
Potential 926

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Charles Martin Hall 1008

19.8 Neuron Cells 930

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Paul Louis-Toussaint Héroult 1009

19.9 Common Batteries 933

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST


Herbert H. Dow 1011

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Air-Stable White Phosphorus 1024

19.10 Fuel Cells 937
19.11 Electrolysis—Causing Reactant-Favored
Redox Reactions to Occur 939
19.12 Counting Electrons 942
19.13 Corrosion—Product-Favored Redox
Reactions 946
CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

Remove Tarnish the Easy Way 921

22 Chemistry
of Selected Transition
Elements and Coordination
Compounds 1037
22.1 Properties of the Transition (d-Block)
Elements 1038

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Michael Faraday 924

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

Plug-in Hybrid Cars 937


22.2 Iron and Steel: The Use
of Pyrometallurgy 1042

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Wilson Greatbatch 937

22.3 Copper: A Coinage Metal 1047

ESTIMATION

20
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
20.9

The Cost of Aluminum in a Beverage Can 945

Nuclear Chemistry 957
The Nature of Radioactivity 958
Nuclear Reactions 959
Stability of Atomic Nuclei 963
Rates of Disintegration Reactions 968

Artificial Transmutations 974
Nuclear Fission 975
Nuclear Fusion 980
Nuclear Radiation: Effects and Units 981
Applications of Radioactivity 985

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Glenn Seaborg 974

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Darleane C. Hoffman 976

ESTIMATION

Counting Millirems: Your Radiation
Exposure 983

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS
ESTIMATION

Another Reason Not to Smoke 984

Radioactivity of Common Foods 985

xi

22.4 Silver and Gold: The Other Coinage
Metals 1051

22.5 Chromium 1052
22.6 Coordinate Covalent Bonds: Complex Ions
and Coordination Compounds 1055
22.7 Crystal-Field Theory: Color and Magnetism in
Coordination Compounds 1065
ESTIMATION

Steeling Automobiles 1046

CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS

An Apartment with a View 1050

CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO

A Penny for Your Thoughts 1061

PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST

Alfred Werner 1063

Appendices A–J A.1
Appendix K: Answers to Problem-Solving
Practice Problems A.44
Appendix L: Answers to Exercises A.62
Appendix M: Answers to Selected Questions
for Review and Thought A.81
Glossary G.1
Index I.1


Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


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Preface
Students have many reasons for taking a two-semester general chemistry course for science
majors, but the most likely is that the course is a pre- or co-requisite for other science-related
courses or careers. There are important reasons for such requirements, but they are not always obvious to students. The authors of this textbook believe very strongly that

• Students need to recognize that chemical knowledge is essential for solving important
problems and that chemistry makes important contributions to other disciplines; and

• It is essential that students gain a working knowledge of how chemistry principles are
applied to solve problems in a broad spectrum of applications.
Examples of such applications are creating new and improving existing chemical pathways
that lead to the more efficient synthesis of new pharmaceuticals; developing a deeper understanding of alternative energy sources to mitigate global warming; and understanding how
new, more efficient catalysts could help to decrease air pollution and to minimize production
of chemical waste from industrial processes. Knowledge of chemistry provides a way of interpreting macroscale phenomena at the molecular level that can be applied to many critical
21st century problems, including those just given. This fourth edition of Chemistry: The
Molecular Science continues our tradition of integrating other sciences with chemistry and
has been updated to include a broad range of recent chemical innovations that illustrate the
importance of multidisciplinary science.


Goals
Our overarching goal is to involve science and engineering students in active study of what
modern chemistry is, how it applies to a broad range of disciplines, and what effects it has
on their own lives.We maintain a high level of rigor so that students in mainstream general
chemistry courses for science majors and engineers will learn the concepts and develop the
problem-solving skills essential to their future ability to use chemical ideas effectively. We
have selected and carefully refined the book’s many unique features in support of this goal.
More specifically, we intend that this textbook will help students develop:

• A broad overview of chemistry and chemical reactions,
• An understanding of the most important concepts and models used by chemists and
scientists in chemistry-related fields,

• The ability to apply the facts, concepts, and models of chemistry appropriately to new
situations in chemistry, to other sciences and engineering, and to other disciplines,

• Knowledge of the many practical applications of chemistry in other sciences, in
engineering, and in other fields,

• An appreciation of the many ways that chemistry affects the daily lives of all people, students included, and

• Motivation to study in ways that help all students achieve real learning that results in
long-term retention of facts and concepts and how to apply them.
Because modern chemistry is inextricably entwined with so many other disciplines, we have
integrated organic chemistry, biochemistry, environmental chemistry, industrial chemistry, and
materials chemistry into the discussions of chemical principles and facts.Applications in these
areas are discussed together with the principles on which they are based.This approach serves
to motivate students whose interests lie in related disciplines and also gives a more accurate picture of the multidisciplinary collaborations so prevalent in contemporary chemical research and
modern industrial chemistry.


Audience
xii

Chemistry: The Molecular Science is intended for mainstream general chemistry courses for
students who expect to pursue further study in science, engineering, or science-related disciplines.Those planning to major in chemistry, biochemistry, biological sciences, engineering,
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


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Preface

xiii

geological sciences, agricultural sciences, materials science, physics, and many related areas
will benefit from this book and its approach.The book has an extensive glossary and an excellent index, making it especially useful as a reference for study or review for standardized examinations, such as the MCAT.
We assume that the students who use this book have a basic foundation in mathematics (algebra and geometry) and in general science.Almost all will also have had a chemistry course
before coming to college. The book is suitable for the typical two-semester sequence of general
chemistry,and it has also been used quite successfully in a one-semester accelerated course that
presumes students have a strong background in chemistry and mathematics.

New in This Edition
Users of the first three editions of this book have been most enthusiastic about its many features and as a result have provided superb feedback that we have taken into account to enhance its usefulness to students. Reviewers have also been helpful in pointing out things we
could improve. Like the third edition, this fourth edition is a thorough revision. Although the

art program in the first edition won an award for visual excellence,in preparation for this fourth
edition we have had every figure critically reviewed. Based on those reviews we have updated
nearly all of the art to further enhance a student reader’s ability to visualize molecular-scale
processes and to connect these processes with real-world, macroscale phenomena. We have
also enhanced popular, pedagogically sound features, such as Chemistry in the News,
Chemistry You Can Do, Estimation, Portrait of a Scientist, and Tools of Chemistry. Most of
these features have been updated; nearly every Chemistry in the News is entirely new.
Our emphasis on conceptual understanding continues.We have revised the text and created
additional conceptual questions at the ends of the chapters to help students gain a thorough mastery of important chemical principles.We have moved some sections from one chapter to another
and reorganized content to present the material in the most logical way possible.We continue to
use pedagogical research reported in recent articles in the Journal of Chemical Education that
points the way toward teaching methods and writing characteristics that are most effective in
helping students learn chemistry and retain their knowledge over the long term.
To support our emphasis on developing students’ ability to approach problems systematically and logically, we have placed additional emphasis on the approach to problem solving
that we have used in all three previous editions. In each chapter we have added text in the
margin to remind students that in solving problems they should analyze the problem, plan a
solution, execute the plan, and check that the result is reasonable.We have also more directly
called to students’ attention how to use the Exercises, Conceptual Exercises, Problem-Solving
Examples, and Problem-Solving Practice Problems in each chapter, and the Questions for
Review and Thought at the end of each chapter. We have added 226 new questions at the
ends of the chapters, and a much larger fraction of the Questions for Review and Thought are
accompanied by OWL assignments that will help students learn appropriate problem-solving
techniques. In this new edition, solving real problems has been a major focus of the revision.
Specifically, we have made these global changes from the third edition:

The PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY in
this book is
• Analyze the problem
• Plan a solution
• Execute the plan

• Check that the result is reasonable
Appendix A.1 explains this in detail.

• Carefully examined each piece of art with respect to scientific accuracy and pedagogi-

•
•

•
•
•
•
•

cal efficacy, modifying or replacing figures whenever doing so would improve students’
ability to understand the point being made;
Re-emphasized our problem-solving approach to make it easier for students to remember and follow;
Revised many Problem-Solving Examples, introducing a bullet style to the Strategy and
Explanation section so that students can more easily see a step-by-step approach to the
problem;
Reworked text in many places into bullet format to make it easier for students to identify the most important ideas and to return to them for review and further study;
Updated existing and added new pedagogically sound features: Chemistry in the News,
Chemistry You Can Do, Estimation, Portrait of a Scientist, and Tools of Chemistry;
Revised the end-of-chapter questions to provide better organization and increased the
number of questions by 226;
Added at the ends of many chapters new and unique questions, grid questions, that are
based on cognition research results;
Greatly increased the number of end-of-chapter questions that are associated with
parameterized assignments in OWL;
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.



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Preface

• Correlated Go Chemistry mini-lecture videos for iPods and other mobile devices to book
sections;

• Made use of the most accurate and up-to-date sources for data such as atomic weights,
electronegativities, ionization energies, atomic and ionic radii, acid ionization constants,
solubility product constants, and standard reduction potentials, and updated all tables,
problem-solving examples, exercises, and appendixes to reflect the best data;
• Added newly discovered elements and updated atomic weight values (IUPAC) to periodic tables and data tables throughout the book;
• Updated the definitions in the extensive glossary and improved the index.
Revisions to each chapter include

Chapter 1
• Revised or replaced 20 figures and added a new figure;
• Added new questions about real-world situations that are answered later in the book;
• Emphasized a general approach to solving problems and demonstrated how to apply it
to a specific problem;


• Replaced Chemistry in the News;
• Added 16 end-of-chapter questions, six of which are More Challenging Questions.

Chapter 2
•
•
•
•
•

Revised most figures and made major changes in six figures;
Added discussion of atomic force microscopy to Tools of Chemistry feature;
Replaced one Problem-Solving Example;
Replaced one Chemistry in the News and added a second;
Added two end-of-chapter questions and renumbered questions for a more logical order.

Chapter 3
• Revised or replaced 12 figures and added a new figure;
• Reworked text into bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to iden•
•
•
•
•

tify important points;
Added a new Estimation box;
Added a new Chemistry in the News and updated the existing one;
Revised four Problem-Solving Examples;
Added two new Key Terms;

Added 15 end-of-chapter questions, several of which involve atomic-scale interpretations.

Chapter 4
•
•
•
•

Revised or replaced 11 figures;
Revised six Problem-Solving Examples to make the explanations more vivid to students;
Updated Chemistry in the News feature;
Added seven new end-of-chapter questions, six with graphics that require students to
apply atomic/molecular-scale thinking.

Chapter 5
• Revised or replaced eight figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to iden•
•
•
•

tify important ideas;
Revised or replaced eight Problem-Solving Examples;
Replaced Chemistry in the News;
Added a new Key Term;
Added seven new end-of-chapter questions, four with graphics that require students to
apply atomic/molecular-scale thinking.

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.



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Chapter 6
• Revised or replaced 16 figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to iden•
•
•
•

tify important ideas;
Added a new Problem-Solving Example;
Replaced Chemistry in the News;
Reworked material formerly in Chapter 12 to consolidate information on fuels and their
importance to society;
Added 28 new end-of-chapter questions, four with graphics that require students to
apply atomic/molecular-scale thinking.

Chapter 7
•
•
•

•
•
•
•
•

Revised or replaced more than 20 figures;
Completely rewrote five pages to improve clarity;
Revised and updated data for ionic radii, ionization energies, and electron affinities;
Added three new Problem-Solving Examples and modified two;
Added four new Exercises and modified one;
Added a new Chemistry in the News;
Reworked Sections 7.13 and 7.14 into a single section on bonding in ionic compounds;
Added six new end-of-chapter questions, two of which are a new type (grid questions)
unique to this book.

Chapter 8
• Revised or replaced nine figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to iden•
•
•
•
•

tify important ideas;
Revised or replaced two Problem-Solving Examples;
Added a new Chemistry in the News;
Completely reworked two subsections on cis/trans isomers and resonance in benzene;
Added eight new end-of-chapter questions, two of which are a new type (grid questions)
unique to this book;

Revised and updated electronegativity data.

Chapter 9
• Revised or replaced 11 figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to iden•
•
•
•
•

tify important ideas;
Added three new Problem-Solving Examples and modified two;
Replaced Chemistry in the News;
Completely reworked section on Expanded Octets and Hybridization
Revised the Summary Problem;
Added six new end-of-chapter questions, two of which are a new type (grid questions)
unique to this book.

Chapter 10
• Revised or replaced 11 figures;
• Reworked text and Problem-Solving Examples to bullet format in several places to make
•
•
•
•
•

it easier for students to identify important ideas;
Merged Sections 10.4 and 10.5 into a single, more coherent section;
Replaced or revised three Problem-Solving Examples;

Replaced one Chemistry in the News;
Added new Chemistry You Can Do;
Added three new end-of-chapter questions with graphics that require students to apply
atomic/molecular-scale thinking.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

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Chapter 11
• Revised or replaced 10 figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to iden•
•
•
•
•

tify important ideas;

Revised and updated treatment of solid-state structure and close-packing of spheres;
Replaced or edited two Problem-Solving Examples; added a new problem-solving
practice;
Added three new Chemistry in the News and deleted two existing ones;
Moved and edited one subsection to make the presentation clearer;
Added six new end-of-chapter questions.

Chapter 12
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Revised or replaced six figures;
Added new material to Section 12.1, Petroleum;
Completely revised Section 12.2, adding material on U.S. Energy Sources and Consumption;
Updated and expanded discussion of plastics recycling;
Reworked and switched order of main topics in Section 12.7, Biopolymers;
Added new Estimation box;
Added new Chemistry in the News;
Revised Tools of Chemistry on MRI;
Added three new end-of-chapter questions, two of which are a new type (grid questions)
unique to this book.

Chapter 13

• Revised or replaced 15 figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to iden•
•
•
•

tify important ideas;
Revised three Problem-Solving Practice problems and two exercises;
Replaced Chemistry in the News;
Reworked the section on catalysis;
Added 27 new end-of-chapter questions.

Chapter 14
• Revised or replaced 12 figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to iden•
•
•
•
•

tify important ideas;
To reinforce pedagogy, added color coding to section teaching how to solve equilibrium
problems;
Added new section Changing Volume by Adding Solvent to material on LeChatelier’s
principle;
Replaced one Problem-Solving Practice;
Updated Chemistry in the News;
Added 47 new end-of-chapter questions.

Chapter 15

• Revised or replaced eight figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to identify important ideas;

• Added one new Problem-Solving Practice problem and one exercise;
• Replaced Chemistry in the News;
• Added six new end-of-chapter questions including macro/nano modeling and interpretation of graphical data.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


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Preface

Chapter 16
• Revised or replaced 16 figures;
• Reworked text and Problem-Solving Examples to bullet format in several places to make
•
•
•
•
•
•

it easier for students to identify important ideas;

Updated table of acid ionization constants with the latest data and revised examples that
use the new data;
Revised section on Metal Ions as Acids;
Revised three Exercises;
Replaced Chemistry in the News with a new one;
Reworked the section on Lewis acids and bases;
Added seven new end-of-chapter questions, two of which are a new type (grid questions) unique to this book, and some of which are macro/nano modeling questions.

Chapter 17
• Revised or replaced six figures;
• Reworked text and Problem-Solving Examples to bullet format in several places to make
it easier for students to identify important ideas;

• Updated table of solubility product constants with the latest data and revised examples
•
•
•
•

that use the new data;
Revised coverage of acid rain;
Revised three Problem-Solving Practice problems and added one new one;
Replaced Chemistry in the News;
Added four new end-of-chapter questions, two of which are a new type (grid questions)
unique to this book, and some of which are macro/nano modeling questions.

Chapter 18
• Revised or replaced 13 figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to identify important ideas;


• Added new Portrait of a Scientist;
• Updated Chemistry in the News;
• Added four new end-of-chapter questions, including two macro/nano modeling questions.

Chapter 19
• Revised or replaced 12 figures;
• Reworked text to bullet format in several places to make it easier for students to identify important ideas;
• Replaced one Problem-Solving Example;
• Added new Chemistry in the News.

Chapter 20
• Revised or replaced one figure;
• Added new Portrait of a Scientist;
• Added new Chemistry in the News.

Chapter 21
•
•
•
•

Added two new figures;
Updated data to latest, best values for all elemental groups in the periodic table;
Added new Chemistry in the News;
Added new Portrait of a Scientist.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

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Chapter 22
• Updated Estimation box.

Appendixes
• Expanded Appendix A coverage of problem solving;
• Updated Appendix C to include latest values of physical constants and references to
•
•
•
•
•
•

sources of data;
Updated Appendix D with most recent references on electron configurations of the elements;
Updated Appendix F with consistent values from a standard compilation of data;
Updated Appendix G with consistent values from a standard compilation of data;
Created a new Appendix H with solubility product data from a standard reference

source;
Updated Appendix I with consistent values from a standard compilation of data;
Completely revised atomic weights in data table and periodic table on endpapers to latest values from IUPAC.

Features
We strongly encourage students to understand concepts and to learn to apply those concepts
to problem solving.We believe that such understanding is essential if students are to be able
to use what they learn in subsequent courses and in their future careers.All too often we hear
professors in courses for which general chemistry is a prerequisite complain that students
have not retained what they were taught in general chemistry. This book is unique in its
thoughtful choice of features that address this issue and help students achieve long-term retention of the material.

Problem Solving
This book places major emphasis on helping students learn to approach and solve real problems. Problem solving is introduced in Chapter 1, and a framework is built there that is followed throughout the book. Four important components of our strategy for teaching
problem solving are

• Problem-Solving Example/Problem-Solving Practice problems that outline how to approach and solve a specific problem, check the answer, and practice a similar problem;
• Estimation boxes that help students learn how to do back-of-the-envelope calculations
and apply concepts to new situations;
• Exercises, many of which deal with conceptual learning and are identified as Conceptual
Exercises, that follow introduction of new material and for which answers are not immediately available, forcing students to work out the Exercise before seeing the answer;
• General Questions, Applying Concepts, More Challenging Questions, and Conceptual
Challenge Problems at the end of each chapter that are not keyed to specific textual material and require integration of concepts and out-of-the-box thinking to solve.

Problem-Solving Example/Problem-Solving Practice Each chapter contains many
worked-out Problem-Solving Examples—a total of 257 in the book as a whole. Most consist
of five parts:
• a Question (problem);
• an Answer, stated briefly;
• a Strategy and Explanation section that outlines one approach to analyzing the problem, planning a solution, and executing the plan, thereby providing significant help for

students whose answer did not agree with ours;
• a Reasonable Answer Check section marked with a
that indicates how a student
could check whether a result is reasonable; and
• a companion Problem-Solving Practice that provides a similar question or questions,
with answers appearing only in an Appendix.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


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Preface

We explicitly encourage students first to analyze the problem, plan a solution, and work out
an answer without looking at either the Answer or the Explanation, and only then to compare
their answer with ours. If their answer did not agree with ours, students are asked to repeat
their work. Only then do we suggest that they look at the Strategy and Explanation, which is
couched in conceptual as well as numeric terms so that it will improve students’ understanding, not just their ability to answer an identical question on an exam.The Reasonable Answer
Check section helps students learn how to use estimated results and other criteria to decide
whether an answer is reasonable, an ability that will serve them well in the future. By providing related Problem-Solving Practice problems that are answered only in the back of the
book, we encourage students to immediately consolidate their thinking and improve their
ability to apply their new understanding to other problems based on the same concept.
An example Problem-Solving Example and Problem-Solving Practice taken from Chapter
1 is shown below. It explicitly describes the strategy of analyzing the problem, planning a solution, executing the plan, checking that the answer is reasonable, and solving another similar problem.


PROBLEM-SOLVING EXAMPLE

1.1 Density

In an old movie thieves are shown running off with pieces of gold bullion that are about
a foot long and have a square cross section of about six inches.The volume of each
piece of gold is 7000 mL. Calculate the mass of gold and express the result in pounds
(lb). Based on your result, is what the movie shows physically possible? (1 lb ϭ 454 g)
Answer

1.4 ϫ 105 g; 300 lb; probably not

Strategy and Explanation A good approach to problem solving is to (1) analyze the
problem, (2) plan a solution, (3) execute the plan, and (4) check your result to see
whether it is reasonable. (These four steps are described in more detail in Appendix A.1.)

Step 1: Analyze the problem. You are asked to calculate the mass of the gold, and you
know the volume.

Analyze the problem.

Step 2: Plan a solution. Density relates mass and volume and is the appropriate proportionality factor, so look up the density in a table. Mass is proportional to
volume, so the volume either has to be multiplied by the density or divided
by the density. Use the units to decide which.

Plan a solution.

Execute the plan.


Step 3: Execute the plan. According to Table 1.1, the density of gold is 19.32 g/mL.
Setting up the calculation so that the unit (milliliter) cancels gives
7000 mL ϫ

19.32 g
ϭ 1.35 ϫ 105 g
1 mL

This can be converted to pounds
1.35 ϫ 105 g ϫ

1 lb
ϭ 300 lb
454 g

Notice that the result is expressed to one significant figure, because the volume was
given to only one significant figure and only multiplications and divisions were done.
Reasonable Answer Check Gold is nearly 20 times denser than water.A liter
(1000 mL) of water is about a quart and a quart of water (2 pints) weighs about two
pounds. Seven liters (7000 mL) of water should weigh 14 lb, and 20 times 14 gives
280 lb, so the answer is reasonable.The movie is not—few people could run while
carrying a 300-lb object!
PROBLEM-SOLVING PRACTICE

1.1

Find the volume occupied by a 4.33-g sample of benzene.

Check that the result
is reasonable.


Solve another
related problem.

Estimation Enhancing students’ abilities to estimate results is the goal of the Estimation
boxes found in most chapters.These are a unique feature of this book. Each Estimation poses
a problem that relates to the content of the chapter in which it appears and for which an approximate solution suffices. Students gain knowledge of various means of approximation,
such as back-of-the-envelope calculations and graphing, and are encouraged to use diverse
sources of information, such as encyclopedias, handbooks, and the Internet.
Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

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Exercises To further ensure that students do not merely memorize algorithmic solutions to
specific problems, we provide 338 Exercises, which immediately follow introduction of new
concepts within each chapter. Often the results that students obtain from a numeric Exercise
provide insights into the concepts. Most Exercises are thought provoking and require that students apply conceptual thinking. Exercises that are conceptual rather than mathematical are

clearly designated as shown below.
Exercises that are designed
to test understanding of a
concept are identified as
conceptual.

CONCEPTUAL

EXERCISE

7.13 g Atomic Orbitals

Using the same reasoning as was developed for s, p, d, and f atomic orbitals, what
should be the n value of the first shell that could contain g atomic orbitals, and how
many g atomic orbitals would be in that shell?

End-of-Chapter Questions At the end of each chapter we provide General Questions,
Applying Concepts, More Challenging Questions, and Conceptual Challenge Problems in
addition to the traditional Review Questions and Topical Questions keyed to the sections
in the chapter. General Questions typically involve only one concept or topic, but students
are required to think about which concept is needed to answer the question; no immediate indication is given regarding where to look in the chapter for the concept. Applying
Concepts questions explicitly require conceptual thinking instead of numerical calculations and are designed to test students’ understanding of concepts. It has been clearly established by research on cognition in both chemistry and physics that many students can
correctly answer numerical-calculation questions yet not understand concepts well
enough to answer simple conceptual questions. Applying Concepts questions have been
designed to address this issue. More Challenging Questions are provided so that students’
minds can be stretched to link two or more concepts and apply them to a problem.
Conceptual Challenge Problems require out-of-the-box thinking and are suitable for group
work by students.
Examples, Practice problems, Estimation boxes, Exercises, and End-of-Chapter Questions
are all designed to stimulate active thinking and participation by students as they read the

text and to help them hone their understanding of concepts. The grand total of more than
600 of these active-learning items exceeds the number found in any similar textbook.

Conceptual Understanding
We believe that a sound conceptual foundation is the best means by which students can approach and solve a wide variety of real-world problems.This approach is supported by considerable evidence in the literature:Students learn better and retain what they learn longer when they
have mastered fundamental concepts. Chemistry requires familiarity with at least three conceptual levels:

• Macroscale (laboratory and real-world phenomena)
• Nanoscale (models involving particles: atoms, molecules, and ions)
• Symbolic (chemical formulas and equations, as well as mathematical equations)

Macroscale

Nanoscale

Symbolic

These three conceptual levels are explicitly defined in Chapter 1.This chapter emphasizes
the value of the chemist’s unique nanoscale perspective on science and the world with a specific example of how chemical thinking can help solve a real-world problem—how the anticancer agent paclitaxel (Taxol®) was discovered and synthesized in large quantities for use as
a drug. This theme of conceptual understanding and its application to problems continues
throughout the book. Many of the problem-solving features already mentioned have been
specifically designed to support conceptual understanding.
Units are introduced on a need-to-know basis at the first point in the book where
they contribute to the discussion. Units for length and mass are defined in Chapter 2, in conjunction with the discussion of the sizes and masses of atoms and subatomic particles. Energy
units are defined in Chapter 6, where they are first needed to deal with kinetic and potential
energy, work, and heat. In each case, defining units at the time when the need for them can
be made clear allows definitions that would otherwise appear pointless and arbitrary to support the development of closely related concepts.
We use real chemical systems in examples and problems whenever possible, both
in the text and in the end-of-chapter questions. In the kinetics chapter, for example, the text
and problems utilize real reactions and real data from which to determine reaction rates or


Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.


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Preface

orders. Instead of A ϩ B 9: C ϩ D, students will find IϪ ϩ CH3Br 9: CH3I ϩ BrϪ. Data
have been taken from the recent research literature.The same approach is employed in many
other chapters, where real chemical systems are used as examples.
Most important,we provide clear, direct, thorough, and understandable explanations
of all topics, including those such as stoichiometry, chemical kinetics, chemical thermodynamics, and electrochemistry that many students find daunting.The methods of science and concepts such as chemical and physical properties; purification and separation; the relation of
macroscale, nanoscale, and symbolic representations; elements and compounds; and kineticmolecular theory are introduced in Chapter 1 so that they can be used throughout the later discussion. Rather than being bogged down with discussions of units and nomenclature, students
begin this book with an overview of what real chemistry is about—together with fundamental
ideas that they will need to understand it.

Visualization for Understanding
The illustrations in Chemistry:The Molecular Science have been designed to engage today’s visually oriented students.The success of the illustration program is exemplified by the fact that
the first edition was awarded a national prize for visual excellence. Nevertheless, for this edition
a special reviewer, Kathy Thrush Shaginaw, has examined carefully each piece of art and recommended revisions. Based on her suggestions we have revised, replaced, or added art in every
chapter. Illustrations help students to visualize atoms and molecules and to make connections
among macroscale observations, nanoscale models, and symbolic representations of chemistry.
Excellent color photographs of substances and reactions, many by Charles D.Winters, are presented together with greatly magnified illustrations of the atoms,molecules,and/or ions involved

that have been created by J/B Woolsey Associates LLC. New drawings for this edition have been
created by Graphic World Inc. Often these are accompanied by the symbolic formula for a substance or equation for a reaction, as in the example shown below.These nanoscale views of
atoms, molecules, and ions have been generated with molecular modeling software and then
combined by a skilled artist with the photographs and formulas or equations.Similar illustrations
appear in exercises, examples, and end-of-chapter problems, thereby ensuring that students are
tested on the ideas the illustrations represent.This provides an exceptionally effective way for
students to learn how chemists think about the nanoscale world of atoms, molecules, and ions.
Often the story is carried solely by an illustration and accompanying text that points out
the most important parts of the figure. An example is the visual story of molecular structure
on p. xxii. In other cases, text in balloons explains the operation of instruments, apparatus,
and experiments; clarifies the development of a mathematical derivation; or points out salient
features of graphs or nanoscale pictures.Throughout the book visual interest is high, and visualizations of many kinds are used to support conceptual development.
A symbolic chemical equation describes
the chemical decomposition of water.

2 H2O(liquid)

At the nanoscale, hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms
originally connected in water molecules, H2O, separate…

O2(gas) + 2 H2(gas)

At the macroscale, passing electricity
through liquid water produces two
colorless gases in the proportions of
approximately 1 to 2 by volume.

…and then connect
to form oxygen
molecules, O2…

O2 (gas)

…and hydrogen
molecules, H2 .

2 H2O(liquid)
2 H2 (gas)

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

xxi