Preview Chemistry for CSEC by Anne Tindale, Elizabeth Ritchie, Dianne Luttig, Sarah Chapman, Jennifer Murray, Anna Bowman (2014)
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Chemistry
for
®
CSEC
Anne
Elizabeth
Tindale
Ritchie
Dianne
Sarah
Luttig
Chapman
Jennifer
Anna
Murray
Bowman
s s er P
ytisrevinU
dr o f x O
I N C LU D E S
fo
Edition
CD
t r aP
2nd
Chemistry
for
®
CSEC
Anne
2nd
Tindale
Edition
Elizabeth
Ritchie
Dianne
Sarah
Chapman
Jennifer
Anna
1
Luttig
Murray
Bowman
3
Great
Clarendon
Oxford
It
University
furthers
and
Oxford
©
Anne
The
First
This
in
means,
Press,
as
Enquiries
should
must
impose
Data
No
sent
part
of
prior
United
of
Dianne
in
law,
reproduction
other
trade
mark
of
countries
Sarah
Chapman
2014
2014
Press
by
any
of
rights
the
2014
be
reproduced,
form
or
Oxford
licence
outside
Department,
in
may
in
writing
reprographics
Rights
scholarship,
registered
2014
publication
by
Oxford.
asserted
transmitted,
in
a
of
research,
Luttig,
Press
University
permission
in
is
certain
been
Ltd
University
Oxford
in
Ritchie,
have
the
Kingdom
excellence
University
permitted
the
and
this
or
appropriate
to
UK
Oxford
system,
the
the
the
Thornes
by
of
worldwide.
authors
Nelson
concerning
be
British
by
6DP,
department
Oxford
the
OX2
objective
Elizabeth
expressly
address
You
of
retrieval
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a
in
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must
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available
978-1-4085-2503-6
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9
8
7
Printed
in
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by
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Global
Pvt.
Ltd
Acknowledgements
Cover
photograph:
Illustrations:
Page
make-up:
Thanks
are
due
development
Photo
8.2.1,
18.3.1,
4.4.2;
18.3.2,
9.3.1,
18.3.5,
(NT)
James
Andrew
van
PA
der
Volk
Photos
Library/Andrew
Hanns-Frieder
/Maximilian
Banton
we
copyright
cases.
the
the
this
notied,
to
for
have
Ltd
made
the
501
Gateshead
for
Vision
their
contributions
PL
C
V1
10.5.2,
4.4.1b,
/JERRY
/Pascal
2.1.3b,
effort
publication
publisher
will
CD2
14.1.4;
party
materials
the
2.2.1a,
Sandy
6.1.2,
has
rectify
18.3.3,
Marshall
8.4.6,
18.1.1,
17.2.1,
/Sue
and
not
any
contact
been
errors
all
possible
or
in
omissions
websites
only.
contained
are
provided
Oxford
in
any
by
disclaims
third
party
Oxford
any
in
good
faith
responsibility
website
referenced
for
in
22.1.1,
all
at
Mike
20.4.4,
and
15.3.5,
20.5.2;
M.
20.4.5;
Photo
/Astrid
DESIGN
and
Gallery/
Science
Baker
(NT)
15.3.10,
21.1.4;
18.3.8,
20.3.4;
/LAGUNA
3.3.2,
Picture
20.5.1,
www.tropix.co.uk/V.
trace
this
17.1.3,
8.1.1a,
Goetgheluck
17.2.2,
17.3.1,
Corel
Evans
iStockphoto
Garland
8.1.5,
17.1.2,
20.4.1;
Greg
Anne
8.1.1b,
16.2.12b,
20.5.3;
opportunity.
third
in
20.5.6;
5.5.4a,
Corbis
19.1.1;
Leslie
17.1.1,
MASON
22.2.2;
(NT)
Ltd
2.5.3,
16.2.12a,
Fotolia
1.1.3,
16.1.5,
21.2.1;
to
21.2.2,
18.3.7;
Chillmaid
2.5.2,
16.1.4,
20.4.2;
(NT)
Holdings
2.2.3b,
15.1.9,
20.6.1,
Photography
11.2.4,
/Photoshot
(NT)
Bhadur/AP
every
before
information
work.
Ltd,
Murray
2.1.3c,
9.3.2b,
Ingram
2.5.1,
Shutterstock
holders
earliest
Links
and
If
Lambert
Stock
9.1.1;
Although
/Shirley
2.2.2,
1.3.2,
20.4.3,
Corel
Martyn
2.2.3a,
Michler
1.2.9,
19.2.1,
2.1.3a;
4.4.1c;
2.2.1b,
4.4.1a,
Tech-Set
Jennifer
Rogers
Lauritz/Digital
Lambert
and
9.3.2a,
5.5.4b;
()
15.3.8;
Bowman
1.2.10b,
9.1.2,
18.3.4,
340
and
Gateshead
book.
1.2.10a,
8.4.8,
Corel
Anna
this
Publishing
Ltd,
Alamy/Helene
1.1.2,
8.4.2,
Tech-Set
to
of
credits:
Tindale
iStockphoto
GreenGate
Shawn
Birley
3.3.3.
Contents
Introduction
A5.5
1
Str ucture
Key
Section
A1
A
Principles
States
of
of
chemistry
2
matter
Practice
The
A1.2
Evidence
proper ties
of
solids
par ticulate
nature
of
matter
86
exam-style
questions
for
Chemical
t he
equations
and
reactions
matter
Writing
and
balancing
chemical
The
t hree
states
Key
concepts
of
matter
Types
of
exam-style
questions
A2.1
and
their
Elements,
separation
compounds
A2.2
Solutions,
A2.3
Solubility
96
concepts
99
questions
The
mole
concept
101
and
mixtures
colloids
A7.1
The
mole
and
mass
A7.2
The
mole
and
gas
101
A7.3
The
mole
and
concentration
16
volumes
106
19
of
22
solutions
A2.4
Separating
mixtures
A2.5
Extraction
of
sugar
Key
sucrose
A7.4
The
mole
and
chemical
formulae
1
1
1
A7.5
The
mole
and
chemical
reactions
1
13
Key
concepts
from
cane
30
exam-style
questions
structure
The
str ucture
A3.2
The
electronic
A3.3
of
atoms
Key
configuration
Acids,
bases
The
periodic
A4.1
A4.2
and
table
radioactivity
reactions
of
acids
121
A8.2
Proper ties
and
reactions
of
bases
128
A8.3
Strengt h
A8.4
Salts
A8.5
Neutralisation
A8.6
Volumetric
questions
and
of
periodicity
elements
in
A4.4
Trends
Group
46
46
II
of
t he
in
Group
VII
of
A9
Period
55
3
of
t he
Structure
Formation
A5.3
Writing
ionic
A5.4
questions
bonding
A5.2
bonding
of
ionic
chemical
bonds
formulae
compounds
Formation
metallic
of
questions
154
and
reactions
reduction
156
–
an
Oxidation
Oxidising
Key
156
numbers
and
159
reducing
agents
concepts
Practice
164
170
exam-style
questions
171
62
exam-style
Chemical
Oxidation
A9.3
periodic
concepts
A5.1
152
exam-style
A9.2
60
and
148
introduction
A10
A5
145
analysis
Oxidation–reduction
A9.1
t he
table
in
Practice
132
135
reactions
concepts
Practice
periodic
table
Key
alkalis
t he
table
in
periodic
and
45
51
Trends
acids
40
table
A4.3
of
44
Arrangement
Trends
121
and
37
exam-style
periodic
salts
Proper ties
Key
A4
and
A8.1
of
concepts
Practice
120
34
atom
Isotopes
questions
34
A3.1
an
exam-style
33
A8
Atomic
1
19
32
Practice
A3
108
25
concepts
Practice
100
16
and
suspensions
exam-style
15
A7
Mixtures
reactions
14
Practice
A2
chemical
9
Key
Practice
89
4
A6.2
A1.3
89
par ticulate
equations
of
88
2
A6.1
t heor y
80
2
A6
A1.1
and
concepts
covalent
bonds
Electrochemistry
173
64
A10.1
The
65
A10.2
Electrical
65
A10.3
Electrolysis
69
A10.4
Quantitative
A10.5
Industrial
of
72
and
76
electrochemical
series
conduction
173
176
179
electrolysis
applications
188
of
electrolysis
191
Key
195
concepts
Practice
exam-style
questions
197
iii
Contents
A11
Rates
of
reaction
A11.1
Measuring
A11.2
Factors
Key
198
rates
of
affecting
reaction
rates
of
reaction
concepts
Practice
exam-style
questions
C18
Reactivity,
198
metals
202
C18.1
The
reactivity
209
C18.2
The
extraction
210
C18.3
Uses
Energetics
212
A12.1
Energy
A12.2
Calculating
Key
changes
during
energy
reactions
changes
concepts
Practice
questions
of
B
Organic
chemistry
Introduction
to
organic
B13.1
Organic
B13.2
Homologous
217
C19
chemistry
B14.1
Sources
–
Alkanes:
alkanes
C
questions
and
extraction
Metals
224
B14.3
Alkenes:
C
Key
alkenes
in
living
systems
Alcohols,
corrosion
of
The
impact
metals
H
and
alkanoic
Alkanoic
Esters:
C20.2
Chemical
proper ties
questions
acids
C
H
and
esters
OH
2n
acids:
239
of
uses
C20.5
Harmful
and
of
C
H
COOH
2n
Key
253
non-metals
of
324
non-metals
compounds
326
chemistr y
330
concepts
334
exam-style
questions
336
255
Water
338
C21.1
The
unique
proper ties
C21.2
The
treatment
of
water
338
260
of
water
for
pur poses
342
269
questions
concepts
345
271
exam-style
questions
346
Qualitative
analysis
polymers
concepts
C22.1
Identification
of
cations
questions
chemistry
of
C17.1
Physical
C17.2
Chemical
C22.2
Identification
of
anions
351
C22.3
Identification
of
gases
354
281
concepts
Reactions
of
of
metals
283
compounds
concepts
Practice
282
and
metals
metal
exam-style
356
questions
358
periodic
table
360
282
of
proper ties
exam-style
282
metals
proper ties
reactions
347
275
279
exam-style
Inorganic
347
272
The
iv
uses
1
polymers
Condensation
Key
318
and
263
exam-style
Characteristics
C17.3
non-metals
preparation
effects
t heir
Green
Practice
C17
of
321
The
Key
–
316
and
272
Practice
C
non-metals
gases
C20.4
C20.6
C22
Section
of
255
concepts
Addition
Key
315
1
Polymers
B16.2
questions
proper ties
Laborator y
Practice
B16.1
31
1
313
316
Physical
Key
B16
environment
exam-style
C20.1
C20.3
251
RCOOR
Practice
living
concepts
domestic
Key
309
on
Non-metals
246
n
B15.3
t he
metals
2n
n
B15.2
of
2
exam-style
Alcohols:
the
237
C21
B15.1
and
The
Practice
B15
308
309
Practice
239
concepts
Practice
questions
C19.2
226
242
2n
n
307
C19.1
of
H
n
302
236
hydrocarbons
B14.2
299
alloys
230
exam-style
and
t heir
226
series
concepts
Hydrocarbons
metals
and
exam-style
reactions
B14
of
294
226
compounds
Practice
metals
environment
C20
Key
of
concepts
Practice
Key
B13
of
metals
systems
Section
uses
212
223
exam-style
and
294
Key
A12
extraction
288
291
questions
293
Index
361
Introduction
To
the
Chemistr y
you
student
for
achieve
experienced
for
you
The
to
CSEC®
your
is
best
teachers
master
Chemistr y
Principles
t he
a
t he
who
course
examination.
have
included
It
designed
has
been
features
to
to
help
written
make
it
by
easier
is
divided
Chemistry,
into
Section
B,
t hree
sections;
Organic
Section
Chemistry,
A,
and
Section C, Inorganic Chemistry. Chapters 1–12 of t his book cover
topics
in
Section
Chapters
17–22
A,
Chapters
cover
topics
13–16
in
the
The
cover
Section
topics
in
Section
B,
and
writing
t he
of
Chemistr y
CSEC® syllabus
It
for
are
Caribbean
provides
a
for
presented
chapters
based
grasp
on
impor tant
dened
met,
CSEC®
has
been
driven
by
experienced
each
in
t he
t he
in
and
is
of
of
order
topics
concepts,
each
t hat
coverage
t he
chapter
units,
and
content
is
appropriate
and
students.
complete
material
teaching,
C.
teacher
Caribbean science educators to ensure t hat bot h t he requirements of
relevant
concepts.
syllabus
of
comprehensive
in
key
To
of
t he
for
t hen
which
t he
t he
CSEC®
syllabus.
you
syllabus
syllabus
as
broken
a
To
one
of
t he
to
into
wit h
divided
help
teacher
down
develops
and
students
manage
several
t hese
t he
into
your
clearly
impor tant
Key terms are highlighted t hroughout t he text to help you to ‘home
concepts.
in’
on
t he
key
concepts.
Impor tant
denitions
and
laws
which
you
chapter
also
All
must
be
able
to
quote
are
given
in
Key
fact
boxes.
Each
to
includes
Did
you
know?
boxes
which
contain
facts
to
impor tant
be
able
identify
your
interest,
help
you
You
will
and
pass
Exam
your
tip
boxes
which
contain
denitions
quote
are
and
given
laws
in
which
‘Key
fact’
t he
students
boxes
for
are
expected
students
to
valuable
tips
and
t hen
clearly
learn.
to
examination.
A
range
in
also
to
stimulate
nd
a
large
number
of
clear
diagrams
and
t he
of
practical
syllabus
can
activities
be
found
which
closely
t hroughout
relate
t he
to
text.
t hose
You
suggested
can
use
t hese
colour
to help you develop a practical approach to your teaching and also to
photographs
to
enliven
and
enrich
your
learning,
and
a
wide
assess
range
of
different
designed
your
use
to
help
learning
some
practical
of
you
using
t hese
(SBA)
skills.
Each
chapter
a
activities.
develop
your
‘hands-on’
activities
to
These
practical
approach.
assess
your
activities
skills
Your
and
have
to
teacher
School-Based
enhance
may
also
Assessment
Clear,
The
learning
beginning
of
broken
down
objectives
t he
unit
so
into
for
t hat
several
each
you
unit
can
see
clearly
are
dened
clearly
what
you
given
are
are
units.
at
t he
expected
in
t he
unit.
These
learning
objectives
relate
fully
to
t he
to
found
Assessment
(SBA)
skills
of
your
students.
you
help
in
all
diagrams
students
and
gain
a
colour
better
photographs
understanding
which
of
each
are
topic
chapters.
know?’
boxes
wit h
facts
to
stimulate
t he
student’s
interest,
and ‘Exam tip’ boxes containing valuable tips to prepare students for
t heir
examination
appear
t hroughout
t he
text.
to
Each
learn
School-Based
explanator y
designed
‘Did
is
t he
been
unit
begins
wit h
a
list
of
learning
objectives
for
students
to
specic
clearly
see
what
t hey
are
expected
to
master
in
t he
unit.
These
relate
objectives given in t he syllabus. Each unit t hen ends wit h a selection
fully
to
t he
specic
objectives
in
t he
syllabus.
of summary questions to test your comprehension of t he material
covered
in
t he
Revision
unit.
questions
designed
At
t he
end
of
each
chapter
you
will
nd
a
list
of
t he
key
is
help
you
followed
two
to
by
revise
a
t he
variety
exam-style
impor tant
of
content
of
multiple-choice
questions
to
help
you
to
t he
chapter.
questions
apply
t he
are
provided
students
to
at
t he
consolidate
end
of
t heir
each
unit
knowledge
which
of
t he
are
key
concepts
material
to
for
This
and
usually
knowledge
found
in
t he
unit.
list
you
A
list
of
key
students
concepts
revise
t he
is
key
given
content
at
t he
of
t he
end
of
each
chapter
to
help
chapter.
gained in t he chapter to answer t he different question types t hat you
Multiple-choice, str uctured and extended response questions similar
will
encounter
during
your
examination.
The
rst
of
t he
exam-style
to
questions
is
a
str uctured
question
requiring
shor t
answers
and
t hose
chapter
your
CSEC®
Examination
you
will
be
given
spaces
on
t he
on
t he
CSEC® Examination
are
included
at
t he
end
of
each
in
for
students
to
test
t heir
knowledge
and
understanding
of
question
t he
mater ial
covered
in
t he
chapter
and
hone
t heir
examination
paper for your answers. The second is an extended response question
skills.
requiring
a
greater
element
of
essay
writing
in
your
answers.
The
A
marks
allocated
for
t he
different
par ts
of
each
question
are
complete
60-question
multiple-choice
test
wit h
answers
is
to
clearly
be
found
on
t he
CD.
This
will
enable
your
students
to
test
t heir
given.
knowledge
and
understanding
of
t he
material
covered
in
t he
entire
On t he CD you will nd a complete multiple-choice test composed of
text.
60
questions
to
test
your
knowledge
and
understanding
of
material
A Data Analysis section on t he CD provides information on answering
taken
from
all
sections
of
t he
syllabus.
If
you
work
t hrough
all
t he
t he Data Analysis question toget her wit h t hree practice questions for
end
of
will
be
chapter
questions
and
t he
complete
multiple-choice
test
you
students
well
prepared
for
your
The
On
t he
CD
you
will
also
nd
a
section
on
Data
Analysis
you
wit h
det ails
CD
about
t he
Data
Analysis
question
be
required
allocations
you
for
infor mation
School-Ba sed
you
of
read
study.
t his
to
you
answer
to
as
practise.
about
what
Assessment
section
before
t he
skills
required
in
answering
t his
question.
well
as
There
is
also
required
(SBA).
you
t hree
is
It
is
questions
a
section
from
you
extremely
embark
on
your
wit h
whic h
in
includes
for
a
students
section
to
gain
which
an
provides
detailed
understanding
of
information
what
t hem
over
t heir
two-year
programme
of
is
required
study.
mark
gives
ter ms
impor t ant
two-year
also
SBA
you
from
will
develop
whic h
about
provides
to
examination.
of
t hat
course
Chemistr y
Each
activity
SBA
may
for
CSEC®
practical
may
section
be
adopts
activity
be
used
provides
used
for
t he
a
practical
begins
as
a
t he
wit h
basis
for
location
different
a
SBA.
in
types
approach
suggestion
The
t he
of
table
book
of
wherever
indicating
which
t he
possible.
how
t he
follows
t he
activities
which
assessment.
1
Section
A
States
of
matter
A1
Chemistry
is
the
study
of
the
structure
and
behaviour
of
Objectives
By
the
be
able
end
of
this
topic
you
matter.
will
Everything
has
●
give
a
●
give
the
denition
four
of
main
matter
ideas
both
beings
of
us
is
made
of
matter.
Matter
explain
theory
why
particulate
of
and
of
and
volume.
animals
are
all
Air,
water,
matter.
sand,
Matter
human
exists
in
states.
The
three
main
states
of
matter
are
solid,
matter
scientists
theory
mass
the
various
particulate
●
around
to:
nd
the
liquid
and
gas.
matter
useful
identify
●
the
three
main
states
the
relationship
of
A1.1
The
particulate
nature
of
matter
matter
explain
●
Matter
between
temperature
and
the
As
motion
of
far
bac k
idea
a
t hat
piece
half
Exam
is
important
definitions
Chemistry.
provided
boxes
of
that
key
These
for
you
you
know
terms
in
the
the
‘Key
in
how
for
par ticles.
called
example,
many
cuts
a
will
t hought
He
Democr itus
piece
you
t hat
of
have
it
asked
gold,
to
ended
t his
developed
in
make
at
question:
half
and
before
some
t hen
you
point,
‘f
t he
cut
can
t he
you
cut
cut
it
it
smallest
in
no
and
t hat
building
t hese
bloc k s
of
smallest
matter.
bits
of
Today
matter,
scientists
or
particles ,
have
added
would
to
be
bits
t he
Democr itus’
of
matter.
book.
particulate
particulate
t heor y
is
theory
theory
ver y
of
useful
of
matter
because
matter
states
it
t hat
helps
all
us
matter
to
is
explain
made
bot h
of
par ticles.
t he
physical
fact
proper ties of matter and also t he differences between t he t hree states of matter.
We
Matter
is
anything
occupies
that
has
will
Key
that
looking
at
t he
t hree
states
of
matter
in
detail
in
Unit
A1.3.
space.
par ticulate
matter
is
t heor y
●
all
made
●
t he
●
t here
are
spaces
●
t here
are
forces
par ticles
are
of
of
in
matter
has
four
main
ideas:
par ticles
constant,
random
motion
fact
particulate
states
be
mass
The
The
philosopher
of
fact’
This
!
Greek
idea and now descr ibe matter and its proper ties using t he par ticulate t heor y
are
The
and
a
Democr itus
matter,
basic
the
used
definitions
throughout
Key
matter,
again,
The
!
BC
consisted
tip
of
It
460
matter
of
fur t her?’
✔
as
particles.
all
theory
matter
is
of
between
t he
par ticles
matter
made
up
of
attraction
between
t he
par ticles.
of
particles.
matter
of
The
is
made
par ticles
par ticles
Figure
constant
1.1.1
par ticulate
The
particulate
t heor y
of
are
theory
matter
in
there
motion
of
can
are
between
spaces
par ticles
matter
be
used
to
explain
many
physical
phenomena t hat we obser ve in our ever yday lives. Examples of some of t hese
are
2
given
on
t he
next
page.
t
explains:
States
of
The
●
and
How
is
it
can
Why
●
e.g.
e.g.
be
t he
States
density
rise
in
liquid
freezer
can
smelt
at
t he
get
of
of
cause
forms
gas
harder
between
it
vibrate
in
in
t he
e.g.
why
matter
pebbles
change
into
a
solid,
e.g.
when
water
side
of
you
a
room,
t he
e.g.
when
chicken
is
fr ying,
kitchen.
wit h
an
increase
in
temperature,
drive.
become
crisper
when
soaked
in
water,
liquids,
e.g.
cer tain
in
insects
can
‘walk’
on
water.
Figure
1.1.2
Pebbles
sink
in
water
matter
common
in
to
increases
as
vegetables
tension
t hese
Par ticles
gases,
of
potatoes.
of
most
and
nature
ice.
Matter can exist in various forms or
t he
liquids
t hroughout
ot her
a
solids,
particulate
water.
can
it
move
pressure
cer tain
raw
a
a
tyres
Surface
●
in
smell
car
Why
●
a
in
bubbles
cooling
placed
Why
●
The
difference
sink
●
matter
states
t he
t heir
liquid
are
lies
solid
xed
state
t he
solid,
in
t he
state
have
energy
have
position
states. The t hree states of matter t hat are
liquid
t he
and
medium
and
and
least
t hey
amount
are
amounts
gaseous
states.
arrangement
packed
of
of
of
t hey
difference
par ticles.
energy,
closely
energy,
The
t he
t hey
toget her.
move
simply
Par ticles
about
slowly
and t hey have small spaces between t hem. Par ticles in t he gaseous state have
t he
greatest
spaces
The
energy
par ticles
in
its
t he
faster
of
hanging
a
t hey
will
can
is
g reater
t his
directly
This
substance
The
move
study
change
temperature.
substance.
t hey
energy,
You
par ticles
matter
temperature
t he
of
t hem.
of
and
changing
t he
amount
between
one
change
of
and
detail
to
t he
physical
state
t he
kinetic
rapidly
greater
related
from
increases
t he
about
in
energy
t hey
Unit
to
of
par ticles
large
of
anot her
because
energ y
t he
have
1.3.
temperature
state
occurs
kinetic
in
t he
by
increasing
t he
par ticles
possess,
t he
move.
state
by
changing
temperature
is
a
physical
change.
A
physical
change occurs when t he form of t he substance is changed wit hout changing
its
chemical
t he
same
gaseous
composition,
chemical
state,
i.e.
Summary
1
State
2
If
a
the
of
the
water
the
3
Explain
4
What
are
5
What
is
water
in
water
t he
as
a
liquid
solid,
i.e.
state
and
ice,
as
has
exactly
water
in
t he
Figure
three
vapour.
of
main
ideas
potassium
purple
particulate
evidence
example,
as
1.1.3
states
The
of
drinks
illustrate
the
matter
questions
three
crystal
water,
for
par ticles
colour
theory
of
the
particulate
manganate( VII )
spreads
of
is
theory
dropped
throughout
matter
does
this
the
of
matter.
into
water.
a
beaker
What
observation
of
features
provide
for?
why
scientists
the
the
three
nd
states
relationship
the
of
particulate
theory
of
matter
useful.
matter?
between
temperature
and
the
movement
of
particles?
3
Evidence
for
the
particulate
theory
of
matter
A1.2
Objectives
By
the
be
able
end
of
States
this
topic
you
Evidence
for
the
particulate
theory
of
of
matter
matter
will
n t he previous unit we mentioned t hat scientists nd t he par ticulate t heor y
to:
of matter ver y useful because it allows t hem to explain t he physical proper ties
explain
●
evidence
which
of
supports
the
particulate
matter.
suppor t
of
and
the
processes
same
ideas.
time
There
t hough,
are
simple
scientists
practical
have
to
provide
activities
evidence
involving
to
d iffusion
diffusion
and
describe
experiments
osmosis
which
we
can
perform
to
provide
evidence
for
t he
existence
of
and
●
t he
t heir
matter
explain
●
At
theory
movement
of
par ticles.
osmosis
which
Diffusion
demonstrate
diffusion
and
osmosis
explain
●
sugar
and
We
the
to
uses
control
preserve
of
salt
and
garden
food
have
into
pests
items.
a
all
freshener.
t he
smell
t hrough
of
had
baker y,
All
matter
air
are
Key
Diffusion
particles
t hese
to
is
in
concentration
!
cosmetic
of
seems
t he
experience
a
smells
travel
as
a
one
of
being
or
are
of
t he
air.
of
and
a
smell,
into
at
a
This
d iffusion.
motion
lower
aware
climbing
produced
t hrough
result
constant
to
of
shop
a
point
move
t hat
in
process
Diffusion
will
whet her
car
t he
of
shop
t he
occurs
from
a
it
is
walking
contains
or
smell
air
but
travelling
because
region
an
car,
par ticles
of
higher
concentration.
fact
is
the
from
movement
an
area
concentration
to
concentration
until
an
of
area
they
of
higher
of
Investigating
lower
are
the
particulate
theory
of
matter
evenly
Your
teacher
may
use
this
activity
to
assess:
distributed.
●
observation,
recording
●
analysis
interpretation.
Y
ou
will
be
potassium
and
supplied
with
and
a
manganate( VII)
reporting
straw,
a
beaker
containing
distilled
water
and
a
crystal.
Method
1
Place
the
bottom
2
Drop
the
moving
3
Very
straw
of
the
vertically
crystal
the
in
the
beaker
of
water
until
it
touches
the
beaker.
of
potassium
manganate( VII)
into
the
straw
without
straw.
carefully
remove
the
straw
trying
to
disturb
the
water
as
little
as
possible.
4
✔
Exam
tip
the
5
It
is
very
important
questions
in
distinguish
and
to
must
your
or
while
what
you
If
the
If
what
examinations
are
are
you
colour
immediately
begins
to
spread
throughout
Leave
the
beaker
to
has
and
spread
observe
conclusion
can
throughout
after
you
draw
all
a
the
few
days.
water
in
Note
the
that
beaker.
the
purple
What
about:
asked
then
is
a
the
spaces
b
the
movement
between
the
water
particles
you
of
the
potassium
manganate( VII)
particles?
and
used
being
asked
conclude
then
purple
would
experiment
you
would
experiment,
you
the
water.
colour
observations
you
how
answering
observations,
describe
performed.
when
between
conclusions.
give
see
tests
Observe
to
state
from
must
the
The
potassium
illustrated
in
manganate(VII)
Figures
1.2.1
and
cr ystal
1.2.2
are
t he
bot h
water
composed
in
of
t he
experiment
minute
particles.
give
The par ticles in t he cr ystal are packed closely toget her and t hose in t he water
what
you
can
deduce
from
the
have
observations.
A
deduction
is
ver y
minute
by
using
data
from
the
small
spaces
between
t hem.
When
t he
cr ystal
is
in
t he
water,
t he
made
cr ystal
par ticles
slowly
separate
from
each
ot her
and
diffuse
into
t he
experiment
spaces between t he water par ticles. This continues until all t he par ticles have
to
arrive
at
a
conclusion.
separated
4
from
t he
cr ystal
and
have
diffused
between
t he
water
par ticles.
States
of
matter
Evidence
for
the
particulate
theory
of
matter
straw
beaker
of
water
the
potassium
water
purple
becomes
colour
a
throughout
manganate(VII)
crystal
The
cr ystal
solution
Figure
1.2.1
Potassium
crystal
being
placed
gradually
where
diffusion
is
in
t he
t he
manganate(v II)
and
colour
an
solvent.
aqueous
Figure
solution
1.2.3
is
illustrates
water
particles
random
spaces
with
moving
crystal
small
from
between
a
while
the
throughout
i.e.
process
particles
each
diffuse
purple
the
water
a
of
other
into
the
the
separate
and
spaces
water
particles
particles
packed
manganate(VII)
After
formed,
t he
between
crystal
potassium
1.2.2
spreads
experiment.
water
at
Figure
water
d issolves
water
occurring
in
closely
together
crystal
before
dissolving
after
dissolving
Investigating
Your
teacher
diffusion
may
use
in
this
observation,
recording
●
analysis
interpretation.
Y
our
and
teacher
will
perform
and
the
1.2.3
Explanation
of
diffusion
gases
activity
●
Figure
to
assess:
reporting
following
experiment:
Method
1
Place
2
Soak
a
Seal
4
Allow
5
Use
During
them
the
time
your
t he
for
called
t he
as
off
of
the
of
the
a
at
gas
to
air
The
what
in
of
the
t he
and
1.2.4
and
glass
stands.
ammonia
solution
and
concentrated
hydrochloric
acid
and
tube.
t he
tube
to
vapours
during
and
ammonia
react
retort
stoppers.
happened
gas
ammonium
glass
chloride
Figures
The
two
concentrated
hydrogen
gas.
in
between
rubber
ammonia
collide
in
end
with
and
chlor ide
t he
wool
explain
called
length
each
illustrated
t hey
chlor ide .
in
tube
ammonia
t hrough
meet,
ammonium
1 m
cotton
glass
hydrogen
diffuse
par ticles
glass
pieces
experiment
gives
par ticles
least
observations
off
gas
at
simultaneously
ends
solution
a
tube
separate
place
3
glass
the
1.2.5,
diffuse.
and
t he
a
each
white
forms
a
any
changes.
ammonia
acid
hydrogen
towards
Observe
experiment.
hydrochloric
form
chloride
to
ot her.
solid
ring
gives
chloride
When
known
inside
t he
tube.
5
Evidence
for
the
particulate
cotton
theory
wool
in
wool
matter
soaked
hydrochloric
cotton
of
in
acid
a
chemical
involved,
(g)
equation
NH
The
glass
Figure
1.2.4
chloride
(g)
a
gas
gas
Ammonia
diffuse
and
(g)
and
and
(s)
a
(s)
indicate
t he
state
of
t he
chemicals
solid:
each
wool
soaked
hydrochloric
cotton
wool
other
in
acid
faster
This
of
soaked
●
chloride
NH
t he
forms
because
chloride
experiment
ammonium
chloride
l(s)
4
acid
t hrough
chloride
Hl(g)
ammonium
hydrogen
hydrogen
towards
hydrogen
hydrochloric
tube
cotton
t he
par ticles.
air
t han
Therefore,
t he
provides
closer
t he
to
ammonia
t he
hydrogen
following
t he
cotton
par ticles
are
ammonia
chloride
wool
soaked
lighter
par ticles
t han
move
in
t he
much
par ticles.
evidence
for
t he
par ticulate
t heor y
matter:
Par ticles
are
par ticles
must
able
to
move
–
t he
ammonia
and
hydrogen
chloride
ammonia
●
There
are
between
t hem
white
where
indicating
3
in
matter
ammonia
ammonia
of
We can represent t he reaction between t he ammonia and hydrogen chloride
as
soaked
States
Figure
1.2.5
ring
to
have
spaces
t he
air,
move
moved
between
par ticles
ammonia
between
towards
and
each
each
–
ot her
t here
hydrogen
to
must
form
have
chloride
t he
been
white
ring.
spaces
par ticles
to
allow
ot her.
forms
After
a
while
a
white
ring
Osmosis
forms
inside
the
glass
tube
Osmosis
water
region
!
Key
is
wit h
of
water
solution
the
from
movement
a
region
molecules,
or
a
case
of
t hrough
lot
differentially
substances
is
molecules
special
of
water
a
diffusion,
which
d ifferenti ally
molecules
to
a
involves
permeable
region
wit h
t he
movement
membrane
fewer
water
of
from
a
molecules.
fact
A
Osmosis
a
molecules
pure
e.g.
water,
of
with
a
to
pass
t hrough
membrane
but
not
is
a
ot hers.
membrane
You
may
also
t hat
nd
allows
t he
some
membrane
water
a
lot
being
called
membrane
dilute
a
to
permeable
a
semi-permeable
t hat
surrounds
or
selectively
biological
cells
is
permeable
membrane.
differentially
The
cell
permeable.
region
A differentially permeable membrane contains minute pores. Water molecules
with
fewer
water
molecules,
e.g.
a
are
concentrated
solution,
through
able
ot her
differentially
permeable
to
pass
t hrough
t hese
pores.
However,
t he
par ticles
of
many
a
substances,
which
may
be
dissolved
in
t he
water,
are
unable
to
pass
membrane.
t hrough.
When
concentrations,
t he
water
t he
more
two
are
separated
molecules
dilute
molecules,
solutions,
will
do
by
diffuse
solution
however,
e.g.
to
not
t he
sucrose
a
differentially
t hrough
more
move
solutions,
t he
t hey
have
permeable
pores
in
concentrated
because
which
are
t he
membrane,
membrane
solution.
unable
different
to
The
pass
from
sucrose
t hrough
t he pores in t he membrane. The volume of t he more dilute solution decreases
and
t he
volume
of
t he
more
differentially
concentrated
permeable
solution
increases.
membrane
sucrose
cannot
molecule
pass
through
the
differentially
permeable
membrane
water
molecule
diffuses
the
through
differentially
permeable
membrane
dilute
sucrose
concentrated
solution
Figure
1.2.6
Theoretical
explanation
net
of
6
osmosis
sucrose
solution
movement
water
of
molecules
States
of
matter
Evidence
Investigating
Your
teacher
may
●
manipulation
●
analysis
Y
ou
will
lled
be
with
osmosis
and
use
and
in
this
green
activity
for
the
particulate
theory
of
matter
paw-paw
to
assess:
measurement
interpretation.
supplied
distilled
with
water
a
piece
and
of
one
green
beaker
paw-paw
lled
with
(the
experiment
concentrated
may
sodium
be
done
chloride
with
potato
or
yam),
one
beaker
solution.
Method
1
Cut
2
Measure
3
Place
4
Allow
5
Remove
6
Measure
7
Explain
the
piece
and
three
containing
the
distilled
8
the
Explain
chloride
in
to
length
into
remain
from
record
the
in
solution
of
which
strips
the
for
Feel
placed
equal
containing
chloride
each
of
length.
strip.
solutions
beakers.
the
distilled
water
and
place
the
other
three
strips
into
the
beaker
solution.
one
hour.
strips
and
take
note
of
the
texture
of
each
strip.
strip.
in
water
distilled
water
molecules
become
move,
from
more
the
rigid
and
paw-paw
have
into
increased
the
distilled
in
length
water
or
from
the
paw-paw).
strips
(consider
or
each
sodium
the
six
beaker
strips
paw-paw
length
into
of
the
length
paw-paw
into
the
in
the
the
direction
water
why
the
concentrated
the
the
paw-paw
strips
strips
and
decrease
the
strips
why
green
record
of
the
(consider
of
from
the
the
placed
in
direction
sodium
concentrated
in
which
chloride
the
solution
sodium
water
into
chloride
molecules
the
solution
move,
become
from
the
oppy
and
paw-paw
softer
into
the
and
sodium
paw-paw).
distilled
water
concentrated
beaker
sodium
chloride
paw-paw
solution
Figure
1.2.7
Paw-paw
strips
in
strips
distilled
sodium
concentrated
distilled
paw-paw
increase
Figure
the
1.2.8
After
concentrated
a
chloride
water
strips
in
while
sodium
the
strips
in
water
solution
increase
decrease
in
in
t he
length
in
size
and
those
in
length
Did
experiment
illustrated
in
Figures
1.2.7
and
1.2.8,
t he
of
t he
paw-paw
cells
act
as
differentially
permeable
can
pass
t hrough
t he
cell
membranes,
eit her
into
or
out
of
t he
If
Distilled water has a higher water content (or lower sodium chloride
water.
concentration) than the paw-paw cells, therefore water moves
water
into the cells
takes
out
The
paw-paw
cells
have
a
higher
water
content
t han
t he
of
chloride
solution,
t herefore
water
moves
out
of
t he
cells
resulting
in
t he
paw-paw
strip
becoming
in
the
does
same
in
the
way
in
paw-
you
sweat
a
This
lowers
the
in
your
place
your
blood
and
lot
and
starts
cells.
you
For
lose
amount
of
osmosis
to
this
pull
water
reason
shor ter
and
important
to
drink
lots
of
it
is
water
by
on
osmosis,
it
concentrated
very
sodium
as
cells:
by osmosis, resulting in the paw-paw strip becoming longer and more rigid.
●
works
cells
paw.
●
know?
membranes.
your
Water
you
cell
Osmosis
membranes
solution
sodium
?
During
chloride
concentrated
strips
decrease
chloride
and
solution
paw-paw
size
water
a
hot
day
or
when
you
exercise.
sof ter.
7
Evidence
for
the
particulate
theory
of
matter
States
Practical
We
use
garden
t he
pests
and
many
t han
of
snails,
to
snails
being
of
moist
our
to
and
chloride
dissolves.
is
in
food
various
ways.
These
include
controlling
items.
herbivores,
The
ot her
by
die.
skin
water
We
using
Figure
1.2.9
sodium
serious
of
t hese
This
garden
pests
means
evaporating
make
use
sodium
Snails
deliquescent,
When
are
animals.
prevent
and
gardens
Sodium
osmosis
plants.
most
dehydrate
in
of
pests
precious
skin
matter
osmosis
preser ving
garden
t hemselves
t hem
and
our
t he
of
principles
Controlling
Slugs
uses
of
of
are
serious
which
chloride
is
lot
sprinkled
more
to
ravage
permeable
need
bodies
control
to
keep
causing
slugs
and
salt).
garden
t hat
which
t hey
t heir
facts
(table
means
a
t hat
from
t hese
chloride
is
pests
pests
it
absorbs
on
slugs
water
and
readily
snails,
it
absorbs some of t he moisture surrounding t heir bodies and dissolves forming
a
concentrated
solution.
This
causes
water
inside
t heir
bodies
to
move
out
and into t he solution by osmosis. f t he slugs and snails lose more water t han
t heir
bodies
Preserving
can
food
ot h
sodium
sh,
fr uits
cr ystallised
t he
●
same
tolerate,
to
and
sugar
vegetables.
fr uits,
way
die
from
dehydration.
items
chloride
and
t hey
guava
We
jelly
preser ve
are
used
are
and
all
glacé
to
preser ve
familiar
cherries.
food
wit h
ot h
items,
salt
salt
sh,
and
e.g.
meat,
salt
pork,
sugar
work
in
foods:
They withdraw water from the cells of the food items by osmosis. This
makes the water unavailable for the chemical reactions in cells which cause
decay. Without these reactions occurring, the food items do not decay.
●
They
also
decay,
wit hdraw
e.g.
growing
bacteria
and
water
and
causing
from
fungi.
t he
food
t he
This
microorganisms
prevents
items
to
(a)
8
t hese
t hat
bring
organisms
about
from
decay.
(b)
Figure
1.2.10
(a)
Salt
sh
and
(b)
crystallised
fruits
are
examples
of
preserved
food
items
States
of
matter
The
Summary
1
For
each
of
particulate
a
If
a
b
If
the
experiments
theory
the
bottles
of
2
State
of
3
Why
4
When
30
do
a
we
5.0 cm
Explain
its
of
how
to
control
to
preserve
The
You
have
and
gas.
raw
potato
was
in
a
a
is
the
into
a
of
the
evidence:
beaker
of
concentrated
to
each
other,
a
white
between
chip
to
case
was
have
of
osmosis
of
placed
to
diffusion.
diffusion?
in
water
increased
matter
and
to
and
left
5.5 cm.
explain
for
Use
your
this.
used:
garden
sh.
three
states
already
t hree
t hat
st ates
proper ties.
of
of
matter
matter
Objectives
matter
exists
have
in
t hree
st ates:
noticeable
solid,
differences
liquid
in
By
the
be
able
Physic al
properties
are
c haracter istics
t hat
end
of
or
measured
wit hout
c hanging
t he
c hemical
Shape,
volume,
density,
compressibility,
composition
solubility,
and
explain
of
boiling
physical
point
are
proper ties
all
of
examples
t he
t hree
of
physical
st ates
can
be
will
the
difference
the
three
states
of
a
in
terms
of
energy
and
particles,
and
melting
proper ties.
explained
of
The
forces
different
you
be
arrangement
point
topic
t heir
can
matter
subst ance.
this
to:
between
obser ved
matter
water.
and
next
feature(s)
provides
dropped
solution
special
theory
chloride
the
●
physical
of
bottles.
found
particulate
is
placed
differences
is
state
experiment
throughout
and
two
osmosis
long
below,
the
ammonia
the
and
length
slugs
lear nt
The
that
sodium
b
spreads
opened
between
the
a
A1.3
are
which
manganate(v II)
colour
acid
say
minutes,
described
for
potassium
similarities
knowledge
5
matter
concentrated
forms
any
of
purple
hydrochloric
cloud
states
questions
crystal
water,
three
by
of
attraction
between
t he
particles
par ticulate
t heor y
of
matter.
●
Table
and
1.3.1
t he
summarises
arrangement
t he
of
physical
par ticles
in
proper ties
t he
t hree
of
t he
t hree
states
of
matter
account
for
properties
states.
matter
in
the
of
terms
arrangement
We
can
use
t he
arrangement
of
par ticles
in
t he
t hree
states
of
matter
t he
physical
proper ties
of
t he
different
three
of
of
states
of
energy
and
particles,
and
to
forces
explain
physical
the
of
attraction
between
states:
particles
●
Solids
have
a
xed
shape
because
t heir
par ticles
are
arranged
in
a
regular
●
way
and
t hey
are
unable
to
move
out
of
t heir
xed
explain
state
●
Solids
t heir
any
have
a
xed
par ticles
closer
are
volume
packed
and
ver y
are
ver y
closely
difcult
toget her
to
the
changes
compress
and
cannot
be
pushed
in
terms
arrangement
because
●
understand
of
ow
●
Liquids
can
because
t heir
par ticles
are
able
to
move
past
each
energy
and
particles
boiling,
condensation,
Liquids
of
melting,
evaporation,
toget her.
●
of
positions.
freezing
and
ot her.
sublimation
be
compressed
slightly
because
t heir
par ticles
have
small
●
spaces
between
t hem
enabling
t hem
to
be
pushed
closer
understand
heating
●
Gases
t heir
take
t he
par ticles
attraction
shape
move
between
and
volume
freely
t hem,
and
of
t he
rapidly.
t herefore
container
They
t hey
have
spread
t hey
only
out
to
and
interpret
toget her.
are
in
weak
ll
cooling
curves.
because
forces
any
and
of
available
space.
●
Gases
are
between
easy
to
t hem,
compress
t herefore
because
t hey
can
t heir
be
par ticles
pushed
have
closer
large
spaces
toget her.
9
The
three
states
of
matter
States
T
able
1.3.1
The
properties
Property
Shape
of
the
three
states
Solid
and
volume
of
Solids
have
and
a
a
fixed
Gas
Liquids
fixed
a
volume.
fixed
they
do
not
shape,
have
volume.
a
the
container
of
and
always
Gases
fixed
definite
shape
occupy
have
but
Liquids
the
is
the
part
that
the
A
take
gas
will
space
of
is
they
is,
horizontal.
of
Most
solids
have
a
high
density.
Compressibility
Solids
to
The
density
usually
are
very
difficult
compress.
density
of
Liquids
can
is
of
the
The
particles
particles
packed
together,
regular
Forces
of
between
attraction
the
The
particles
in.
volume
volume
in
a
strong
and
attraction
have
between
of
the
and
movement
are
very
of
Arrangement
in
small
kinetic
particles
fixed
not
those
Particles
particles
a
solid
have
amounts
energy.
vibrate
position.
a
gas
the
of
shape
the
entire
in.
a
low
are
easy
to
pressure
particles
and
of
the
spaces
as
attraction
strong
Particles
in
a
kinetic
The
as
large
weak
attraction
the
spaces
them.
particles
very
are
arranged
have
between
particles
between
have
forces
of
between
them.
solid.
liquid
have
Particles
energy
particles
particles
about
The
small
a
The
are
them.
of
than
their
of
it
shape
compress.
randomly
particles
more
The
in
Gases
very
arranged
forces
between
them.
Energy
have
The
of
The
is
have
the
density.
be
particles
between
forces
Gases
up
container
solids.
when
randomly
usually
is
the
it
a
volume.
take
therefore,
and
have
or
applied.
The
pattern.
particles
very
are
closely
liquids
than
compressed
slightly
Arrangement
of
lower
not
the
placed
and
surface
do
shape
container
Density
matter
matter
Liquid
shape
of
in
a
large
solid.
energy.
move
move
slowly.
in
a
gas
amounts
The
about
of
have
kinetic
particles
freely
and
rapidly.
of
particles
Changing
Did
?
you
Matter
A
SCUBA
fact
to
divers
that
compress.
SCUBA
2250
T
o
of
use
very
of
average
tank
holds
this,
milk
think
cartons
be
of
consequently
sized
order
about
we
of
can
change
changed
state
is,
from
one
t herefore,
state
air.
a
need
changes
change
change
to
changing
milk
hold
to
a
remove
its
of
water
heat
are
t he
into
chemical
state
in
kinetic
ice
we
of
diving
milk,
tank
therefore,
holds
the
a
anot her
by
energy.
to
a
by
change
in
is
a
Figure
of
put
hanging
composition
summarised
energy
need
heating
in
or
cooling.
temperature
t he
t he
t he
par ticles.
water
state
physical
of
For
and
into
a
example,
t he
freezer,
substance
change.
The
in
i.e.
wit hout
different
1.3.1.
one
add
litre
to
caused
the
easy
compressed
understand
Most
are
An
diving
litres
carton.
make
gases
state
know?
heat
SCUBA
same
volume
evaporates/
of
air
as
2250
empty
milk
cartons!
melts
boils
LIQUID
SOLID
freezes
GAS
condenses
sublimates
sublimates
Figure
of
1.3.1
Summary
of
the
changes
remove
state
We
will
changes
10
now
in
look
state
in
in
more
Figure
detail
1.3.1.
at
heat
each
of
t he
processes
t hat
cause
t he
States
of
matter
The
three
states
of
matter
Melting
When
more
a
solid
is
heated,
vigorously.
t he
par ticles
Eventually
t he
gain
kinetic
par ticles
are
energy
able
to
and
begin
overcome
to
vibrate
t he
Key
!
strong
Melting
forces
of
attraction
between
t hem
and
t hey
move
more
freely
and
fact
point
is
the
constant
fur t her
temperature
at
which
a
solid
apar t forming a liquid, i.e. t he solid melts. The temperature remains constant
changes
into
a
liquid.
while t he solid is melting because all t he heat energy being supplied is used to
overcome
t he
temperature
forces
is
of
known
attraction
as
t he
between
melting
t he
solid
par ticles.
This
constant
point
Evaporation
When
Some
a
liquid
of
t he
is
heated,
par ticles
t he
near
par ticles
t he
gain
surface
of
kinetic
t he
energy
liquid
and
have
move
enough
faster.
Did
?
When
energy
to
overcome
t he
forces
of
attraction
between
t hem
and
are
able
t he
liquid
par ticles
and
t hat
become
leave
t he
a
vapour.
liquid
These
take
lots
par ticles
of
energy
are
wit h
said
to
t hem,
of
t he
sweat
and
the
evaporates
water
from
in
our
evaporate.
leading
to
it
takes
energy
with
it
causing
cooler.
If
we
a
our
cooling
we
sweat
skin,
The
know?
to
the
leave
you
kinetic
bodies
to
feel
put
liquid.
alcohol
even
on
faster
our
skin,
than
it
evaporates
water
because
Boiling
it
When
a
where
it
kinetic
star ts
t he
t he
is
to
energy
wit hin
while
liquid
boil.
and
liquid
liquid
overcome
heated
t he
temperature
is
At
at
boiling
of
known
temperature
t his
star ted
and
forces
is
its
point
to
move
its
because
t he
liquid
fast
surface.
attraction
as
t he
t he
eventually
heat
between
boiling
par ticles
enough
The
reaches
to
have
change
temperature
energy
t he
being
liquid
a
cer tain
gained
into
a
enough
gas
remains
supplied
point
has
a
water.
even
lower
This
differs
from
evaporation
in
oiling
place
●
occurs
at
any
oiling
place
a
specic
our
skin
when
we
than
feel
sweat.
bot h
is
par ticles.This
used
to
constant
Key
!
fact
point
two
point
temperature
ways.
temperature,
whereas
evaporation
can
is
at
into
a
the
constant
which
a
liquid
gas.
take
temperature.
takes
only
at
than
point
constant
changes
●
makes
colder
Boiling
oiling
boiling
at
place
t he
t hroughout
surface
of
t he
t he
liquid,
whereas
evaporation
takes
✔
liquid.
If
Exam
you
are
tip
asked
to
give
a
difference
Condensation
between
When
t he
temperature
of
a
gas
is
lowered,
t he
par ticles
lose
kinetic
two
things,
it
is
essential
energy
that
you
describe
the
specific
and begin to move more slowly. The forces of attraction between t he par ticles
property
become
liquid,
stronger
i.e.
t he
causing
liquid
t he
par ticles
to
move
closer
toget her
forming
a
condenses.
of
‘whereas’
describe
each,
to
link
just
using
the
the
two.
word
Do
not
one.
Freezing
When t he temperature of a liquid is lowered, t he par ticles lose kinetic energy
and begin to move more slowly. The forces of attraction between t he par ticles
become
stronger
causing
t he
par ticles
to
move
even
closer
toget her
!
Key
forming
Freezing
a
solid,
i.e.
t he
liquid
freezes.
The
temperature
at
which
t his
occurs
fact
is
point
temperature
t he
freezing
freezing
point,
e.g.
at
the
which
constant
a
liquid
point
changes
The
is
called
point
water
of
has
a
a
pure
substance
melting
point
has
and
a
t he
same
freezing
value
point
of
as
t he
into
a
solid.
melting
0 °.
Sublimation
When
t he
forces
of
attraction
between
t he
par ticles
in
a
solid
are
weak,
t he
addition of a small amount of heat can cause t he solid to change directly into
a gas, wit hout passing t hrough t he liquid state. f t he gas is t hen cooled it will
change
directly
solid
a
to
gas
or
back
a
gas
to
to
t he
a
solid.
solid
it
When
is
said
a
to
substance
changes
directly
from
a
sublime
11
The
three
states
of
matter
States
Examples
dioxide
balls
or
sublime
Figure
1.3.2
Solid
air
fresheners
of
substances
(known
as
‘dr y
camphor
balls
releasing
t heir
which
ice’),
are
undergo
sublimation
ammonium
made
of
fragrances
chloride
and
napht halene.
into
t he
are
of
iodine,
carbon
napht halene.
Solid
air
matter
Mot h
fresheners
also
air.
sublime
(a)
cotton
wool
Observing
est
sublimation
in
iodine
tube
Your
may
observation,
●
iodine
teacher
use
this
recording
activity
and
to
assess:
reporting.
crystals
iodine
vapour
Y
ou
will
cotton
be
supplied
wool
and
a
with
pair
a
of
test
tube,
a
small
iodine
crystal,
a
piece
of
tongs.
Method
1
Place
the
2
iodine
mouth
Hold
the
Bunsen
the
the
tube
of
the
test
in
crystal
test
tube
the
into
the
test
tube
and
place
the
cotton
wool
into
tube.
with
ame
tongs
of
a
at
a
Bunsen
45°
angle
burner
and
until
all
heat
the
the
bottom
iodine
of
crystal
has
burner
sublimed.
(b)
iodine
crystals
3
Observe
4
Remove
5
Observe
During
heated,
the
it
what
the
happens
tube
what
from
the
happens
experiment
sublimes
and
as
the
iodine
ame
as
the
tube
illustrated
forms
and
in
purple
is
heated.
let
is
it
cool.
cooling.
Figure
iodine
1.3.3,
vapour
as
the
which
iodine
diffuses
cr ystal
up
the
is
test
tube. The top of the tube is much cooler and when the vapour reaches the top,
Figure
1.3.3
heated
and
Iodine
(b)
sublimes
when
cooled
(a)
when
it
sublimes
back
Heating
f
t he
on
a
The
state
graph
water
and
a
solid,
forming
cooling
temperature
changes
is
to
cur ve
a
against
shown
increases.
in
shows
of
a
pure
liquid
time,
Figure
t hat
However,
temperature
12
to
a
ring
of
iodine
cr ystals
around
the
inside
of the tube.
remains
curves
solid
and
a
is
t hen
heating
measured
to
a
gas,
curve
is
at
inter vals
and
t he
as
it
is
heated
temperature
obtained.
The
is
heating
and
plotted
cur ve
for
1.3.4.
as
t he
heating
graph
constant
occurs,
has
for
a
t he
two
temperature
horizontal
period
of
time
of
t he
sections
even
substance
where
t hough
t he
heating
States
of
matter
continues.
state
is
water
These
where
melting
is
of
t he
0 °.
temperature
t he
happen
melting
point
t his
The
occurs
has
t here
and
substance
The
remains
substance
when
second
e.g.
t he
at
for
t he
a
change
of
temperature
until
change
constant
boiled,
is
all
of
t he
state
is
t his
where
point
is
The
remains
substance
boiling
water
state.
of
has
change
constant
melted,
boiling
t he
rst
occurs
substance
at
states
of
matter
of
t he
e.g.
and
three
for
t he
until
all
100 °.
140
)C°(
120
gas
and
liquid
boiling
100
point
erutarepme
T
80
60
liquid
40
20
solid
and
liquid
melting
0
20
solid
point
(ice)
40
Time
Figure
1.3.4
The
as
heating
heat
is
curve
added
for
water
f t he temperature of a gas is measured at inter vals as it is cooled and changes
state to a liquid and t hen to a solid, and t he temperature is plotted on a graph
against
shown
time,
in
a
cooling
Figure
curve
is
obtained.
The
cooling
cur ve
for
water
is
1.3.5.
140
gas
(steam)
)C°(
120
gas
and
liquid
boiling
100
point
erutarepme
T
80
liquid
60
40
20
melting
0
point
solid
20
40
Time
Like
Figure
heating
1.3.5
cur ves,
The
as
heat
cooling
cooling
is
removed
curve
cur ves
for
have
water
two
horizontal
sections.
The
rst
is
where t he state changes from gas to liquid and t he second is where it changes
from
liquid
to
solid.
Summary
1
Complete
what
is
the
of
Name
state
Gas
Solid
3
4
below.
The
rst
row
is
completed
as
an
example
of
given
to
change
Energy
state
change
Melting
added
or
removed
to
state
Added
gas
liquid
to
to
What
liquid
to
to
Liquid
2
of
to
Liquid
table
required.
Change
Solid
questions
solid
gas
are
a
Explain
b
Give
Explain
the
main
what
three
what
differences
occurs
examples
a
heating
during
of
between
and
boiling?
sublimation.
solids
curve
evaporation
which
undergo
sublimation.
shows.
13
The
three
states
of
matter
States
Key
matter
concepts
●
Matter
●
The
is
dened
proper ties
matter,
which
matter
states
made
–
t he
–
t here
are
spaces
–
t here
are
forces
par ticles
Matter
●
The
exists
are
in
difference
energy
of
t he
energy
anyt hing
matter
all
The
is
as
of
–
●
●
of
constant,
mass
states:
between
random
t he
attraction
t hree
has
explained
and
by
occupies
t he
space.
particulate
theory
of
par ticles
between
of
t hat
be
t hat:
of
in
can
t he
motion
par ticles
between
solid,
t hree
t he
liquid
states
par ticles.
and
is
due
gas
to
t he
arrangement
and
par ticles.
of
t he
par ticles
is
directly
related
to
t he
temperature
of
t he
par ticles.
●
Diffusion
t heor y
●
of
Diffusion
and
osmosis
provide
evidence
to
suppor t
t he
par ticulate
matter.
is
t he
concentration
movement
to
an
area
of
of
par ticles
lower
from
an
area
concentration
of
until
higher
t hey
are
evenly
distributed.
●
Osmosis
lot
of
wit h
is
t he
water
fewer
water
differentially
●
The
●
The
and
energy
account
of
t he
water
a
molecules,
e.g.
are
food
can
change
from
solid
●
Matter
can
change
from
gas
●
The
names
given
are
to
t he
melting,
of
to
from
or
a
pure
region
water,
solution,
of
processes
to
wit h
to
a
a
region
t hrough
to
pests
chloride
solids,
t hree
wit h
and
a
liquids
and
gases
states.
wit h
t he
addition
solid
wit h
t he
removal
cause
boiling,
sodium
sugar.
gas
which
evaporation,
in
t he
liquid
liquid
garden
sodium
par ticles
to
to
control
wit h
proper ties
Matter
anot her
solution
concentrated
used
●
to
a
items
arrangement
physical
molecules
dilute
membrane.
osmosis
preser ve
and
for
of
e.g.
permeable
principles
chloride
movement
molecules,
t he
change
of
of
from
condensation,
heat.
heat.
one
state
freezing
and
sublimation.
●
Melting
point
●
wit h
weak
When
t he
changes
against
●
When
against
14
t he
of
from
a
time,
in
attraction
of
solid
heating
from
a
temperatures
known
as
t he
melting
respectively.
at
any
gas
state
t hrough
temperature
state
specic
occurs
change
temperature
state
t he
liquid
passing
forces
time,
changes
a
at
point,
temperature
and
leads
to
t he
liquid.
is
wit hout
occur
boiling
of
t he
Sublimation
versa,
●
of
boiling
t he
Evaporation
cooling
●
and
and
of
a
pure
is
liquid
is
t heir
substance
to
from
state.
gas,
a
t
solid
to
occurs
a
in
gas,
or
vice
compounds
molecules.
is
and
measured
t he
as
it
is
temperature
heated
is
and
plotted
obtained.
pure
liquid
curve
straight
between
liquid
curve
to
cooling
a
to
t he
substance
to
solid,
is
and
obtained.
measured
t he
as
it
is
temperature
cooled
is
and
plotted
States
of
matter
Practice
i)
Practice
exam-style
State
what
t he
level
funnel
Which
is
of
made
t he
of
following
provide(s)
evidence
t hat
af ter
t he
expect
30
sucrose
to
have
solution
happened
in
t he
minutes.
Explain
t he
reason
for
your
(4
iii)
Name
t he
process
occurring
in
t he
Diffusion
,
A
second
and
and
D
only
substance
t hrough
t he
X
as
liquid
it
t he
was
state
temperature
heated
to
t he
from
of
mark)
an
t he
gaseous
solid
state.
are
plotted
in
Figure
2.
Use
t he
Her
information
in
only
t he
C
measured
results
student
unknown
state
and
marks)
apparatus.
(1
b
Decomposition
A
mark)
obser vations.
Osmosis
t histle
(1
matter
par ticles?
B
of
questions
ii)
1
would
questions
questions
to
Multiple-choice
you
exam-style
Figure
to
answer
t he
following
questions.
only
80
2
Par ticles
in
a
solid:
70
packed
B
are
capable
C
have
large
spaces
D
have
weak
forces
Liquids
A
t he
differ
closely
of
random
from
par ticles
toget her
in
between
of
t hem
attraction
gases
a
movement
in
liquid
between
t hem.
t hat:
can
move
more
freely
60
50
erutarepme
T
are
)C°(
3
A
t han
40
30
20
10
t hose
in
a
gas
0
B
t he
par ticles
in
a
gas
are
closer
toget her
t han
t hose
in
10
a
liquid
20
C
t he
par ticles
t han
D
t he
t hose
in
in
par ticles
a
a
in
liquid
possess
more
kinetic
energy
0
t hem
a
gas
t han
have
t hose
weaker
in
a
The
forces
of
conversion
of
Figure
a
gas
to
a
2
liquid
is
described
during
Graph
12
14
showing
heating
16
18
20
22
24
26
(min)
the
against
temperature
of
substance
time
as:
What
Over
state
what
is
X
in
at
68 °?
temperature
(1
range
does
X
exist
C
condensation
D
boiling.
iii)
From
take
Which
show
of
t he
following
lists
consist
of
substances
iv)
which
state?
t he
A
Aluminium
B
Ammonium
chloride,
chloride,
iodine,
C
Ammonium
chloride,
napht halene,
D
Aluminium
sulfate,
iodine,
carbon
carbon
dioxide,
it
Describe,
X
has
in
star ts
terms
what
to
melt,
completely
is
of
how
long
melted?
energy
and
happening
to
v)
monoxide.
Using
draw
iodine.
X
napht halene.
o
to
represent
a
par ticle
par ticles
as
t hey
of
n
order
to
a
investigate
student
set
t he
up
par ticulate
t he
nature
apparatus
of
shown
Extended
(2
1
below
and
lef t
it
for
30
response
glass
a
Describe
thistle
b
funnel
Water
t he
of
T WO
can
level
of
sucrose
15%
sucrose
y
for
solution
i)
35%
sucrose
differences
differentially
t hem
reference
EAH
of
steam
to
investigate
of
evidence
to
suppor t
the
a
matter.
solid,
between
of
t heir
and
to
t he
a
(4
liquid
t hese
t heir
and
t hree
par ticles,
par ticles,
t he
can
permeable
membrane
ii)
a
cr ystal
shape.
used
as
of
kinetic
a
gas.
states
forces
in
of
marks)
Explain
terms
attraction
energy.
explain
clearly
(6
t he
marks)
reason
following:
be
conver ted
to
liquid
water
by
solution
beaker
Apparatus
pieces
exist
reducing
particulate
its
of
temperature
potassium
chloride
(3
has
a
ver y
marks)
denite
(2
marks)
nature
Total
of
marks
solution
c
1
15
question
t heor y
arrangement
between
original
Figure
in
marks)
minutes.
par ticulate
X,
appear
15 °.
it
in
7
glass
as
marks)
question
matter,
Figure
of
X
substance
would
it
mark)
behaviour
(3
T WELE
at
does
substance
Total
a
t he
marks)
(1
melts.
dioxide.
carbon
(2
time
until
par ticles,
sublimation?
Structured
6
mark)
in
evaporation
liquid
5
10
melting
ii)
B
8
attraction
i)
A
6
liquid.
X
4
4
Time
between
2
gas
15
marks
matter
15
A2
Mixtures
Elements,
and
compounds
their
and
separation
mixtures
form
a
part
of
our
Objectives
By
the
be
able
end
of
this
topic
you
everyday
will
foil
●
distinguish
between
substances
and
pure
we
explain
an
When
we
wrap
our
food
in
aluminium
our
the
difference
element,
a
are
food
using
we
are
an
element.
eating
a
When
we
compound.
place
When
salt
we
on
drink
a
mixtures
cold
●
lives.
to:
soda
we
are
drinking
a
mixture.
It
may
be
useful
to
between
compound
and
a
know
how
to
separate
some
of
these
mixtures
into
their
mixture
component
●
give
examples
compounds
●
explain
a
the
of
and
mixtures
difference
homogeneous
heterogeneous
parts.
An
example
of
this
is
the
purification
elements,
and
of
drinking
water.
between
a
mixture.
A2.1
Elements,
compounds
and
mixtures
Matter can be classied into two main groups: pure substances and mixtures.
Pure
substances
●
They
have
●
Their
●
The
a
xed,
proper ties
component
physical
Mixtures
●
They
●
Their
t he
following
constant
are
xed
par ts
of
characteristics.
composition.
and
a
general
constant.
pure
substance
cannot
be
separated
by
means.
have
have
a
t he
following
variable
proper ties
individual
●
have
are
general
characteristics.
composition.
variable
since
t heir
components
retain
t heir
own,
proper ties.
The component parts of mixtures can be separated by physical means.
Pure
substances
Mixtures
can
be
heterogeneous
breakdown
of
can
be
fur t her
fur t her
mixtures .
t hese
classied
classied
The
tree
into
into
elements
and
homogeneous
diagram
in
Figure
compounds.
mixtures
2.1.1
shows
and
t he
groups.
matter
pure
mixtures
substances
elements
Pure
A
2.1.1
homogeneous
heterogeneous
mixtures
mixtures
Classication
of
matter
substances
pure
substance
following
16
Figure
compounds
xed
is
composed
of
only
one
type
of
material
proper ties:
●
a
shar ply
dened,
constant
melting
●
a
shar ply
dened,
constant
boiling
●
a
constant
density.
point
point
or
freezing
point
and
has
t he
Mixtures
and
their
separation
Elements,
compounds
and
mixtures
To determine if a substance is pure or not, its melting point or boiling point is
determined.
Any
impurities
in
a
pure
substance
will
usually
lower
its
melting
Did
?
point
and
usually
cause
raise
it
t he
to
melt
boiling
over
point
a
of
wider
a
pure
temperature
substance
range.
and
mpurities
cause
it
to
boil
over
In
a
many
ice
wider
temperature
will
produce
only
one
(Unit
single
2.4)
spot
may
on
a
also
be
used.
f
a
chromatogram.
substance
f
it
is
not
is
pure
pure
it
is
it
t han
one
will
The
and
Your
●
may
observation,
Y
our
boiling
points
of
pure
water
and
teacher
the
the
snow
the
the
(sodium
roads
dissolves
the
use
this
perform
activity
and
the
to
its
and
roads
in
chloride)
to
in
surface
the
freezing
melt
the
of
the
film
the
point
temperature
ice
starts
freezing
18 °C,
saturated
recording
will
on
about
sodium
solution
teacher
on
lowers
lower
the
salt
salt
water
below
chloride
on
ice,
spot.
this
Comparing
where
problem
rock
spread
ice.
of
more
a
range.
chromatography
produce
know?
countries
pose
winter,
Paper
you
will
to
the
melt.
point
the
sodium
of
to
ice
Salt
of
can
water
freezing
chloride
to
point
of
solution.
assess:
reporting.
following
demonstration.
Method
3
1
Place
2 cm
2
Place
an
open
Place
4
Half
a
distilled
inverted
end
3
of
facing
water
closed
in
end
a
test
tube.
capillary
tube
into
the
test
tube
with
the
downwards.
thermometer
in
the
tube.
3
ll
a
250 cm
assembly
is
5
Heat
the
ensure
of
in
beneath
the
the
oil
bubbles
indicates
bath
surface
beaker
that
beaker
is
emerges
that
the
so
of
over
even.
from
water
a
and
the
the
place
surface
Bunsen
test
of
burner,
heating
capillary
the
the
above
the
test
water
tube
in
the
test
tube
oil.
Continue
the
in
oil
that
level
gently
heating
with
tube.
tube
is
stirring
until
This
a
constantly
rapid
stream
to
stream
of
bubbles
boiling.
thermometer
6
Remove
last
7
the
bubble
Reheat
Record
the
heat
emerges
oil
the
source
bath
from
and
This
is
observe
the
the
reading
the
the
capillary
repeat
temperature
temperatures.
and
boiling
stream
tube,
cooling
after
of
record
process
each
point
of
trial
the
When
the
closed
end
stirring
rod
more.
average
test
all
three
Repeat
the
procedure
using
a
sodium
chloride
water.
solution
tube
oil
in
place
9
conclusion
sodium
can
chloride
you
draw
about
the
boiling
points
of
pure
solution?
Figure
An
element
is
t he
simplest
form
of
matter.
t
cannot
be
broken
down
simpler
by
ordinar y
chemical
or
physical
means.
We
say
means’
to
exclude
nuclear
reactions.
The
smallest
t hat
has
t he
same
proper ties
as
t he
element
is
an
the
boiling
fact
cannot
is
be
a
pure
substance
broken
down
into
‘ordinar y
par ticle
simpler
atom.
substances
by
any
in
ordinary
element
Determining
liquid
element
any
chemical
a
into
that
anyt hing
2.1.2
of
Key
!
Elements
an
solution
heat
water
point
An
or
chloride
water.
What
and
water
of
sodium
the
tube
beaker
distilled
8
capillary
temperature.
twice
and
distilled
bubbles.
chemical
or
physical
Each
means.
element
is
composed
of
only
one
kind
of
atom.
17
Elements,
compounds
and
mixtures
Mixtures
Examples
copper
of
elements
(Cu),
which
are
is
iron
(Fe),
composed
which
of
is
only
and
composed
copper
of
atoms
their
only
and
separation
iron
atoms,
oxygen
(O
),
2
which
is
composed
of
only
oxygen
atoms.
Compounds
Key
!
fact
Compounds
are
A
compound
is
a
pure
contains
types
of
element
together
or
and
properties
more
which
chemically
proportions
their
two
in
in
of
more
than
chemically,
one
t hey
are
kind
of
always
atom.
These
present
in
atoms
t he
by
mass
and
t hey
cannot
be
separated
by
physical
same
means.
A
different
are
bonded
a
compound
elements
fixed
such
have
composed
toget her
substance
propor tions
that
are
combined
way
that
can
t hat
combined,
be
t he
e.g.
represented
compound
t he
chemical
by
is
chemical
a
made
up
formula
of
of
formula ,
and
water
t he
is
H
which
ratio
in
indicates
which
t hey
t he
have
O.
2
changed.
Examples
oxygen
of
in
compounds
a
ratio
of
are
2 : 1,
water,
sodium
which
chloride
is
composed
(NaCl),
of
which
sodium and chlorine in a ratio of 1 : 1 and met hane (CH
hydrogen
is
and
composed
of
), which is composed
4
of
carbon
and
hydrogen
in
a
ratio
of
1 : 4.
The proper ties of a compound are xed and are different from t he proper ties
of
t he
individual
hydrogen
is
a
and
elements
oxygen
are
t hat
bot h
for m
gases
at
t he
room
compound.
temperature,
For
example,
however,
water
liquid.
Mixtures
Key
!
fact
Mixtures
A
mixture
consists
substances
in
two
(elements
compounds)
together
of
more
and/or
physically
varying
or
means.
combined
are
combined,
will
be
Some
component
of
t he
investigating
of
two
t heir
physical
in
or
more
substances
components
Unit
met hods
2.4,
are
can
for
which
be
separating
ltration,
are
not
separated
chemically
by
mixtures,
evaporation,
physical
which
we
cr ystallisation,
proportions.
distillation,
Each
composed
t herefore
retains
its
fractional
distillation
and
chromatography.
n
a
mixture
t he
own
component par ts are not in a xed ratio and t hey retain t heir own, individual
independent
properties
and
has
physical
undergone
with
any
no
other
chemical
proper ties.
reaction
substance
in
the
Homogeneous
mixtures
mixture.
A
homogeneous
are
uniform
mixture
t hroughout
distinguished
from
each
is
one
t he
in
which
mixture.
ot her.
A
t he
The
solution
is
a
proper ties
and
component
composition
par ts
homogeneous
cannot
be
mixture.
Examples of homogeneous mixtures are air, salt dissolved in water and metal
alloys
such
as
brass,
Heterogeneous
a
mixture
which
can
be
t he
copper
and
zinc.
mixtures
A heterogeneous mixture
in
of
component
distinguished
is a non-uniform mixture, for example, a mixture
par ts
from
are
each
in
different
ot her,
states.
alt hough
not
The
component
always
wit h
t he
par ts
naked
(a)
eye.
Suspensions
Examples
muddy
The
can
Figure
in
Figure
distinguished
●
f
t here
is
●
f
t here
are
2.1.3
(a)
Gold
is
an
heterogeneous
mixtures
are
salt
mixtures.
and
sand,
mayonnaise,
and
only
2.1.4
by
one
show
looking
kind
of
at
how
t he
atom,
elements,
par ticles
t hen
it
is
compounds
t hat
an
make
up
and
t he
mixtures
substance.
an
element,
(b)
copper
sulfate
is
water
is
of
an
a
compound
example
of
a
or
more
kinds
of
atoms
element.
joined
toget her
in
t he
same
ratio,
and
(c)
it
is
a
compound.
an
●
example
two
example
t hen
of
18
heterogeneous
are
water.
diagrams
be
colloids
(c)
(b)
of
and
f
t here
is
a
combination
muddy
mixture.
t hen
it
is
a
mixture.
of
two
or
more
elements
and/or
compounds,
Mixtures
and
their
separation
Solutions,
suspensions
and
colloids
n Figure 2.1.4, elements are represented in diagrams D, E and H, compounds
are
represented
diagrams
atoms
A,
are
F
not
in
diagrams
and
.
is
arranged
a
B,
and
mixture
regularly
A
C
G
and
and
not
among
t he
B
a
mixtures
compound
green
Summary
1
Copper
is
2
What
is
a
3
What
are
4
What
is
A2.2
example,
described
blue
D
the
E
diagrams
shown
I
the
F
atoms
Figure
of
2.1.4
as
an
element.
What
does
this
tell
us
about
are
the
differences
difference
suspensions
bot h
Elements,
compounds
and
mixtures
copper?
water
is
a
between
between
a
a
pure
substance
homogeneous
suspensions
and
colloids
solution,
form
muddy
mixture
and
par t
water
of
is
a
and
mixture?
and
a
heterogeneous
colloids
our
Objectives
ever yday
suspension
mixture?
lives.
and
milk
For
By
the
be
able
end
of
this
topic
you
will
to:
and
●
fog
different
compound?
the
sea
t he
in
questions
Solutions,
Solutions,
because
C
H
represented
atoms.
In
G
are
explain
the
terms
solvent,
colloids.
solute
●
and
identify
solution
different
types
of
Solutions
solutions
A
solution
is
known
is
as
a
homogeneous
t he
solvent
and
mixture.
t he
minor
The
major
component
component
is
known
of
as
a
solution
t he
solute.
Some solutions may contain more t han one solute, e.g. sea water. The solute
and
a
solvent
liquid,
salt
is
can
t he
t he
be
gases,
liquid
solute
is
and
liquids
always
water
is
or
solids.
t he
solvent,
t he
solvent.
When
e.g.
in
a
a
gas
or
a
solid
mixture
of
dissolves
salt
●
in
a
●
in
2.2.1
gives
examples
of
various
between
suspension
describe
some
water,
solution,
a
T
able
2.2.1
Examples
of
different
types
Solvent
Example
Components
solid
liquid
sea
sodium
of
liquid
soda
solid
solid
brass
water
carbon
of
chloride
the
in
give
in
water
examples
dioxide
in
Key
liquid
white
gas
gas
air
rum
a
a
of
and
solutions,
colloids.
fact
water
solution
is
a
homogeneous
copper
mixture
liquid
of
and
solution
A
zinc
the
properties
solutions.
!
gas
solution,
solutions
Solute
water
a
colloid
colloid
types
of
of
a
suspension
suspensions
and
distinguishing
●
Table
distinguish
ethanol
in
water
components,
usually
oxygen,
water
vapour,
consisting
argon
and
carbon
dioxide
in
a
one
of
of
two
or
which
more
is
liquid.
nitrogen
19
