RFID HANDBOOK
THIRD EDITION



RFID HANDBOOK
FUNDAMENTALS AND
APPLICATIONS IN CONTACTLESS
SMART CARDS, RADIO FREQUENCY
IDENTIFICATION AND NEAR-FIELD
COMMUNICATION, THIRD EDITION
Klaus Finkenzeller
Giesecke & Devrient GmbH, Munich, Germany

Translated by D¨orte Muller
¨
Powerwording.com

A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication


This edition first published 2010
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Finkenzeller, Klaus.
[RFID Handbuch. English]
Fundamentals and Applications in Contactless Smart Cards, Radio Frequency Identification and Near-Field
Communication, Third Edition / Klaus Finkenzeller ; translated by D¨orte M¨uller. – 3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-69506-7 (cloth)
1. Inventory control–Automation. 2. Radio frequency identification systems. 3. Smart cards. I. Title.
TS160.F5513 2010
658.7 87 – dc22
2010008338
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-0-470-69506-7
Typeset in 9/11 Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, Wiltshire, UK



Contents
Preface to the Third Edition
List of Abbreviations
1
1.1

1.2
1.3
2
2.1
2.2

2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6

Introduction
Automatic Identification Systems
1.1.1
Barcode Systems
1.1.2
Optical Character Recognition
1.1.3
Biometric Procedures
1.1.4
Smart Cards
1.1.5
RFID Systems
A Comparison of Different ID Systems

Components of an RFID System
Differentiation Features of RFID Systems
Fundamental Differentiation Features
Transponder Construction Formats
2.2.1
Disks and Coins
2.2.2
Glass Housing
2.2.3
Plastic Housing
2.2.4
Tool and Gas Bottle Identification
2.2.5
Keys and Key Fobs
2.2.6
Clocks
2.2.7
ID-1 Format, Contactless Smart Cards
2.2.8
Smart Label
2.2.9
Coil-on-Chip
2.2.10
Other Formats
Frequency, Range and Coupling
Active and Passive Transponders
Information Processing in the Transponder
Selection Criteria for RFID Systems
2.6.1
Operating Frequency

2.6.2
Range
2.6.3
Security Requirements
2.6.4
Memory Capacity

xi
xiii
1
2
2
3
4
4
6
6
6
11
11
13
13
13
13
15
15
17
18
19
20

21
21
22
24
25
26
26
27
28


vi

3
3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

4
4.1

4.2

4.3

5

5.1

Contents

Fundamental Operating Principles
1-Bit Transponder
3.1.1
Radio Frequency
3.1.2
Microwaves
3.1.3
Frequency Divider
3.1.4
Electromagnetic Types
3.1.5
Acoustomagnetic
Full- and Half-Duplex Procedure
3.2.1
Inductive Coupling
3.2.2
Electromagnetic Backscatter Coupling
3.2.3
Close-Coupling
3.2.4
Data Transfer Reader → Transponder
3.2.5
Electrical Coupling
Sequential Procedures
3.3.1
Inductive Coupling

3.3.2
Surface Acoustic Wave Transponder
Near-Field Communication (NFC)
3.4.1
Active Mode
3.4.2
Passive Mode

29
29
29
33
34
35
38
39
40
45
48
49
50
52
52
55
57
57
59

Physical Principles of RFID Systems
Magnetic Field

4.1.1
Magnetic Field Strength H
4.1.2
Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Density
4.1.3
Inductance L
4.1.4
Mutual Inductance M
4.1.5
Coupling Coefficient k
4.1.6
Faraday’s Law
4.1.7
Resonance
4.1.8
Practical Operation of the Transponder
4.1.9
Interrogation Field Strength Hmin
4.1.10
Total Transponder–Reader System
4.1.11
Measurement of System Parameters
4.1.12
Magnetic Materials
Electromagnetic Waves
4.2.1
The Generation of Electromagnetic Waves
4.2.2
Radiation Density S
4.2.3

Characteristic Wave Impedance and Field Strength E
4.2.4
Polarisation of Electromagnetic Waves
4.2.5
Antennas
4.2.6
Practical Operation of Microwave Transponders
Surface Waves
4.3.1
The Creation of a Surface Wave
4.3.2
Reflection of a Surface Wave
4.3.3
Functional Diagram of SAW Transponders
4.3.4
The Sensor Effect
4.3.5
Switched Sensors

61
61
61
66
66
67
68
70
72
76
77

84
100
106
110
110
112
112
114
116
127
144
144
146
147
149
154

Frequency Ranges and Radio Licensing Regulations
Frequency Ranges Used

155
155


Contents

vii

5.1.1
Frequency Range 9–135 kHz

5.1.2
Frequency Range 6.78 MHz (ISM)
5.1.3
Frequency Range 13.56 MHz (ISM, SRD)
5.1.4
Frequency Range 27.125 MHz (ISM)
5.1.5
Frequency Range 40.680 MHz (ISM)
5.1.6
Frequency Range 433.920 MHz (ISM)
5.1.7
UHF Frequency Range
5.1.8
Frequency Range 2.45 GHz (ISM, SRD)
5.1.9
Frequency Range 5.8 GHz (ISM, SRD)
5.1.10
Frequency Range 24.125 GHz
5.1.11
Selection of a Suitable Frequency for Inductively Coupled RFID Systems
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
European Licensing Regulations
5.3.1
CEPT/ERC REC 70-03
5.3.2
Standardised Measuring Procedures
National Licensing Regulations in Europe
5.4.1
Germany
National Licensing Regulations

5.5.1
USA
Comparison of National Regulations
5.6.1
Conversion at 13.56 MHz
5.6.2
Conversion on UHF

157
158
159
159
160
160
160
161
161
161
162
164
165
166
170
172
172
175
175
176
176
178


6
6.1
6.2

Coding and Modulation
Coding in the Baseband
Digital Modulation Procedures
6.2.1
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
6.2.2
2 FSK
6.2.3
2 PSK
6.2.4
Modulation Procedures with Subcarrier

179
179
180
182
185
185
187

7
7.1

Data Integrity
The Checksum Procedure

7.1.1
Parity Checking
7.1.2
LRC Procedure
7.1.3
CRC Procedure
Multi-Access Procedures – Anticollision
7.2.1
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
7.2.2
Frequency Domain Multiple Access (FDMA)
7.2.3
Time Domain Multiple Access (TDMA)
7.2.4
Examples of Anticollision Procedures

189
189
189
190
191
194
196
197
197
199

Security of RFID Systems
Attacks on RFID Systems
8.1.1

Attacks on the Transponder
8.1.2
Attacks on the RF Interface
Protection by Cryptographic Measures
8.2.1
Mutual Symmetrical Authentication
8.2.2
Authentication using Derived Keys
8.2.3
Encrypted Data Transfer

213
214
215
216
226
227
228
228

5.2
5.3

5.4
5.5
5.6

7.2

8

8.1

8.2


viii

9
9.1

9.2

9.3
9.4
9.5

9.6

10
10.1

10.2
10.3

10.4

11
11.1
11.2


11.3

11.4

11.5

Contents

Standardisation
Animal Identification
9.1.1
ISO/IEC 11784 – Code Structure
9.1.2
ISO/IEC 11785 – Technical Concept
9.1.3
ISO/IEC 14223 – Advanced Transponders
Contactless Smart Cards
9.2.1
ISO/IEC 10536 – Close-Coupling Smart Cards
9.2.2
ISO/IEC 14443 – Proximity-Coupling Smart Cards
9.2.3
ISO/IEC 15693 – Vicinity-Coupling Smart Cards
9.2.4
ISO/IEC 10373 – Test Methods for Smart Cards
ISO/IEC 69873 – Data Carriers for Tools and Clamping Devices
ISO/IEC 10374 – Container Identification
VDI 4470 – Anti-theft Systems for Goods
9.5.1
Part 1 – Detection Gates – Inspection Guidelines for Customers

9.5.2
Part 2 – Deactivation Devices – Inspection Guidelines for Customers
Item Management
9.6.1
ISO/IEC 18000 Series
9.6.2
GTAG Initiative
9.6.3
EPCglobal Network

233
233
233
234
236
240
241
243
258
263
267
267
267
267
270
270
270
273
274


The Architecture of Electronic Data Carriers
Transponder with Memory Function
10.1.1
RF Interface
10.1.2
Address and Security Logic
10.1.3
Memory Architecture
Microprocessors
10.2.1
Dual Interface Card
Memory Technology
10.3.1
RAM
10.3.2
EEPROM
10.3.3
FRAM
10.3.4
Performance Comparison FRAM – EEPROM
Measuring Physical Variables
10.4.1
Transponder with Sensor Functions
10.4.2
Measurements Using Microwave Transponders
10.4.3
Sensor Effect in Surface Wave Transponders

283
283

283
286
289
300
303
307
307
308
309
310
311
311
312
315

Readers
Data Flow in an Application
Components of a Reader
11.2.1
RF Interface
11.2.2
Control Unit
Integrated Reader ICs
11.3.1
Integrated RF Interface
11.3.2
Single-Chip Reader IC
Connection of Antennas for Inductive Systems
11.4.1
Connection Using Current Matching

11.4.2
Supply via Coaxial Cable
11.4.3
The Influence of the Q Factor
Reader Designs

317
317
317
318
323
324
325
327
331
333
333
338
338


Contents

11.6

12
12.1

12.2


13
13.1
13.2

ix

11.5.1
OEM Readers
11.5.2
Readers for Industrial Use
11.5.3
Portable Readers
Near-Field Communication
11.6.1
Secure NFC

338
338
338
339
341

The Manufacture of Transponders and Contactless Smart Cards
Glass and Plastic Transponders
12.1.1
Chip Manufacture
12.1.2
Glass Transponders
12.1.3
Plastic Transponders

Contactless Smart Cards
12.2.1
Coil Manufacture
12.2.2
Connection Technique
12.2.3
Lamination

347
347
347
348
351
352
352
356
359

Example Applications
Contactless Smart Cards
Public Transport
13.2.1
The Starting Point
13.2.2
Requirements
13.2.3
Benefits of RFID Systems
13.2.4
Fare Systems using Electronic Payment
13.2.5

Market Potential
13.2.6
Example Projects
13.3 Contactless Payment Systems
13.3.1
MasterCard
13.3.2
ExpressPay by American Express
13.3.3
Visa Contactless
13.3.4
ExxonMobil Speedpass
13.4 NFC Applications
13.5 Electronic Passport
13.6 Ski Tickets
13.7 Access Control
13.7.1
Online Systems
13.7.2
Offline Systems
13.7.3
Transponders
13.8 Transport Systems
13.8.1
Eurobalise S21
13.8.2
International Container Transport
13.9 Animal Identification
13.9.1
Stock Keeping

13.9.2
Carrier Pigeon Races
13.10 Electronic Immobilisation
13.10.1 The Functionality of an Immobilisation System
13.10.2 Brief Success Story
13.10.3 Predictions
13.11 Container Identification
13.11.1 Gas Bottles and Chemical Containers
13.11.2 Waste Disposal

361
361
362
362
363
363
365
366
366
372
374
374
374
375
375
380
383
385
385
385

387
388
388
390
391
391
395
398
399
401
402
403
403
404


x

Contents

13.12 Sporting Events
13.13 Industrial Automation
13.13.1 Tool Identification
13.13.2 Industrial Production
13.14 Medical Applications

405
409
409
410

417

14
14.1

419
419
419
421
422
423
423
423
428
429
429
435
435

14.2

14.3

Appendix
Contact Addresses, Associations and Technical Periodicals
14.1.1
Industrial Associations
14.1.2
Technical Journals
14.1.3

RFID on the Internet
Relevant Standards and Regulations
14.2.1
Standardisation Bodies
14.2.2
List of Standards
14.2.3
Sources for Standards and Regulations
Printed Circuit Board Layouts
14.3.1
Test Card in Accordance with ISO 14443
14.3.2
Field Generator Coil
14.3.3
Reader for 13.56 MHz

References

441

Index

449


Preface to the Third Edition
This book is aimed at an extremely wide range of readers. First and foremost it is intended for
engineers and students who find themselves confronted with RFID technology for the first time. A
few basic chapters are provided for this audience describing the functionality of RFID technology
and the physical and IT-related principles underlying this field. The book is also intended for

practitioners who, as users, wish to or need to obtain as comprehensive and detailed an overview
of the various technologies, the legal framework or the possible applications of RFID as possible.
Although a wide range of individual articles are now available on this subject, the task of
gathering all this scattered information together when it is needed is a tiresome and time-consuming
one – as researching each new edition of this book proves. This book therefore aims to fill a gap
in the range of literature on the subject of RFID. The need for well-founded technical literature in
this field is proven by the fortunate fact that this book has now already appeared in five languages.
Editions in two further languages are currently being prepared. Further information on the German
version of the RFID handbook and the translations can be found on the homepage of this book,
.
This book uses numerous pictures and diagrams to attempt to give a graphic representation of
RFID technology in the truest sense of the word. Particular emphasis is placed on the physical
principles of RFID, which is why the chapter on this subject is by far the most comprehensive
of the book. However, great importance is also assigned to providing an understanding of the
basic concepts, data carrier and reader, as well as of the relevant standards and radio-technology
regulations.
Technological developments in the field of RFID technology are proceeding at such a pace that
although a book like this can explain the general scientific principles it is not dynamic enough
to be able to explore the latest trends regarding the most recent products on the market and the
latest standards and regulations. With the widespread use of RFID technology, it becomes also
increasingly difficult not to lose track of applications. In ever-shorter intervals, the media provides
information on new applications for RFID systems. I am therefore grateful for any suggestions and
advice – particularly from the field of industry. The basic concepts and underlying physical principles remain, however, and provide a good background for understanding the latest developments.
A new addition to this third edition is Near-Field Communication (NFC) which has been introduced to several different chapters. Chapter 3 now includes the fundamentals of NFC; and Chapter
13 presents NFC interface components and describes the extension from NFC to secure-NFC.
Another addition is a complete wiring diagram and proposed circuit for an RFID reader according
to ISO/IEC 14443. A layout and complete component kit of this wiring diagram and circuit is also
available on the Internet.
It was a very special occasion when the Fraunhofer Smart Card Prize 2008 – which annually
honors special contributions to smart-card technology - was awarded to the known smart-card



xii

Preface

handbook of my two colleagues Rankl and Effing as well as to this RFID handbook. The prizegiving ceremony took place on the occasion of the 18th Smart-Card Workshop of the Fraunhofer
Institute for Secure Information Technology (SIT) in Darmstadt on 5 February 2008.
In March 2008, we were able to look back on ten successful years of the RFID Handbook. The
first German-language edition was published in March 1998 and comprised 280 pages. At that time,
RFID was still a niche technology and hardly known to the public; this has completely changed.
Today, RFID has become an established term; and due to applications such as the electronic passport
and electronic product code (EPC), a broad public has become aware of this technology.
At this point I would also like to express my thanks to all companies which were kind enough
to contribute to the success of this project by providing numerous technical data sheets, lecture
manuscripts, drawings and photographs.
Klaus Finkenzeller
Munich, Autumn 2008


List of Abbreviations
µP
µs
ABS
ACM
AFC
AFI
AI
AM
APDU

ASCII
ASIC
ASK
ATQ
ATR
AVI
BAC
BAPT
Bd
BGT
BKA
BMBF
BMI
BP
BSI
C
CCG
CCITT
CEN
CEPT
CERP
CICC
CIU
CLK
CRC

Microprocessor
Microsecond (10−6 s)
Acrylnitrilbutadienstyrol
Access configuration matrix

Automatic fare collection
Application family identifier (see ISO 14443-3)
Application identifier
Amplitude modulation
Application data unit
American Standard Code for Information Interchange
Application specific integrated circuit
Amplitude shift keying
Answer to request (ATQA, ATQB: see ISO 14443-3)
Answer to reset
Automatic vehicle identification (for railways)
Basic access control (ePassport)
Bundesamt f¨ur Post und Telekommunikation (now the Federal Network Agency for
Electricity, Gas, Telecommunications, Post and Railway)
Baud, transmission speed in bit/s
Block guard time
Germany’s Federal Criminal Police Office
Bundesministerium f¨ur Bildung und Forschung (Ministry for Education and
Research, was BMFT)
German Federal Ministry of the Interior
Bandpass filter
German Federal Office for Information Security
Capacitance (of a capacitor)
Centrale f¨ur Coorganisation GmbH (central allocation point for EAN codes in
Germany)
Comit´e Consultatif International T´el´egraphique et T´el´ephonique
Comit´e Europ´een de Normalisation
Conf´erence Europ´eene des Postes et T´el´ecommunications
Comit´e Europ´een de R`eglementation Postale
Close coupling integrated circuit chip card

Contactless interface unit (transmission/receiving module for contactless
microprocessor interfaces)
Clock (timing signal)
Cyclic redundancy checksum


xiv

dBm
DBP
DIN
DoD
DS
DWD
EAN
EAS
EC
ECC
ECTRA
EDI
EEPROM
EIRP
EMC
EOF
EPC
EPCIS
ERC
ERM
ERO
ERO

ERP
ETCS
ETS
ETSI
EVC
FCC
FDX
FHSS
FM
FRAM
FSK
GIAI
GID
GRAI
GSM
GTAG
HDX
HF
I2 C
ICAO
ICC
ID
ISM
ISO
ITU
L
LAN

List of Abbreviations


Logarithmic measure of power, related to 1 mW HF-power (0 dBm = 1 mW,
30 dBm = 1 W)
Differential bi-phase encoding
Deutsche Industrienorm (German industrial standard)
Department of Defense (USA)
Discovery services (EPC)
German Weather Service
European Article Number (barcode on groceries and goods)
Electronic article surveillance
Eurocheque or electronic cash
European Communications Committee
European Committee for Regulatory Telecommunications Affairs
Electronic document interchange
Electric erasable and programmable read-only memory
Equivalent isotropic radiated power
Electromagnetic compatibility
End of frame
Electronic product code
EPC Information Services
European Radiocommunications Committee
Electromagnetic compatibility and radio spectrum matters
European Radiocommunications Office
European Radio Office
Equivalent radiated power
European Train Control System
European Telecommunication Standard
European Telecommunication Standards Institute
European Vital Computer (part of ETCS)
Federal Commission of Communication
Full-duplex

Frequency hopping spread spectrum
Frequency modulation
Ferroelectric random access memory
Frequency shift keying
Global individual asset identifier (EPC)
General identifier (EPC)
Global returnable asset identifier (EPC)
Global System for Mobile Communication (was Groupe Sp´ecial Mobile)
Global-tag (RFID Initiative of EAN and the UCC)
Half-duplex
High frequency (3–30 MHz)
Inter-IC-bus
International Civil Aviation Organization
Integrated chip card
Identification
Industrial scientific medical (frequency range)
International Organization for Standardization
International Telecommunication Union
Loop (inductance of a coil)
Local area network


List of Abbreviations

LBT
LF
LPD
LRC
LSB
MAD

MRZ
MSB
NAD
NFC
nomL
NRZ
NTC
NTWC
NVB
OCR
OEM
ONS
OTA
OTP
PC
PCD
PICC
PIN
PKI
PMU
POS
PP
PPS
PSK
PUPI
PVC
R&TTE
RADAR
RAM
RCS

REQ
RFID
RFU
RTI
RTI
RTTT
RWD
SAM
SAW
SCL
SDA

xv

Listen before talk
Low frequency (30–300 kHz)
Low-power device (low-power radio system for the transmission of data or speech
over a few hundred metres)
Longitudinal redundancy check
Least significant bit
MIFARE Application Directory
Machine readable zone (ePassport)
Most significant bit
Node address
Near field communication
Nonpublic mobile land radio (industrial radio, transport companies, taxi radio, etc.)
Non-return-to-zero encoding
Negative temperature coefficient (thermal resistor)
New Technologies Working Group (ICAO)
Number of valid bits (see ISO 14443-3)

Optical character recognition
Original equipment manufacturer
Object naming server (EPC)
Over the air (possibility to program a SIM card or a secure element via the
GPRS/UMTS interface of a mobile phone)
One time programmable
Personal computer
Proximity card device (see ISO 14443)
Proximity integrated contactless chip card (see ISO 14443)
Personal identification number
Public key infrastructure
Power management unit
Point of sale
Plastic package
Polyphenylensulfide
Phase shift keying
Pseudo-unique PICC identifier (see ISO 14443-3)
Polyvinylchloride
Radio and Telecommunication Terminal Equipment (The Radio Equipment and
Telecommunications Terminal Equipment Directive (1999/5/EC))
Radio detecting and ranging
Random access memory
Radar cross-section
Request
Radio frequency identification
Reserved for future use
Returnable trade items
Road transport information system
Road transport and traffic telematics
Read–write device

Security authentication module
Surface acoustic wave
Serial clock (I2 C bus interface)
Serial data address input–output (I2 C bus interface)


xvi

SEQ
SGLN
SMD
SNR
SOF
SRAM
SRD
SSCC
TR
UART
UCC
UHF
UN
UPC
UPU
VCD
VDE
VHE
VICC
VSWR
XOR
ZV


List of Abbreviations

Sequential system
Serialised global location number (EPC)
Surface-mounted devices
Serial number
Start of frame
Static random access memory
Short-range devices (low-power radio systems for the transmission of data or voice
over short distances, typically a few hundred metres)
Serial shipping container code (EPC)
Technical Regulation
Universal asynchronous receiver–transmitter (transmission/receiving module for
computer interfaces)
Universal Code Council (American standard for barcodes on groceries and goods)
Ultra-high frequency (300 Mhz to 3 GHz)
United Nations
Universal Product Code
Universal Postal Union
Vicinity card device (see ISO 15693)
Verein Deutscher Elektrotechniker (German Association of Electrical Engineers)
Very high frequency (30 MHz to 300 MHz)
Vicinity integrated contactless chip card (see ISO 15693)
Voltage standing wave ratio
Exclusive OR
Zulassungsvorschrift (Licensing Regulation)

Trademarks
HITAG, i · Code and MIFARE

LEGIC
MICROLOG
TagIt and TIRIS
TROVAN

are registered trademarks of Philips elektronics N.V.
is a registered trademark of Kaba Security Locking
Systems AG
is a registered trademark of Idesco
are registered trademarks of Texas Instruments
is a registered trademark of AEG ID systems


1
Introduction
In recent years automatic identification procedures (Auto-ID) have become very popular in many
service industries, purchasing and distribution logistics, industry, manufacturing companies and
material flow systems. Automatic identification procedures exist to provide information about
people, animals, goods and products in transit.
The omnipresent barcode labels that triggered a revolution in identification systems some considerable time ago, are being found to be inadequate in an increasing number of cases. Barcodes
may be extremely cheap, but their stumbling block is their low storage capacity and the fact that
they cannot be reprogrammed.
The technically optimal solution would be the storage of data in a silicon chip. The most common
form of electronic data-carrying devices in use in everyday life is the smart card based upon a contact
field (telephone smart card, bank cards). However, the mechanical contact used in the smart card is
often impractical. A contactless transfer of data between the data-carrying device and its reader is
far more flexible. In the ideal case, the power required to operate the electronic data-carrying device
would also be transferred from the reader using contactless technology. Because of the procedures
used for the transfer of power and data, contactless ID systems are called RFID systems (radio
frequency identification).

The number of companies actively involved in the development and sale of RFID systems
indicates that this is a market that should be taken seriously. Whereas global sales of RFID systems were approximately 900 million $US in the year 2000 it is estimated that this figure will
reach 2650 million $US in 2005 (Krebs, n.d.). The RFID market therefore belongs to the fastest
growing sector of the radio technology industry, including mobile phones and cordless telephones
(Figure 1.1).
Furthermore, in recent years contactless identification has been developing into an independent
interdisciplinary field, which no longer fits into any of the conventional pigeonholes. It brings
together elements from extremely varied fields: RF technology and EMC, semiconductor technology, data protection and cryptography, telecommunications, manufacturing technology and many
related areas.
As an introduction, the following section gives a brief overview of different automatic ID systems
that perform similar functions to RFID (Figure 1.2).

RFID Handbook: Fundamentals and Applications in Contactless Smart Cards, Radio Frequency Identification
and Near-Field Communication, Third Edition. Klaus Finkenzeller
 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd


2

RFID Handbook

500
Security/access control
Asset management
Transportation

Global market ($US m)

400


Supply chain management
Point of sale
300

Rental item tracking
Toll collection
Automobile immobilisers

200

Baggage handling
Animal tracking
100

Real time location systems
Other

0
2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005


Year

Figure 1.1 The estimated growth of the global market for RFID systems between 2000 and 2005 in million
$US, classified by application (Krebs, n.d.)

Barcode
system
Optical
character
recognition
(OCR)

Biometric
MM
AutoID

Smart
cards

Figure 1.2

Fingerprint
procedure

Voice
identification

RFID

Overview of the most important auto-ID procedures


1.1 Automatic Identification Systems
1.1.1 Barcode Systems
Barcodes have successfully held their own against other identification systems over the past 20
years. According to experts, the turnover volume for barcode systems totalled around 3 billion DM
in Western Europe at the beginning of the 1990s (Virnich and Posten, 1992).


Introduction

3

Country
identifier
4

0

Company identifier
1

FRG

Figure 1.3
Table 1.1

2

3


4

5

Manufacturer’s item
number
0

Company Name
1 Road Name
80001 Munich

8

1

5

0

CD
9

Chocolate Rabbit
100 g

Example of the structure of a barcode in EAN coding

Common barcodes with typical applications


Code

Typical application

Code Codabar

Medical/clinical applications, fields with high safety
requirements
Automotive industry, goods storage, pallets, shipping
containers and heavy industry
Processing industry, logistics, universities and
libraries

Code 2/5 interleaved
Code 39

The barcode is a binary code comprising a field of bars and gaps arranged in a parallel configuration. They are arranged according to a predetermined pattern and represent data elements that
refer to an associated symbol. The sequence, made up of wide and narrow bars and gaps, can
be interpreted numerically and alphanumerically. It is read by optical laser scanning, i.e. by the
different reflection of a laser beam from the black bars and white gaps (ident, 1996). However,
despite being identical in their physical design, there are considerable differences between the code
layouts in the approximately ten different barcode types currently in use.
The most popular barcode by some margin is the EAN code (European Article Number), which
was designed specifically to fulfil the requirements of the grocery industry in 1976. The EAN
code represents a development of the UPC (Universal Product Code) from the USA, which was
introduced in the USA as early as 1973. Today, the UPC represents a subset of the EAN code, and
is therefore compatible with it (Virnich and Posten, 1992).
The EAN code is made up of 13 digits: the country identifier, the company identifier, the
manufacturer’s item number and a check digit.
In addition to the EAN code, the barcodes shown in Table 1.1 are popular in other industrial fields.


1.1.2 Optical Character Recognition
Optical character recognition (OCR) was first used in the 1960s. Special fonts were developed for
this application that stylised characters so that they could be read both in the normal way by people
and automatically by machines. The most important advantage of OCR systems is the high density
of information and the possibility of reading data visually in an emergency, or simply for checking
(Virnich and Posten, 1992). Today, OCR is used in production, service and administrative fields,
and also in banks for the registration of cheques (personal data, such as name and account number,
is printed on the bottom line of a cheque in OCR type). However, OCR systems have failed to
become universally applicable because of their high price and the complicated readers that they
require in comparison with other ID procedures.


4

RFID Handbook

1.1.3 Biometric Procedures
Biometrics is defined as the science of counting and (body) measurement procedures involving
living beings. In the context of identification systems, biometry is the general term for all procedures
that identify people by comparing unmistakable and individual physical characteristics. In practice,
these are fingerprinting and handprinting procedures, voice identification and, less commonly, retina
(or iris) identification.
1.1.3.1

Voice Identification

Recently, specialised systems have become available to identify individuals using speaker verification (speaker recognition). In such systems, the user talks into a microphone linked to a computer.
This equipment converts the spoken words into digital signals, which are evaluated by the identification software.
The objective of speaker verification is to check the supposed identity of the person based upon

their voice. This is achieved by checking the speech characteristics of the speaker against an existing
reference pattern. If they correspond, then a reaction can be initiated (e.g. ‘open door’).
1.1.3.2

Fingerprinting Procedures (Dactyloscopy)

Criminology has been using fingerprinting procedures for the identification of criminals since the
early twentieth century. This process is based upon the comparison of papillae and dermal ridges
of the fingertips, which can be obtained not only from the finger itself, but also from objects that
the individual in question has touched.
When fingerprinting procedures are used for personal identification, usually for entrance procedures, the fingertip is placed upon a special reader. The system calculates a data record from the
pattern it has read and compares this with a stored reference pattern. Modern fingerprint ID systems
require less than half a second to recognise and check a fingerprint. In order to prevent violent
frauds, fingerprint ID systems have even been developed that can detect whether the finger placed
on the reader is that of a living person (Schmidh¨ausler, 1995).

1.1.4 Smart Cards
A smart card is an electronic data storage system, possibly with additional computing capacity
(microprocessor card), which – for convenience – is incorporated into a plastic card the size of
a credit card. The first smart cards in the form of prepaid telephone smart cards were launched
in 1984. Smart cards are placed in a reader, which makes a galvanic connection to the contact
surfaces of the smart card using contact springs. The smart card is supplied with energy and a
clock pulse from the reader via the contact surfaces. Data transfer between the reader and the card
takes place using a bidirectional serial interface (I/O port). It is possible to differentiate between
two basic types of smart card based upon their internal functionality: the memory card and the
microprocessor card.
One of the primary advantages of the smart card is the fact that the data stored on it can be
protected against undesired (read) access and manipulation. Smart cards make all services that relate
to information or financial transactions simpler, safer and cheaper. For this reason, 200 million smart
cards were issued worldwide in 1992. In 1995 this figure had risen to 600 million, of which 500

million were memory cards and 100 million were microprocessor cards. The smart card market
therefore represents one of the fastest growing subsectors of the microelectronics industry.


Introduction

5

Vcc

GND

RST

Vpp

CLK

I/O

Figure 1.4

Address and
Security Logic

EEPROM

ROM

Typical architecture of a memory card with security logic


One disadvantage of contact-based smart cards is the vulnerability of the contacts to wear,
corrosion and dirt. Readers that are used frequently are expensive to maintain due to their tendency
to malfunction. In addition, readers that are accessible to the public (telephone boxes) cannot be
protected against vandalism.
1.1.4.1

Memory Cards

In memory cards the memory – usually an EEPROM – is accessed using a sequential logic (state
machine) (Figure 1.5). It is also possible to incorporate simple security algorithms, e.g. stream
ciphering, using this system. The functionality of the memory card in question is usually optimised
for a specific application. Flexibility of application is highly limited but, on the positive side,
memory cards are very cost effective. For this reason, memory cards are predominantly used in
price-sensitive, large-scale applications (Rankl and Effing, 1996). One example of this is the national
insurance card used by the state pension system in Germany (Lemme, 1993).

Vcc

GND

RST

Vpp

CLK

I/O

Figure 1.5


CPU

RAM

ROM
(operating
system)
EEPROM
(application
data)

Typical architecture of a microprocessor card


6

1.1.4.2

RFID Handbook

Microprocessor Cards

As the name suggests, microprocessor cards contain a microprocessor, which is connected to a
segmented memory (ROM, RAM and EEPROM segments).
The mask programmed ROM incorporates an operating system (higher program code) for the
microprocessor and is inserted during chip manufacture. The contents of the ROM are determined
during manufacturing, are identical for all microchips from the same production batch, and cannot
be overwritten.
The chip’s EEPROM contains application data and application-related program code. Reading

from or writing to this memory area is controlled by the operating system.
The RAM is the microprocessor’s temporary working memory. Data stored in the RAM are lost
when the supply voltage is disconnected.
Microprocessor cards are very flexible. In modern smart card systems it is also possible to
integrate different applications in a single card (multi-application). The application-specific parts
of the program are not loaded into the EEPROM until after manufacture and can be initiated via
the operating system.
Microprocessor cards are primarily used in security-sensitive applications. Examples are smart
cards for GSM mobile phones and the new EC (electronic cash) cards. The option of programming the microprocessor cards also facilitates rapid adaptation to new applications (Rankl and
Effing, 1996).

1.1.5 RFID Systems
RFID systems are closely related to the smart cards described above. Like smart card systems,
data is stored on an electronic data-carrying device – the transponder. However, unlike the smart
card, the power supply to the data-carrying device and the data exchange between the data-carrying
device and the reader are achieved without the use of galvanic contacts, using instead magnetic or
electromagnetic fields. The underlying technical procedure is drawn from the fields of radio and
radar engineering. The abbreviation RFID stands for radio frequency identification, i.e. information
carried by radio waves.
Due to the numerous advantages of RFID systems compared with other identification systems,
RFID systems are now beginning to conquer new mass markets. One example is the use of contactless smart cards as tickets for short-distance public transport.

1.2 A Comparison of Different ID Systems
A comparison between the identification systems described above highlights the strengths and weakness of RFID in relation to other systems (Table 1.2). Here too, there is a close relationship between
contact-based smart cards and RFID systems; however, the latter circumvent all the disadvantages
related to faulty contacting (sabotage, dirt, unidirectional insertion, time-consuming insertion, etc.).

1.3 Components of an RFID System
An RFID system is always made up of two components (Figure 1.6):
• the transponder, which is located on the object to be identified;

• the interrogator or reader , which, depending upon the design and the technology used, may be a
read or write/read device (in this book – in accordance with normal colloquial usage – the data
capture device is always referred to as the reader , regardless of whether it can only read data or
is also capable of writing).


0–50 cm

Low
Limited
Medium
Low
Slight
Low ∼3 s

<1 cm Scanner

Low

Limited
Very low

Low

Slight

Low ∼4 s

0–50 cm


Direct contact

Direct contact∗∗

Impossible
Low ∼4 s

Impossible

Possible ∗ (audio tape)

Medium (contacts)

Contacts
Low

Unidirectional

Very high
Good
Impossible
Possible (contacts)
–

16–64 k

Smart card

Very low >5–10 s


None

–
Very high

–

High
Expensive
Difficult
–
Possible

None

–
Very high

–

High
Expensive
Simple
–
–

–

Biometry


0–5 m, microwave

Very fast ∼0.5 s

Impossible

None

No influence
Medium

No influence

Very high
Good
Impossible
No influence
No influence

16–64 k

RFID systems

The danger of ‘replay’ can be reduced by selecting the text to be spoken using a random generator, because the text that must be spoken is not known in advance.
This only applies for fingerprint ID. In the case of retina or iris evaluation direct contact is not necessary or possible.

∗∗

∗


Very low >5 s

Low
Good
Simple
Very high
Total failure

Low
Good
Limited
Very high
Total failure

–

1–100

1–100

Voice recognition

Typical data quantity
(bytes)
Data density
Machine readability
Readability by people
Influence of dirt/damp
Influence of (optical)
covering

Influence of direction
and position
Degradation/wear
Purchase cost/reading
electronics
Operating costs
(e.g. printer)
Unauthorised
copying/modification
Reading speed
(including handling
of data carrier)
Maximum distance
between data carrier
and reader

OCR

Barcode

Comparison of different RFID systems showing their advantages and disadvantages

System parameters

Table 1.2

Introduction
7