Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences
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Research Article

Turkish J Earth Sci
(2016) 25: 256-273
© TÜBİTAK
doi:10.3906/yer-1505-25

Facies evolution and depositional model of an arid microtidal coast: example from the
coastal plain at the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd, Red Sea, Saudi Arabia
Ibrahim M. GHANDOUR1,2,*, Hamad A. AL-WASHMI1, Rabea A. HAREDY1, Aaid G. AL-ZUBIERI1
1Department of Marine Geology, Faculty of Marine Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
2Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt

Received: 30.05.2015

Accepted/Published Online: 07.01.2016

Final Version: 05.04.2016

Abstract: This study describes the subsurface sedimentary facies of a modern Red Sea coastal plain at the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd,
northern Saudi Arabia, in an attempt to infer the influence of aridity and limited tidal range on facies characteristics. The study provides
criteria to delineate the fluviomarine transition in a setting where tidal signatures and other marine influences are weak. Six manually
collected cores (1.4 to 1.75 m long) from the channels at the wadi mouth, beach ridge, intertidal flat, strandplain, and supratidal flat
enabled the identification of 23 sedimentary facies. The sediments displayed rapid and tremendous variability in facies both within
and among cores. They were deposited generally under low energy conditions occasionally punctuated by short-lived high energy
events. The sediments in the channel exhibit features characterizing deposition under an arid and semiarid climate, such as rapid and
intermittent discharge and short-lived rapidly abandoned channels. The sediments and depositional settings on both sides of the wadi
mouth are different. A low gradient intertidal flat influenced by wave and tidal processes develops to the south, whereas a relatively
high energy wave dominated strandplain occurs to the north. The deposition in the supratidal flat was accomplished by a short-lived

high energy washover event. The facies stacking pattern indicates that the depositional systems are in a state of transgression, with a
regime of gradually increasing accommodation possibly during the rising of relative sea level and diminishing of sedimentation. The
turnaround from regressive to transgressive stage that coincides with the fluviomarine transition in channel fill deposits is placed at a
level of increased soft sediment deformation because the tidal influence is weak in this microtidal setting. Though the plane view shows
a deltaic shoreline, the depositional system is interpreted as estuarine. The findings of this study can be applied to similar recent and
ancient settings.
Key words: Fluviomarine transition, arid microtidal coasts, washover deposits, estuarine vs. deltaic coasts, soft sediment deformation,
Wadi Al-Hamd

1. Introduction
Clastic coastal depositional systems (deltas, estuaries,
lagoons, strandplains, and tidal flats) are dynamically
very complex and show considerable overlap (Anthony
et al., 1996). Their development and evolution commonly
involve the interplay between patterns of fluvial sediment
supply, coastal processes, and changes in climate and sea
level (Frey and Howard, 1986; Boyd et al., 1992; Dalrymple,
1992; Anthony et al., 1996; Lessa et al., 1998; Harris et al.,
2002; Yang et al., 2005; Dalrymple et al., 2006; Dalrymple
and Choi, 2007; Clemmensen and Nielsen, 2010; Costas
and FitzGerald, 2011; Hein et al., 2013). Therefore, the
sedimentary facies of these systems record short-term
and long-term changes in sea level, climate, sediment
supply, and their interdependent coastal processes, which
are the primary drivers for coastal evolution (Boyd et
al., 1992; Dalrymple, 1992; Harris et al., 2002; Hein et
*Correspondence:

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al., 2013). Facies models have been proposed for many
transgressive and regressive coastal systems (Boyd et al.,
1992; Dalrymple, 1992; Allen and Posamentier, 1993;
Lessa and Masselink, 1995; Yang et al., 2005; Dalrymple
and Choi, 2007). Until recently systematic and detailed
stratigraphic studies of the extremely arid clastic coastal
sedimentary facies have been underrepresented and
consequently stratigraphic information of these deposits is
scarce and incomplete (Johnson, 1982; Harris et al., 2002).
Depositional systems and sedimentary facies in arid and
semiarid coasts differ markedly from their equivalents
in humid settings (Boyd et al., 1992; Dalrymple, 1992;
Allen and Posamentier, 1993; Lessa and Masselink,
1995; Lessa et al., 1998). The differences probably result
from the extremely variable and intermittent discharges,
the frequent highly energetic wave climate, and cyclonic
storms, wind-driven currents, and waves (Hayes, 1979;


GHANDOUR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Johnson, 1982; Kvale et al., 1995; Semeniuk, 1996; Fielding
et al., 2009). Given their importance for both the modern
coast and the ancient stratigraphic record, it is important
to have a good understanding of the facies characteristics
and evolution of the arid microtidal coasts.
The coastal plain at the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd, on
the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast (Figure 1), provides a good
opportunity to study the effect of aridity and limited tidal
range on sedimentary facies of the coastal environments
and their stratigraphic records. Recent Red Sea coastal

sediments have been extensively studied; however, none
of these studies were concerned with subsurface facies

characteristics and their vertical and lateral distributions.
Most of these studies have focused on the textural,
micropaleontological, geochemical, and mineralogical
characteristics of coastal surface sediment (e.g., Abou
Ouf and El Shater, 1992; Basaham, 2008; Abu-Zied et al.,
2013; Ghandour et al., 2014). The objectives of this work
are to document the sedimentary facies and to develop a
generalized facies model for the arid microtidal Red Sea
coast at the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd. This model can be a
useful step in the interpretation of similar deposits in the
rock record.

Figure 1. Location map of the area of study (A) and the morphology and locations of the
collected cores at the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd (B). Stars and letters (A–L) show the locations of field photographs displayed in Figure 2.

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2. Area of study
The area of study covers the coastal plain at the mouth of
Wadi Al-Hamd, northern Red Sea, about 55 km south of
Al Wajh City, Saudi Arabia (Figure 1). It is located between
latitudes 25°57′0″N and 25°58′30″N and longitudes
36°43′0″E and 36°43′30″E. Wadi Al-Hamd is the largest
wadi in northern Saudi Arabia, extending about 165 km
from the mountain scarp near Al-Medina City and flowing

inland to the NW, draining into the Red Sea. The wadi is
extremely dry most of the year. It activates temporarily,
representing an important conduit for fresh water and
sediments to the Red Sea coast during episodic major
floods. The water flow in the downstream channel in
the coastal area is limited only to periods of spring tide
associated with sea breeze. The climate in the area is arid to
semiarid, with episodic rainfall (from 0.5 to 116 mm year–
1) mostly in winter between October and March and rarely
in summer in the form of short-duration showers generally
associated with thunderstorms. The rain is not seasonal
and rainfall may stop for some years. The evaporation rate,
on the other hand, is high at up to 2 m3 year–1 or more
(Morcos, 1970; Fenton et al., 2000; Siddall et al., 2004). The
maximum daily temperatures range from 20 °C in January
to 35 °C and up to 48 °C in July. The prevailing winds are
from the NNW to SSE over the entire year. In winter, the
wind directions include NE, SSE, and rarely N and SW,
with speed varying from 2 to 10 m s–1. The wind and storm
regimes show no clear or pronounced seasonality. The
strong onshore directed winds generate significant wave
heights of up to 2.5 m and rarely up to 4 m. The area has
a semidiurnal microtidal regime, with a spring and neap
tidal range of 0.7 m and 0.5 m, respectively. The strength
of flood tidal currents, although relatively weak, is still
stronger than the almost negligible ebb currents.
In a plane view, the coast at the mouth of Wadi AlHamd takes the form of an asymmetric lobate delta
flanked to the north by a narrow strandplain with a
relatively steep foreshore profile and a wide, low gradient
intertidal flat to the south, separated by a low relief

beach ridge (Ghandour et al., 2013). The most dominant
processes are erosion and sediment reworking with local
transgression and sediment redistribution probably due to
sea-level rise and/or the shortage in sediment supply with
progressive increased wave activity (Ghandour, 2014). The
area is tectonically stable with no evidence of subsidence.
The seaward extension of Wadi Al-Hamd is represented
by an inactive channel that remains dry most of the year
except during cyclonic storms and/or during major flash
floods when it is inundated up to ~2 km inland. The flood
plain is occupied by sabkhas and coastal sand dunes. The
channel is barred seaward by a low relief beach ridge with
back-barrier swale separating the channel from the sea.
The strandplain to the north contains a series of sand bars

258

and a runnel system running parallel to slightly oblique to
the shoreline. The backshore supratidal flat is episodically
inundated, forming a shallow lagoon.
3. Data collection and methods
The data of the study area were obtained through manual
push with rotation and pull coring. Six shallow cores
(1.4–1.75 m long) were collected manually using pipes
of PVC with an internal diameter of 5.08 cm. Locations
of the cores were selected to cover the main landforms
in a proximal-distal transect running parallel to the
axis of the channel (cores I and II), on the beach ridge
(core III), and along the shore on both sides of the wadi
mouth (cores IV and V). Core VI was collected from a

temporarily inundated shallow lagoon on the supratidal
flat. The surface sedimentary features in the area of study
were photographed and are shown in Figures 2A–2L. In
the laboratory, cores were split longitudinally into two
sections; each was carefully cleaned and photographed
using a digital camera to show the main sedimentary
features. A photomosaic of each core was prepared by
carefully assembling together small photos of core parts
photographed at a fixed distance with an overlap. The cores
were described based on a set of descriptive attributes such
as grain size, color variation, bed contacts, biogenic and
physical sedimentary structure, and fossil content. The
individual core serves as a good example of the various
facies associations observed in the location of drilling
and the landform. The shortcomings include the limited
sedimentary record penetrated and the lack of dating.
4. Depositional environments and facies
High resolution facies analysis enabled the differentiating
of 23 sedimentary facies at the coastal plain of the mouth
of Wadi Al-Hamd. The description and the diagnostic
features are introduced in the Table. Abbreviations S, M,
G, and Ev refer to sandy, muddy, gravelly, and evaporite
facies.
4.1. Channel fills
4.1.1. Morphology
The channel at the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd is of low
gradient with flat to irregular base and is associated with
the levee and flood plain. It is generally inactive and dry
most of the year and is encrusted with a white salt layer
(Figure 2A) and temporarily inundated. In winter, a

combination of sea breeze, wind, and tide flush water
loaded with sediments landward and fill the channel up
to 2 km inland (Figure 2B). The channel has a high width
to depth ratio and is occupied by low relief longitudinal
sandbars, and some of these bars are permanently exposed
and covered by vegetation and scattered shrubs. Current
ripples are the common bedforms with clays draping the
top after the flood waning (Figure 2C). Footprints of birds


GHANDOUR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci

Figure 2. Field photographs showing the main landforms in the coastal plain at the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd. A–C) Channel at the
end of the wadi; dry during fair-weather conditions with salt encrustation (A), inundated during storm weather (B), and containing
ripples with mud drapes (C). D and E show the beach ridge during fair weather and storm waves, respectively. Black arrows in D
show swash and marks. F–I show features of the intertidal flat. F) A low relief shallow sand bar runs perpendicular to the shoreline,
black arrows show pellets after crab burrowing, and white arrows show mica concentration. G) Churning of sediments after crab
bioturbation. H) Current ripples with current trending landward (due E), arrows show bird footprints. I) Straight crested, symmetrical ripples displaying tune-fork bifurcation. J and K show features of the strandplain. J) Gently sloping foreshore, black arrows show
swash marks, white arrows show crab burrowing. K) Bar and runnel with rippled rip channel in the foreground. L) Storm-induced
channel with temporarily inundated back-barrier lagoon.

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Figure 2. (Continued).

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Table. Diagnostic features of the sedimentary facies in the shallow subsurface coastal plain sediments at the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd.
Diagnostic features

Interpretations

Unrhythmic alternations of light brown to light gray fine and sharp
based medium sands of variable thickness varying from millimeters
to a few centimeters thick, rarely containing reworked shell
fragments and locally with a brown shading upper contact. Medium
sand laminae are horizontal to subhorizontal, generally massive,
undulated, slightly inclined, convex up, and tabular to rarely wedge
shaped.

Rapid fluctuation in flow velocity and depth
probably associated with flood or storm
events.

S2

Relatively thin (up to 6 cm) sharp based fine to medium sands
coarsening up with inclined upper contact. They are sharply overlain
by thin mud layer (facies M1), rarely bioturbated by bird footprints.

Vertical accretion and lateral migration of
rapidly abandoned medium scale bedform.

S3


Upward fining massive sands gradationally overlying G1 facies rarely
display indistinctive alternated massive medium and fine sands
disturbed by plant roots and animal burrowing.

Rapid filling of shallow channel by highly
concentrated discharge flow subsequently
deformed by biogenic activities.

S4

Relatively thin (~16 cm) sharp erosional based sands, normal grading Rapid filling of shallow scour by highly
concentrated and rapidly abandoned intense
from pebbly coarse sands to medium sands and sharply overlain by
M1 facies.
flow.

S5

Sharp based upward fining medium to fine sands, argillaceous and
burrowed at the top. Parallel and ripple laminated, rarely draped with
thin mud, laminae display upward convex deformation.

Upward waning flow probably associated
with channel fills. Soft sediment deformation
is linked to the increase of pore water
pressure.

S6

Sharp based sands with concentration of carbonaceous wood detritus

and scattered pebbles at the base. The base displays parallel deformed
relatively coarse laminae and the whole interval appears massive with
inclined slightly burrowed upper contact.

Rapid deposition from high energy shallow
flow waned rapidly followed by brief
subaerial exposure and the activation of
burrowing organisms.

S7

Massive heterolithic argillaceous sands densely burrowed; the base
is inclined and overlain by sand volcano. The rest of the interval is
homogenized by intensive crab burrowing.

Vertical accretion of sand bar subaerially
exposed and intensively churned and
homogenized by burrowing crabs.

S8

Gradationally 3 upward stacked coarsening very fine to medium
sand intervals (19, 16, and 18 cm thick, respectively). The transition
between successive intervals is bioturbated and argillaceous. Sands
have massive to parallel lamination with laminae displaying soft
sediment deformation. The third interval is overlain by facies M1.

Vertical accretion of sand bar with upward
increase in flow velocity, probably swash bar
subsequently abandoned, depositing mud

and disturbed by burrowing during period
of subaerial exposure and/or low energy.
This probably represents a runnel finally
draped with mud.

S9

Massive to diffuse parallel laminated fine to medium sands,
homogenized and deformed by bioturbation. Laminae thickness
is variable. The basal part consists of slightly deformed parallel
laminated coarse sand and the laminae are grain thick.

Repeatedly exposed and submerged
intertidal/beach affected by high energy
swash and backwash processes and
occasionally affected by storms. Burrowing
organisms are active during low energy and
low water levels.

S10

Heterolithic argillaceous sands contain organic materials, densely
burrowed and homogenized; burrowing takes the form of sand filled
irregular cavities.

Moderate to low energy repeatedly exposed
and inundated environment, probably upper
tidal flat.

S11


Relatively thick bedded (1–4 cm thick) massive medium sand beds
interbedded with fine sands and mud, rare scattered pebbles, mud
clasts, and shell fragments. The bed contact is flat horizontal to
slightly inclined and the upper boundary displays brown shading.

Alternation between high and low energy
conditions ended with brief subaerial
exposure.

S12

Vertically stacked 2 sharp based fine to medium sand intervalsS12a:
5-cm-thick sharp based fine to very fine sands, normal grading
upward from fine to very fine sands and from grayish brown to light
brown massive sands, upper contact burrowed by probably bird
footprints.S12b: 16-cm-thick sharp based gray to grayish brown
medium to fine sands, normal grading, burrowed at the base with
horizontal burrowing and disturbed at the top by burrowing.

High energy event, probably storm.
Storm-induced vertically stacked shallow
scours occasionally isolated, experienced
brief stagnation and probably dysoxic
conditions.

Facies

Sand facies


S1

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Diagnostic features

Interpretations

S13

Sharp based light brown ripple and ripple cross-laminated fine sands
with rare reworked mud clasts. The foresets are draped with thin
mud and dip in the opposite direction. The upper part is micaceous
and argillaceous fine sands displaying deformation, probably sand
volcano after crab burrowing.

Tidally influenced sandbody with possible
effect of storm. Mud drapes and oppositely
dipping cross-sets are possibly attributed
to tidal influence. The upper part is
deposited under lower energy conditions
and subsequent exposure as shown by the
presence of mica and crab burrowing.

S14

Relatively well-sorted fine sands; massive, plane parallel lamination,

planar, ripple and low angle cross-lamination. The troughs of ripples
contain organic detritus (coffee grounds). Foresets are occasionally
draped with mica and organic detritus and dip locally in the opposite
direction.

High energy turbulent flow, fluctuating
swash/backwash flows.

S15

Massive clean well-sorted fine sands, rarely display faint planar crosslamination with mica concentration.

Energetic environment where waves were
able to erode and transport sand and deposit
it rapidly.

S16

6-cm-thick massive dark gray argillaceous sands containing very rare
reworked shell fragments.

Rapid deposition in a restricted environment
that experienced isolation and stagnation.

S17

Sharp based brown massive poorly sorted coarse sands containing
reworked shell fragment normally graded to fine sand. It is
gradationally overlain by the M3 facies.


Deposition by upward waning flow with
sediments derived mainly from seaward,
probably as washover run-off channel fill.

S18

Massive medium sands interbedded with sharp erosively based
coarse sands (0.5 to 7 cm thick), or mud containing reworked shell
fragments.

Alternation between high and low flow
energy. High energy flows were produced
by storm surge and waves that transported
coarse marine-derived sediments into the
supratidal flat environment as washover
sheets.

M1

Sharp based light brown to gray mud locally containing root traces.

Deposition by settling from suspension in
isolated pond or at the top of abandoned
channel.

M2

Dark brown clay locally contains scattered sand grains and rootlets.

Color change due to subaerial exposure.


Brown to greenish gray clay containing vugs after gas bubbles and
reworked wood fragments.

Deposition by settling from suspension in
quiet environment followed by stagnation
and degradation of organic matter and the
formation of gas in an environment affected
by marine and terrestrial inflow.

Gravel facies
(G1)

Poorly sorted sharp irregularly based massive gravely sands to coarse
sands with reworked mud clasts.

Basal channel lag.

Evaporite
(Ev1)

Table. (Continued).

Thin layer of evaporite (halite and anhydrite).

Pond isolation and evaporation, then
deposition of salt crust.

Mud facies


Sand facies

Facies

M3

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and small circular openings after burrows and/or water
escaping are observed.
4.1.2. Sedimentary features
Cores I and II were obtained from the proximal and
distal parts of the channel, respectively, at the mouth
of wadi (Figures 3–5). The sediments of the two cores
are generally sandy, devoid of or containing negligible
amounts of mud and gravel. The gravel, sand, and mud
content in the sediments of core I is 3%, 94.5%, and 2.5%,
respectively, whereas the sand and mud contents in core
II are respectively 96% and 4%. Based on the thickness
and facies succession, the sediments in the two cores can
be differentiated into six sharp based upward fining units
(CH1–6).
The framework of core I includes CH1 and 2 (Figures
3 and 4). CH1 (~90 cm thick) has an unexposed base and
contains the facies succession S1→ S2→ M1→ M2 (Table).
It is sharply overlain by unit CH2 (~65 cm thick) that
consists of facies sequence G1→ S3 (Figure 4). Core II, on
the other hand, contains units CH3–6. Unit CH3 (~20 cm

thick) occupies the basal part of core II. It consists of facies
sequence S4→ M1 (Table). Unit CH4 sharply overlies CH3
in core II, containing the S1→ S2→ M1 facies sequence.
Unit CH5 was documented from the middle part of
core II, juxtaposing unit CH4. It consists of 30-cm-thick
upward fining parallel laminated medium sand with mud
partings (facies S5). The laminae are deformed, forming
asymmetric antiforms, and the upper part is argillaceous
and bioturbated (Figure 5). The uppermost unit (CH6)
occupies the upper part of core II (Figures 3 and 5)
containing the S6→ S7 facies sequence (Table).
4.1.3. Interpretations
The units having a sharp base with local occurrence of
gravel lags and filled with upward fining, thinning, and
bioturbated deposit features represent channel fills. The
variations in the facies types and sequence within the same
core or among cores are attributed to vertical variations in
flood magnitude and materials. The channels have variable
but relatively small thickness (<1 m thick) and range
between a short-lived rapid and strong flood event (CH3)
to relatively longer filling under fluctuating flow strength
and/or depth. The tops of some channels became stable
and were either colonized by shrubs (CH1 and CH2) or
disturbed by burrowing organisms (CH2, CH5, and CH6).
The channel fills were dominated by noncyclic
alternation of fine and sharp based medium sands,
suggesting deposition by intermittent supply under
fluctuating flow speed and depth, similar to ephemeral
channels that are common under arid to semiarid
conditions (Tunbridge, 1984; Stear, 1985; Abdullatif, 1989;

Luttrell, 1993). The thickness and attitude of medium sand
beds are variable, indicating temporal variation in flow
load and intensity. It is followed by a generally massive,

rarely rippled section displaying no cross-laminations that
characterize perennial and ephemeral streams (Tunbridge,
1984; Abdullatif, 1989; Miall, 1996). The absence of crosslamination is attributed to the shallow rapidly waning
flow. In addition, rapid and intermittent discharge may
bring all sediments into suspension, suppressing the
flow separation and turbulence involved in the bedform
formation (Allen and Leeder, 1980; North and Taylor,
1996). Some channels are truncated by inclined surfaces,
possibly terminal slip-face or rapidly abandoned laterally
migrated sandy bedform.
Features attributed to subaerial exposures were
recorded from the top of CH1 in the form of dark brown
mud with rare disseminated sand grain as well as small
fissures (facies M2) and from the densely bioturbated
and churned deposits of facies S7 at the top of unit CH6.
The reddening under oxidizing conditions is explained by
brief subaerial exposure (Mack and James, 1992; Retallack,
1997). Other features that may indicate prolonged subaerial
exposure such as mud cracks and aeolian deposits were
not observed.
Soft sediment deformation in the form of upward
convex laminae is observed from CH5 and the base of
CH6. Soft sediment deformation may be attributed to the
rapid filling and increased pore water pressure (Coleman
and Prior, 1982; North and Taylor, 1996).
It is noteworthy to mention that the channels in core

II, particularly CH5 and 6, displayed marine influence in
the form of crab burrowing. In CH5 deformed laminae
with probable mud drapes (facies S5) may be an indication
for tidal influence. However, the absence of other tidegenerated structures provided some uncertainty about the
possible tidal influence.
4.2. Beach ridge
4.2.1. Morphology
At the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd, a shore parallel beach
barrier (ridge), about 200 m long, 10 m wide, and about 50
cm in height, is developed (Figure 2D). During fair-weather
low water levels, the beach ridge emerges and is disturbed
by crab burrowing. Bioturbation in the form of pellets and
crab mounds and trenches is commonly observed. On the
other hand, during periods of active sea breeze, the beach
ridge is completely submerged and the sediments at the top
are eroded and reworked (Figure 2E). A shallow trough or
swale and small fan shape, probably a washover fan, are
developed to the back of the ridge. The swale is completely
submerged during active storms, leaving behind a shallow
pond after the cessation of the storm. Planar lamination,
swash, and rill marks are observed on the beach ridge.
Gravel-sized mud clasts reworked during active sea breeze
are patchily distributed along the beach ridge.
4.2.2. Sedimentary features
The core recovered from the beach ridge is subdivided into
3 vertically stacked units (Figures 3 and 6). The unit at the

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Figure 3. Schematic block diagram showing the geomorphological features in the area of study and the vertical
distribution of sedimentary facies in the cores. (No scale for the block diagram.)

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Figure 4. Sedimentary facies in the proximal channel (core I);
white arrow shows bird’s footprint, black arrow shows animal
burrowing, and green arrows show root traces.

base is similar to CH4, consisting of the S1→ S2→ M1 facies
sequence. The sandy beds in the S1 facies displays a convex
up, horizontal to slightly inclined and wedge shape to
tabular and undulated geometry (Figure 6). The medium
sand beds are centimeters thick; however, some laminae
are amalgamated, forming beds of up to 4 cm thick, and
the uppermost part displays brown shading.
The second unit consists of nonerosively sharp based
3 vertically staked relatively thin (19, 16, and 18 cm thick)
upward coarsening fine to medium sand intervals (facies
S8). The top of each interval is argillaceous and moderately
bioturbated. The S8 facies is draped with sharp based
brown muds (facies M1) with sharp curved upper contact
(Figure 6).
The upper part of the core consists of sharp based
fine to medium and rarely coarse sands (facies S9). These

sands are thinly parallel laminated with variable laminae
thicknesses (millimeters to centimeters thick) and grain
size. The laminae are convex up, occasionally steeply
inclined or disrupted by burrowing (Figure 6).
4.2.3. Interpretations
CH4 at the base represents the distal extension of the
channel fills observed in the basal part of core II. The
undulated beds, the amalgamated nature of some beds,
and the low angle inclination suggest marine influence and
possible storm reworking. The oxidized brown shading at
the top probably indicates brief subaerial exposure.
The upward coarsening sands of facies S8 are interpreted
as migrating sand bars that were abandoned rapidly. There

Figure 5. Sedimentary facies in the distal channel (core II); white
arrows show upward convex laminae with mud drapes, whereas
black arrow shows sand volcano probably after crab burrowing.

were at least 3 periods of bar growth with intervening
periods of quiescence in which the bar top was modified
and disturbed by organisms. Soft sediment deformation is
attributed to the escape of pore water upwards generated
during loading of the overlying sediments pushing
sediments up (Singh and Bhardwaj, 1991).
The thin parallel laminated fine and medium sands
of facies S9 are interpreted as a frequently exposed and
burrowed beach ridge. The coarser sediments with planar
lamination indicate upper flow regime conditions probably
generated as swash lamination (Clifton et al., 1971) or
by periodic storms and their associated wave processes

(Dott and Bourgeois, 1982). The steeply inclined laminae
indicate the effect of soft sediment deformation, probably
water escaping.

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GHANDOUR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
pebbles and mud clasts (facies S11). The third unit consists
of two vertically stacked relatively thin upward fining sandy
beds (facies S12). Unit 4 contains the most distinctive
facies in core IV, facies S13, which consists of two vertically
stacked relatively well sorted fine sand beds (20 and 52 cm
thick, respectively). They contain rare reworked mud clasts
and display small-scale planar and ripple cross lamination
with foresets dipping in opposite directions, and they are
draped with a thin mud layer (Figure 7). The uppermost
unit consists of massive rarely burrowed sands (facies S11)
interbedded with mud (facies M1).

Figure 6. Sedimentary facies recognized from the beach ridge
(core III). The basal part is storm-influenced channel deposits.
The upper part displays steeply inclined laminate as a result of
soft sediment deformation and disturbance by bioturbation.
Black arrows show convex up and steeply inclined deformed
lamination.

4.3.3. Interpretations
The facies characteristics and their stacking in core IV
reflect the mutual and combined influence of storm and

tide and shoreline transgression. Tidal sedimentary
structures in the form of opposite bidirectional crosslamination and mud drapes (facies S13) are restricted to
the middle part of the succession. The low tidal range in the
area of the study would support the combination of storm
and tide in generating such structures; especially reworked

4.3. Intertidal flat
4.3.1. Morphology
To the south of the wadi mouth, a wide gently sloping
intertidal flat is developed (Figures 2F–2I). It is classified
as wave-influenced open coast intertidal flat (Yang et al.,
2005). The intertidal flat is occupied by wide varieties of
wave and current ripples ranging from straight crested
wave ripples, locally display tuning-fork bifurcation. Low
relief sand bars running oblique to perpendicular of the
shoreline are identified (Figures 2H and 2I). At low water
levels these bars are draped either with mud or mica (Figure
2F). During sea breeze times, strong currents erode ancient
muddy shorelines forming shallow pools or troughs in
which fine-grained sediments are deposited. The upper
intertidal flat is intensively disturbed by crabs, leading to
homogenization and churning of sediments (Figure 2G).
On the tidal flat mud layers probably representing ancient
deltaic deposits are patchily distributed, eroded, and
reworked during periods of active sea breeze.
4.3.2. Sedimentary features
The sedimentary succession observed in core IV can
be subdivided into 5 distinctive units (Figures 3 and 7).
The basal one consists of densely burrowed heterolithic
relatively organic rich argillaceous massive sands (facies

S10). The second unit consists of relatively thick bedded
(1–4 cm thick) massive medium sand beds interbedded
with fine argillaceous sands and rarely contains scattered

266

Figure 7. Sedimentary facies of the intertidal flat south of the
wadi mouth (core IV). White wide arrow shows bird’s footprint,
green triangles show color mottling after intensive burrowing,
black wide arrow shows vertical burrowing connecting muddy
layers, black triangle shows sand volcano probably after crab
burrowing, white triangle shows mud clasts, and white arrows
show ripple and ripple lamination with mud drapes.


GHANDOUR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
mud clasts were observed. Storm influence is defined by
shallow scours, reworked mud clasts, and massive thick
sandy beds, probably sand sheets. The scarcity of mud and
the alternated massive medium and fine sands suggest
an open coast tidal flat (Yang et al., 2005). The densely
burrowed heterolithic argillaceous sands (facies S10)
at the base suggest deposition in a repeatedly emerged
and submerged setting similar to the present-day upper
intertidal flat. The scours and fills structures (facies S12)
were formed by storms. During storms, the open coast
intertidal flat is lowered and sediments become sandy, and
an upward fining succession is deposited at and after the
storm waning phase (Basilici et al., 2012; Daidu, 2013).
These scours experienced a brief period of stagnation and

probable low oxygen conditions as shown by gray-colored
sediments and rare horizontal burrows. The deposition
of sand with mud interbeds (facies S11) in the upper
part suggests deposition under alternated storm and fairweather conditions in a generally bedload dominated
intertidal flat. The absence of internal structure, the
scarcity of bioturbation, and the mud interbeds indicate
poststorm rapid deposition (Yang et al., 2005; Basilici et
al., 2012).
4.4. Strandplain
4.4.1. Morphology
To the north of the wadi mouth, a moderately sloping
strandplain containing shoreward migrating flat topped
sand bars and runnels running parallel to the shoreline
and a rib channel were developed (Figures 2J and 2K).
Horizontal lamination, swash marks, and wave ripples
with straight crests running parallel to the shoreline and
displaying tuning-fork bifurcation with coffee ground fills
in the troughs of ripples and swash marks are common. In
addition, ladder-back composite ripples were observed in
the runnels. The secondary ripples indicate a northward
direction, suggesting the effect of longshore currents.
Bioturbations in the form of crab burrowing and worm
traces are common. Large-scale bedforms have not been
observed on the exposed foreshore.
4.4.2. Sedimentary features
The sediments of core V are sandy and devoid of mud.
Three sedimentary facies (S10, S14, and S15) stack
vertically and gradationally without any major observed
break in sedimentation (Figures 3 and 8). Facies S10
at the base consists of densely burrowed structureless

heterolithic sands occasionally containing reworked
mud clasts. The intensity of burrowing decreases upward.
Burrowing appears as irregular cavities filled with sands.
Facies S10 is gradationally overlain by massive, plane
parallel laminated, rippled and low angle planar crosslaminated medium sands (facies S14). Undulated parallel
laminations are rarely observed. The foresets of planar
cross-lamination occasionally dip in opposite directions

Figure 8. Sedimentary facies in core V that was collected from
the strandplain to the north of the wadi mouth. The core shows
an upward decrease in the degree of bioturbation. Green triangles show color mottling after intensive bioturbation, white
triangle shows reworked mud clasts, white arrows show ripple
and ripple lamination, and black arrow shows cross-lamination
draped with mica and/or organic detritus.

and together with ripples are slightly draped with a thin
film of organic detritus (Figure 8). The uppermost 30 cm of
the core is generally massive clean sand, barely displaying
faint planar cross-lamination (facies S15).
4.4.3. Interpretations
The facies sequence in the sediments of core V displays
an upward increase in depositional energy and landward
migration of facies (shoreline transgression). The basal
facies S10 was deposited in an area that experienced
periodic submergence and emergence. This is similar to the
present-day upper intertidal flat. Crab burrowing occurs
in the upper intertidal flat during fair-weather prolonged
quiet low water and low energy conditions. It disturbs the
substrate and continuously modifies and totally obliterates
the sedimentary structures. During high water levels crabs

escape to more quiet landward areas. Inundation does
not last for a long time, and the area is exposed again
and crabs disturb the sediments. Facies S14 is deposited

267


GHANDOUR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
under a quite higher energy in a fully submerged part of
the beach (upper foreshore). The disorganized structures
may indicate unsteady low and upper flow regimes.
Horizontal to low angle cross-laminated sands were
deposited under critical to subcritical flow, probably in
the swash zone by swash/backwash flows (Clifton, 1969).
The ripple cross-laminated sands were formed under
relatively low flow regime conditions. The bidirectional
cross-laminations represent variable surf-zone current
velocities or superimposed reversing tidal currents (Jago
and Hardisty, 1984). The uppermost part (facies S15)
represents remobilized sands from the upper shoreface or
destructive delta front deposited rapidly from high energy
turbulent flow.
4.5. Supratidal flat
4.5.1. Morphology
A shallow inlet incised through beach berm during
periods of active storm through which a temporarily
shallow lagoon on the supratidal flat is inundated (Figure
2L). Low relief sand bars superimposed with current
ripples are observed. This lagoon receives continental
sediments through intermittently active small tributaries

in the east and southeast. Wave, current, and linguoid
ripples displaying opposite current directions (E-W) are
observed. Core VI was collected from a low relief sand bar
adjacent to the channel.
4.5.2. Sedimentary features
Core VI comprises 4 vertically stacked units (Figures 3
and 9). The basal one consists of a relatively thin (~6 cm
thick) dark gray massive argillaceous sand bed containing
very rare reworked shell (facies S16). It is sharply and
erosively overlain by unit 2 that comprises facies sequence
S17→ M3→ Ev (Table). The third unit consists of medium
sands interbedded with sharp irregularly based massive
coarse sands containing reworked shell fragments (facies
S18). It is truncated at the top by a gently inclined surface
defining the base of unit 4 (Figure 9). Unit 4 consists of
brown to dark gray fine to medium massive sands rarely
containing reworked shell fragments and pebbles (facies
S11) interbedded with thin clay rich mud (facies M1).
4.5.3. Interpretations
The sediments in this core display features that have not
been recorded in other cores. The dark gray massive
argillaceous sands at the base were probably deposited
in a restricted area that experienced stagnation. The
sharp base, reworked skeletal remains, upward fining
heterolithic massive sands, and mud containing gas
bubbles and wood detritus indicate deposition by a
short-lived high energy flow from a seaward direction, a
washover run-off channel that is influenced by fresh water
supply. The presence of mud at the top and the deposition
of salt probably indicate ponding of water in a closed


268

Figure 9. Sedimentary facies in core VI that was collected from
the back-barrier temporarily inundated lagoon to the north of the
wadi mouth. Black arrows show reworked shell fragments, white
arrows show vugs after gas bubbles, green arrows show reworked
wood fragments, and red arrow shows oxidized reworked clasts.

basin subsequently evaporated forming a salt crust. The
deposition of marine-derived sediments in the supratidal
plain where fine grained sediments are usually deposited
has been interpreted as evidence of storm washover events
( Penland and Suter, 1989). Fine sand and mud containing
wood detritus are transported to the flood basins during
overbank flood stages. The pond deposits are massive
brown to gray clay, exhibiting gas bubbles (sponge cake;
Morton, 1978). Similar features were reported by Morton
(1978) in washover deposits on south Padre Island. The
presence of evaporite deposits, though not pervasive at the
top, goes well with arid climatic conditions (Tunbridge,
1984; Daniels, 2003; Hampton and Horton, 2007).
The alternated fine and sharp irregular based massive
medium sands containing reworked shell fragments of
facies S18 were deposited under alternated high and low
energy conditions as washover sheet sands (sheet-wash
sands). The washover processes were augmented by wind
stress (Morton and Sallenger, 2003). The sharp inclined



GHANDOUR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
based unit 4 represents deposition as laterally migrated
sand bars under fluctuating high and low energy. The sand
was deposited during periods of storm waves, whereas
mud was deposited by settling from suspension during
periods of waning flow (fair-weather) conditions.
5. Discussion
5.1. Type of channel fill deposits
The sediments of cores I and II and the basal part of
core III were interpreted as channel fill deposits though
geometries of strata are not clear from cores. However,
sharp bases and upward fining and thinning with local
occurrence of mud drapes at the top of some channels
possibly indicate channel fill (Tunbridge, 1984; Miall,
1996). The channel fills are less than a meter thick and
dominated by alternated fine and sharp based medium
sands (facies S1), suggesting deposition intermittently
from multiple floods of fluctuating flow intensity, depth,
grain size, and duration. The facies characteristics bear
similarities to those observed in ephemeral sandy stream
sediments commonly developed under arid to semiarid
climates (Johnson, 1982; Tunbridge, 1984; Abdullatif,
1989; Dam and Andreasen, 1990; Sadler and Kelly, 1993;
North and Taylor, 1996). The lack of internal sedimentary
structures, particularly cross-stratifications, may be
explained by shallow flow, which declined rapidly at the
end of flooding, inhibiting the development of bedforms
(Tunbridge, 1984). The absence of aeolian deposits that
characterize deposition under an arid climate is attributed
to the very low preservation potential (Johnson, 1982).

5.2. Fluviomarine transition
Channel fill (CH5; at the middle and upper parts of
core II) contains deformed lamination, mud drapes, and
bioturbation suggesting brackish or marine influence.
Subordinate tidal influence in the form of mud drapes
showing opposite current flows and slack water conditions
are possibly attributed to a weak tidal inundation
(Fischbein et al., 2009). In fluvial setting, features attributed
to tidal influence have been exclusively used to delineate
fluvioestuarine transition. In the Mont Saint-Michel
estuary fluviomarine transition is placed at the appearance
of tidal rhythmites and soft sediment deformation (Lanier
and Tessier, 1998). The flows are dominantly of fluvial origin
during peak discharge, slightly affected by subordinate
tidal inflow during spring tide (Dalrymple, 1992; Greb and
Martino, 2005; Dalrymple and Choi, 2007; Van den Berg
et al., 2007). This level may coincide with the turnaround
from a regression to transgression. Under microtidal
conditions and the possible absence of or difficulty in
recognizing tidal features, the appearance of soft sediment
deformation along with bioturbation and mud drapes are
used here to delineate the fluviomarine transition and are
possibly indicators for the onset of sea-level rise. Different

forms of soft sediment deformation features are produced
by various mechanisms ranging from cyclic loading by
waves, slope failure, rapid sedimentation, seismic activity,
groundwater fluctuation, and shear exerted on the
sediment bed by migration of the tidal bore in hypertidal
estuaries (Dalrymple, 1979; Rodriguez-Pascua et al.,

2000; Draganits et al., 2001; Massari et al., 2001; Greb
and Archer, 2007). Cyclic loading by waves, slope failure,
rapid sedimentation, and seismic activity are excluded and
the last two mechanisms would be applicable to the area
of study. Soft sediment deformation is attributed to the
rapid filling and increased pore water pressure associated
with rising of the water table due to relative sea-level rise.
The sediments are subjected to a hydraulic gradient when
being liquefied under a fine grained sedimentary cap
or low permeability layer (Obermeier and Pond, 1999;
Obermeier, 2009; Põldsaar and Ainsaar, 2014).
5.3. Alongshore variation in depositional processes
In the area of study, there are two different depositional
systems on the southern and northern sides of the wadi
mouth. The southern is a low gradient open coast intertidal
flat, whereas a strandplain grows on the northern side.
Sedimentary facies on both sides are different. They display
structures attributed to mixed wave and tidal processes
and features of nonprolonged subaerial exposure.
Sediments in the strandplain are relatively well-sorted
sand lacking of mud, suggesting deposition under upper
flow regime beach conditions. Rare bidirectional crosslaminations are interpreted as a result of swash/backwash
flow (Clifton and Dingler, 1984). On the other hand,
deposition on the intertidal flat was controlled primarily
by wave action and subordinately by tidal processes. The
storm-induced structures include shallow scours and
fills, reworked mud clasts, and sand sheets. Well-known
storm-generated structures such as hummocky and swaley
cross-stratifications are absent. This is explained by the
low gradient shallow depth of the intertidal flat and the

landward decrease in energy due to attrition by the sea
bottom (Bassoullet et al., 2000; Yang et al., 2006; Basilici
et al., 2012).
5.4. Depositional setting
The facies stacking, the development of shore parallel ridges
and the low-lying back-barrier lagoons, and the occurrence
of washover deposits indicate that the depositional
systems are generally in a state of transgression (rate of
accommodation outpaces the rate of sedimentation). In
the plane view, the protuberance in the shoreline and the
cuspate morphology at the point where the wadi enters
the Red Sea assume a deltaic form (Bhattacharya and
Walker, 1992; Orton and Reading, 1993; Bhattacharya
and Giosan, 2003). Interpretation of the shoreline at the
mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd as deltaic is clearly untenable.
The upward increase in marine influence in channel fill

269


GHANDOUR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
deposits and the vertical stacking of distal over proximal
facies (cores II–V) suggest a landward movement of the
shoreline (transgression), possibly due to relative sealevel rise and changes of oceanographic conditions (both
increase the accommodation rate) and/or reduction in
sediment supply. The shoreline is therefore interpreted as
an estuarine rather than deltaic coast. It is similar to the
earlier phase of wave-influenced estuarine (protoestuarine;
Dalrymple, 1992). In the coastal classification, the delta is
defined as a regressive coastal depositional system having

its sediments supplied mainly from point source fluvial
distributary channels that tend to protrude at the shoreline
(Bhattacharya and Walker, 1992; Boyd et al., 1992;
Bhattacharya and Giosan, 2003). The estuarine system,
on the other hand, is a transgressive coastal environment,
develops at the regressive-transgressive turnaround, and
progressively migrates landward as transgression proceeds
(Boyd et al., 1992; Cattaneo and Steel, 2003; Dalrymple
and Choi, 2007). The definition of an estuary is not
restricted to incised valley systems (Dalrymple, 1992) and
it extends to include the abandoned delta plain undergoing
transgression (Dalrymple et al., 2006; Dalrymple and
Choi, 2007). The delta was expected to be formed during
earlier wetter periods. Paleoclimate records from northern
Saudi Arabia constructed with various climate proxies
documented changes in the rate of precipitation probably
correlated to periods of variability in the intensity of
major storms. The Red Sea coastal plain experienced
higher precipitation during the Early to Mid-Holocene
than today (Parker, 2009). The Mediterranean cyclones
brought increased winter rainfall to the northern Red Sea
between 9 and 7 kya (Arz et al., 2003; Parker et al., 2006).
The reduction in sediment supply to sufficiently fill the
accommodation space probably created by possible sealevel rise led to delta shoreline retreat and subsequently
delta sediments were reworked and redistributed. On
arid coasts, delta formation, destruction, and sediment
redistribution are common features due mainly to
shortage of sediment supply, active cyclones, and sea-level
rise (Semeniuk, 1996). The Moulouya Delta developed in
western Morocco under a semiarid climate. Reduction of

sediment influx led to gradual destruction and reworking
of the Moulouya Delta sediments (Snoussi et al., 2002).
6. Conclusions
Examination of the sedimentology and depositional
history of the Red Sea coastal plain deposits at the mouth
of Wadi Al-Hamd, South Al-Wajh City, Saudi Arabia,
provides important insights into the sedimentation along
arid microtidal coasts. The study has resulted in the
following conclusions:
1) Twenty-four
sedimentary
facies
representing
deposition under variable flow conditions and

270

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

postdepositional reworking in fluvial- to marineinfluenced rapidly abandoned channels, landward
migrating swash bars, wave and tidally influenced
intertidal flat, wave dominated strandplain, and storm

surge induced washover sediments.
Channel fill deposits are consistent with a shallow
ephemeral stream characterizing an arid to semiarid
climate. They are rapidly abandoned, lack crossstratification, and locally display features of subaerial
exposure. They consist mainly of massive fine sands
interbedded with sharp based massive medium sands
suggesting deposition by intermittent supply of variable
load and duration under fluctuating flow intensity and
depth. Rare channel fill consists of sharp based normal
graded coarse to medium sands suggesting a single
rapid and short-lived flash flood. Some channel fills
display features of soft sediment deformation associated
with mud drapes and bioturbation suggesting marine
influence.
The sediments in the nearshore area exhibit tremendous
lateral facies variations within a short distance,
suggesting alongshore differences in depositional
setting and processes. The beach-ridge at the mouth
of the wadi exhibits features of high energy storm
influence and planar swash lamination along with
rapidly abandoned shallow sand bars. The sedimentary
facies in the intertidal flat to the south were deposited
under a combination of wave and tidal processes.
Massive bedding locally interbedded with mud and
shallow scours and fills indicate storm influence. Mud
was deposited during poststorm calm conditions. The
shallow depths inhibited the formation of common
storm-generated structures such as hummocky and
swaley cross-stratifications. Tidal influence is shown
by oppositely dipping lamination and mud drapes. The

limited tidal range suggests that tidal structures were
formed by a combination of wave and tidal processes, a
common feature in open coast tidal flats. To the north
of the wadi mouth, a strandplain is developed and the
sedimentary facies suggest deposition under relatively
high energy conditions.
The back-shore temporarily inundated lagoon on the
supratidal contains washover sediments in the form of
washover channel and washover sheets that resulted
from temporary strong storm surges.
The intensity of bioturbation is correlated with
depositional energy. The relatively high energy
sites are less bioturbated. The repeatedly emerged
and submerged upper intertidal flat is intensively
bioturbated by crabs.
Though the plane view shows a cuspate shoreline
suggesting a deltaic shoreline, the vertical facies stacking
indicates that the system is in a state of transgression.


GHANDOUR et al. / Turkish J Earth Sci
Therefore, rather than representing a constructive
delta, the coastal plain at the mouth of Wadi Al-Hamd
represents a transgressive estuarine. The change in the
shoreline trajectory into transgressive is a result of an
increasing accommodation rate as a result of sea-level
rise and changes in oceanographic conditions and a
decrease in the rate of sedimentation, probably due to
increasing aridity.


Acknowledgments
This study is a modified part of the fourth author’s MSc
work. The work was financially supported by King
Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST),
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (grant No. A-S-11-766). Gratitude is
expressed for the help of colleagues from the Department
of Marine Geology, King Abdulaziz University. The helpful
and useful suggestions and comments of the anonymous
reviewers are greatly appreciated.

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