Building the Knowledge
Society on the Internet:
Sharing and Exchanging
Knowledge in Networked
Environments
Ettore Bolisani
University of Padua, Italy

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Building the knowledge society on the Internet : sharing and exchanging knowledge in networked environments / Ettore Bolisani, editor.
p. cm.
Summary: "In today's networked societies, a key factor of the social and economic success is the capability to exchange, transfer, and
share knowledge. This book provides research on the topic providing a foundation of an emerging and multidisciplinary field"--Provided by
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Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-59904-816-1 (hbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-59904-818-5 (ebook)

1. Knowledge management. 2. Computer networks. 3. Information networks. I. Bolisani, Ettore, 1963HD30.2.B853 2008
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List of Reviewers

Chandra S. Amaravadi
Western Illinois University, USA

Deogratias Harorimana
Southampton Solent University, UK

Derek Asoh
Southern Illinois University, USA

Donald Hislop
Loughborough University, UK

Antonio Badia
University of Louisville, USA

Tracy A. Hurley

Texas A&M University-Kingsville, USA

Marco Bettoni
Swiss Distance University of Applied Sciences,
Switzerland

Barbara Igel
Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand

Patrice Braun
University of Ballarat, Australia
Ricardo Chalmeta
University Jaume I of Castellón, Spain
Satyadhyan Chickerur
M.S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology, India
Alton Chua
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chris Crawford
Fort Hays State University, USA
Massimo Gastaldon
University of Padua, Italy
Mohand-Said Hacid
University Lyon I, France
Matthew Hall
Aston University, UK

Ashok Jashapara
Royal Holloway University of London, UK
Krzysztof Juszczyszyn
Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland

Andrew Kok
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Josephine C. Lang
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Sandra Moffett
University of Ulster, UK
Theresia Olsson Neve
Skanska Sweden AB, Sweden
Craig Parker
Deakin University, Australia
Jon Pemberton
Northumbria University, UK


Murali Raman
Multimedia University, Malaysia

Molly Wasko
Florida State University, USA

Violina Ratcheva
University of Sheffield, UK

Andrew Wenn
Victoria University, Australia

Ulrich Remus
University of Canterbury, New Zealand

Gunilla Widén-Wulff

Åbo Akademi University, Finland

Jennifer D. E. Thomas
Pace University, New York, USA

Hans Weigand
Tilburg University, The Netherlands

Mariana Van Der Walt
Stellenbosch University, South Africa

Barbara Zannol
University of Padua, Italy

Geoffrey Walker
Northumbria University, UK


Table of Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. xiv
Preface ............................................................................................................................................... xvii
Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................. xxii

Section I
Models
Chapter I
Knowledge Sharing: Interactive Processes Between Organizational
Knowledge-Sharing Initiative and Individuals’ Sharing Practice .......................................................... 1
Shuhua Liu, University of Washington, USA


Chapter II
The Centrality of Team Leaders in Knowledge-Sharing Activities:
Their Dual Role as Knowledge Processors ........................................................................................... 24
Evangelia Siachou, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
Anthony Ioannidis, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
Chapter III
Knowledge Sharing in Virtual and Networked Organisations in Different
Organisational and National Cultures .................................................................................................. 45
Kerstin Siakas, Alexander Technological Educational Institution of Thessaloniki, Greece
Elli Georgiadou, University of Middlesex, UK
Chapter IV
Towards an Implicit and Collaborative Evolution of Terminological Ontologies ............................... 65
Axel-Cyrille Ngonga Ngomo, University of Leipzig, Germany
Chapter V
Computer-Mediated Knowledge Sharing ............................................................................................ 89
Kimiz Dalkir, McGill University, Canada


Chapter VI
Understanding Knowledge Transfer on the Net: Useful Lessons from the
Knowledge Economy ......................................................................................................................... 110
Ettore Bolisani, University of Padua, Italy
Chapter VII
Knowledge-Sharing Motivation in Virtual Communities .................................................................. 129
Jengchung V. Chen, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
J. Michael Tarn, Western Michigan University, USA
Muhammad A. Razi, Western Michigan University, USA

Section II

Applications
Chapter VIII
Opportunities and Obstacles to Narrow the Digital Divide: Sharing Scientific
Knowledge on the Internet .................................................................................................................. 146
Margarita Echeverri, University of Maryland, USA & Tulane University, USA
Eileen G. Abels, Drexel University, USA
Chapter IX
Knowledge Exchange in Electronic Networks of Practice: An Examination of
Knowledge Types and Knowledge Flows .......................................................................................... 172
Molly McLure Wasko, Florida State University, USA
Samer Faraj, McGill Unversity, Canada
Chapter X
Knowledge Sharing Through Interactive Social Technologies:
Development of Social Structures in Internet-Based Systems over Time ......................................... 195
Isa Jahnke, Dortmund University of Technology, Germany
Chapter XI
Information Technology in Times of Crisis: Considering Knowledge Management for
Disaster Management ......................................................................................................................... 219
Kalpana Shankar, Indiana University, USA
David J. Wild, Indiana University, USA
Jaesoon An, Indiana University, USA
Sam Shoulders, Indiana University, USA
Sheetal Narayanan, Indiana University, USA


Chapter XII
Managing Knowledge-Based Complexities Through Combined Uses of
Internet Technologies ......................................................................................................................... 241
Cécile Godé-Sanchez, Research Center of the French Air Force, France
Pierre Barbaroux, Research Center of the French Air Force, France

Chapter XIII
Leading Firms as Knowledge Gatekeepers in a Networked Environment ........................................ 260
Deogratias Harorimana, Southampton Solent University, UK
Chapter XIV
The Role of Knowledge Mediators in Virtual Environments ............................................................. 282
Enrico Scarso, University of Padua, Italy
Chapter XV
Knowledge Management in Virtual Enterprises: Supporting Frameworks and
Enabling Web Technologies ............................................................................................................... 302
Stavros T. Ponis, National Technical University Athens, Greece
George Vagenas, National Technical University Athens, Greece
Ilias P. Tatsiopoulos, National Technical University Athens, Greece
Chapter XVI
Sharing and Protecting Knowledge: New Considerations for Digital Environments ........................ 325
G. Scott Erickson, Ithaca College, USA
Helen N. Rothberg, Marist College, USA
Chapter XVII
Identifying Knowledge Values and Knowledge Sharing Through Linguistic Methods:
Application to Company Web Pages ................................................................................................. 340
June Tolsby, Ostfold University College, Norway

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 358
About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 396
Index ................................................................................................................................................ 403


Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. xiv
Preface ............................................................................................................................................... xvii

Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................... xxi

Section I
Models
Chapter I
Knowledge Sharing: Interactive Processes Between Organizational
Knowledge-Sharing Initiative and Individuals’ Sharing Practice .......................................................... 1
Shuhua Liu, University of Washington, USA
Based on a review of established theories in sociology, management science, and organisational behaviour, the chapter explores the interactions between organizational context and individuals’ sense-making
processes. Elements of a new model, which explains how the organisational settings influence the way
individuals share knowledge, are developed. Essential implications for knowledge management and
ICT design are also discussed.
Chapter II
The Centrality of Team Leaders in Knowledge-Sharing Activities:
Their Dual Role as Knowledge Processors ........................................................................................... 24
Evangelia Siachou, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
Anthony Ioannidis, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
The chapter analyses the role of team leaders as sources and recipients of net-based knowledge. The
particular case of action teams that deal with unpredictable situations and need to make instant use of
accurate knowledge is mainly considered. Reflections are made on leaders’ active role in knowledge
sharing considering the multifaceted nature of knowledge exchange, the time boundaries, and the costs
of knowledge search and sharing. The analysis also provides insights into the complex relationship
between the way organisations are structured and the effective processes of knowledge transfer among
their members.


Chapter III
Knowledge Sharing in Virtual and Networked Organisations in Different
Organisational and National Cultures .................................................................................................. 45
Kerstin Siakas, Alexander Technological Educational Institution of Thessaloniki, Greece

Elli Georgiadou, University of Middlesex, UK
The chapter discusses the issue of knowledge sharing in culturally diverse networked organisations and
virtual teams. By examining the different cultural values and perceptions related to knowledge exchange,
the human and cultural dynamics that influence the success of knowledge sharing are discussed. The study
analyses the potential conflicts in culturally diverse team members and the crucial issue of trust building.
It also provides indications for fruitful knowledge sharing in global networked environments.
Chapter IV
Towards an Implicit and Collaborative Evolution of Terminological Ontologies ............................... 65
Axel-Cyrille Ngonga Ngomo, University of Leipzig, Germany
The problem of capturing the tacit components of knowledge in a way that can be handled automatically
is a challenging issue for both Knowledge Management researchers and computer programmers. This
chapter analyses the use of terminological ontologies for representing personal knowledge. It is argued
that each individual needs a personal knowledge model to represent her/his knowledge. Subsequently, the
chapter presents a method for implicitly and collaboratively evolving such personal knowledge models,
with the purpose to improve the efficacy of knowledge transfer over the Internet.
Chapter V
Computer-Mediated Knowledge Sharing ............................................................................................ 89
Kimiz Dalkir, McGill University, Canada
Internet-based knowledge-sharing channels differ in their effectiveness when used for exchanging knowledge. It is therefore necessary to define key knowledge and channel attributes in order to understand how
knowledge can be effectively shared using computers. This chapter examines the computer-mediated
knowledge-sharing mechanisms, and proposes a typology based on media richness and social presence
characteristics that can serve as a preliminary conceptual basis to select the most appropriate Internetbased channel for the specific purpose.
Chapter VI
Understanding Knowledge Transfer on the Net: Useful Lessons from the
Knowledge Economy ......................................................................................................................... 110
Ettore Bolisani, University of Padua, Italy
To systematise the conceptual backgrounds of Knowledge Management as a branch of management,
a more direct connection with the models and approaches of the economic disciplines is necessary.
The chapter examines the contribution that the current studies of the emerging field of the Knowledge



Economy can give to the clearer understanding of Knowledge Management and, particularly, of the
processes of knowledge transfer. The open research questions that may result from such an “economics-based” approach to Knowledge Management are also analysed.
Chapter VII
Knowledge-Sharing Motivation in Virtual Communities .................................................................. 129
Jengchung V. Chen, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
J. Michael Tarn, Western Michigan University, USA
Muhammad A. Razi, Western Michigan University, USA
This chapter explores the motivation of virtual community members to share knowledge, and the underlying factors of such sharing behaviors. A conceptual model illustrating the relationship between transaction cost, expectancy value, and knowledge-sharing behaviour is illustrated. The notions of knowledge
transaction and knowledge market are also further examined, since knowledge sharing can be seen as a
form of knowledge transaction, and a knowledge market provides an essential platform for this.

Section II
Applications
Chapter VIII
Opportunities and Obstacles to Narrow the Digital Divide: Sharing Scientific
Knowledge on the Internet .................................................................................................................. 146
Margarita Echeverri, University of Maryland, USA & Tulane University, USA
Eileen G. Abels, Drexel University, USA
The access to scientific knowledge is considered essential to foster research and development, improve
quality of education, and advance professional practices. Although the Web was conceived to encourage knowledge sharing, restrictions still reduce access to knowledge, especially to those in developing
countries. This chapter presents a conceptual framework of the knowledge transfer cycle and examines
key factors affecting the dissemination of scientific knowledge. Current challenges facing the open-access initiative of making scientific knowledge free and available worldwide are also discussed.
Chapter IX
Knowledge Exchange in Electronic Networks of Practice: An Examination of
Knowledge Types and Knowledge Flows .......................................................................................... 172
Molly McLure Wasko, Florida State University, USA
Samer Faraj, McGill Unversity, Canada
This study examines knowledge exchange in a worldwide, extra-organizational, Usenet-based electronic network, where participation is voluntary, globally distributed, and where participants generally
do not have personal or organizational ties. The purpose was to investigate two questions: first, what

type of knowledge is being transferred in these networks, and second, how is knowledge transferred
across participants. To address these questions, messages posted to “comp.lang.C++” were observed


for a period of 7 weeks. The study illuminates how people use computer-mediated communication to
support knowledge transfer, the types of knowledge transferred, as well as how knowledge flows in this
kind of networks.
Chapter X
Knowledge Sharing Through Interactive Social Technologies:
Development of Social Structures in Internet-Based Systems over Time ......................................... 195
Isa Jahnke, Dortmund University of Technology, Germany
This chapter explores the emergence of social structures in Internet-based systems over time. Based on
results of an empirical investigation of an Internet-based knowledge sharing system, the study shows the
change of roles, expectations, and activities in online communities. Finally, the author sketches some
essential criteria for developing online communities, which are extended part of organizations (e.g., companies and institutions), are characterized by a large size, and supplement the formal organization.
Chapter XI
Information Technology in Times of Crisis: Considering Knowledge Management for
Disaster Management ......................................................................................................................... 219
Kalpana Shankar, Indiana University, USA
David J. Wild, Indiana University, USA
Jaesoon An, Indiana University, USA
Sam Shoulders, Indiana University, USA
Sheetal Narayanan, Indiana University, USA
The aim of this chapter is to provide an introduction to technologies, practices, and open problems for
knowledge management in disaster and crisis situations. New technologies and Knowledge Management practices, particularly with the Internet and Web 2.0, are creating opportunities for individuals,
responders, and trainers to share knowledge. However, the use of networked technologies diffuses with
very little cohesion among researchers and practitioners. It is argued that although the Internet is already
in extensive use in disaster management, its integration with Knowledge Management practices will
only be effected if top-down and bottoms-up approaches to information gathering, organisation, and
dissemination are implemented.

Chapter XII
Managing Knowledge-Based Complexities Through Combined Uses of
Internet Technologies ......................................................................................................................... 241
Cécile Godé-Sanchez, Research Center of the French Air Force, France
Pierre Barbaroux, Research Center of the French Air Force, France
This chapter introduces a theoretical framework to study how Internet technologies enable organizations
to handle various forms of communication and decision-making complexities. It investigates how specific
use-based combinations of Internet technologies emerge within operational contexts. Illustrations are
drawn from the U.S. military uses of Tactical Internet during recent operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.


The conditions for which combined uses generate additional value for organizations are discussed, and
the essential role of final users in exploiting the benefits of Internet applications are illustrated.
Chapter XIII
Leading Firms as Knowledge Gatekeepers in a Networked Environment ........................................ 260
Deogratias Harorimana, Southampton Solent University, UK
This chapter examines the role of knowledge gatekeepers as channels by which knowledge is created
and transferred among distinct firms. The obstacles that inhibit knowledge transfer are first examined,
and it is argued that leading firms can create a shared sociocultural context that enables the codivision
of tacit meanings and the codification of knowledge. Leading firms can thus act as knowledge gatekeepers through the creation of shared (virtual) platforms. This role can be played by large multinationals,
connecting several clients and suppliers, but even by focal firms in industrial districts.
Chapter XIV
The Role of Knowledge Mediators in Virtual Environments ............................................................. 282
Enrico Scarso, University of Padua, Italy
The chapter discusses the role of online knowledge mediators in knowledge exchanges between a source
and a receiver. Their task is to assist and facilitate the transfer process when performed through Internetbased technologies. In the rapidly evolving world of Internet, many types of virtual knowledge mediators
come out with different features and functions, but little effort has been devoted to examine their practices.
The study also develops an analytical framework to classify the role of knowledge mediators based on
two complementary conceptual views of knowledge transfer: the cognitive and the economic view.
Chapter XV

Knowledge Management in Virtual Enterprises: Supporting Frameworks and
Enabling Web Technologies ............................................................................................................... 302
Stavros T. Ponis, National Technical University Athens, Greece
George Vagenas, National Technical University Athens, Greece
Ilias P. Tatsiopoulos, National Technical University Athens, Greece
The new global business environment requires loose and flexible business schemes shaped in the form
of Virtual Enterprises, but this transformation would never have been successful without the support of
Information Technologies, and particularly the Web. Building upon the current state of the art, this chapter
discusses the issue of Knowledge Management support for Virtual Enterprises, and aims to identify the
major knowledge requirements in such organisations, in an effort to provide a roadmap towards a holistic
framework to understand and handle the huge and complex knowledge needs of Virtual Enterprises at
the interorganizational level.


Chapter XVI
Sharing and Protecting Knowledge: New Considerations for Digital Environments ........................ 325
G. Scott Erickson, Ithaca College, USA
Helen N. Rothberg, Marist College, USA
The Internet offers new opportunities to use knowledge assets, defines new types of knowledge assets,
and readily spreads knowledge beyond the borders of the organization. This potential is tempered, however, by new threats to the security of proprietary knowledge. The Internet also makes knowledge assets
more vulnerable to competitive intelligence efforts. The chapter proposes a model that integrates three
dimensions of knowledge (tacitness, complexity, appropriability), and relates these with its vulnerability
in a KM Internet-based environment. This discussion provides interesting insights into the issue, and
new proposals for practice and research.
Chapter XVII
Identifying Knowledge Values and Knowledge Sharing Through Linguistic Methods:
Application to Company Web Pages ................................................................................................. 340
June Tolsby, Ostfold University College, Norway
This chapter integrates three linguistic methods to analyse a company’s Web site, namely a) elements
from a community of practice theory (CoP), b) concepts from the communication theory, such as modality and transitivity, and c) elements from discourse analysis. The investigation demonstrates how the

use of a Web site can promote a work attitude that can be considered as an endorsement of a particular
organizational behaviour. The Web pages display the organizational identity, which will be a magnet
for some parties and deject others. Thus, a Web site represents a window to the world that needs to be
handled with care, since it can be interpreted as a projection of the company’s identity.

Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 358
About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 396
Index ................................................................................................................................................ 403


xiv

Foreword

The book, edited by Ettore Bolisani, has the special merit to explore the sense of what is going on in the
interplay between information technology and knowledge management. The contributions focus on the
role played by the Internet in knowledge development and exploitation. The answer is not trivial, as the
question involves a deep reconsideration of many different issues, which are usually taken for granted:
epistemological issues about the nature of knowledge, engineering issues about functionalities and
reliability of technologies, and management issues about proper rules and methods to gain advantages
from available technologies.
Surprisingly, after about two decades of debate on the role of knowledge and learning within and
between organizations, only few things appear to be widely accepted by the community of scientists and
practitioners. First, that knowledge is the principal asset of any organization. Second, that the incessant
development of ICT technologies continuously reframes the issue of knowledge exploration and exploitation. Several couples of concepts have problematic relationships: objective vs. subjective knowledge,
tacit vs. explicit knowledge, declarative vs. procedural knowledge, engineering view vs. sociological
view of knowledge, knowledge vs. knowing, and last but not least, knowledge vs. information.
An evident cue that a research community is undergoing a cultural revolution is that taken-for-granted
concepts and habits become more and more enigmatic. This is the case with knowledge. Creating and
diffusing knowledge is becoming a relevant business, with global and local players. Companies producing ICTs provide organizations with different solutions, which have significant impact on organizational

processes. Diversity is the major feature of an emerging market, as it was for the car market in the first
decades of 1900’s. Of the 2500 motor vehicles counted for 1899, 1681 were steam propelled, 1575
electric and 936 gasoline. In 1920, a single vehicle dominated the US market—Ford’s Model T. The
process of exploration, selection, and convergence toward a dominant design is a typical trend of any
new market.
It is not easy to forecast when convergence to dominant design will happen. Many trade-offs contribute to delay the convergence process:
•

•

•

Trade-off between organizational and local KM levels. Organizational complexity is not only related
to company size and articulated external relationships, but also to the complexity KM different
levels: individual, group, business units, functions, departments, the whole company. At each level
KM issues present different and contrasting needs;
Trade-off between standardization and diversity. Knowledge and learning are aimed to fostering
internal diversity, which is one of the major sources of competitive advantage. Any technological
standardization in knowledge management and learning process, while improving efficiency, is a
menace to the company’s ability to promote diversity;
Trade-off between technological innovation pace and organizational exploitation of technology
potentialities. The fast-pace and unpredictable directions of ICTs innovations move away from any


xv

attempt to converge and redefine the range of possible KM solutions. Between the 1978 double
loop model by Argyris and Shon and today’s collective intelligence model there is an amazing
flow of radical ICTs innovations, which dramatically reframed the problem setting in KM. This
flow doesn’t seem to decrease. Thus, it is likely that the range of possible solutions will widen in

the near future.
We are expected to face a high-grade of uncertainty in KM until a dominant design will emerge.
Nevertheless, reading this book will help the reader to define main topics that will shape the research
agenda of following years. In particular, I would like to focus on three major issues.
Knowledge codification. The simplest approach to knowing is the classical scheme of knowledge
transfer. A knowledge object is passed by a knowledge source to a receiver, who makes some use of it.
But this is a very naïve view. A more sophisticated view distinguishes among three concepts organized
into a hierarchy: data, information and knowledge. Data are collections of raw measures of some event.
Information comes as an elementary structure built on data, and knowledge is a more complex structure
built on information, in order to link what is coming from the experience to existing knowledge and plans.
At a first glance, this seems a very useful conceptualization. By using those three concepts we can easily
recognize the number “8” as data, the message “It is eight o’clock” as information, and “I’m late to the
meeting” as the knowledge extracted from the message. But, what can we can say about the sentence
“It was now the hour that turns back the desire of those who sail the seas and melts their heart” (from
“The Divine Comedy” by Dante Alighieri, the Carlyle-Wikstreed Translation)? Eventually, I can extract
from the Dante’s verses, more or less, the same information about the daytime, and then decide if I’m
late at the meeting. But in Dante’s sentence there is much more. I can make many possible connections
with my future plans and my past experience. And, as knowing is foremost the act of connecting, I can
develop more knowledge from Dante verses than from the sentence “It is eight o’clock”. This richness
of the message is built in its form, and we cannot mechanically separate the message content from its
form. The codification/decodification process is very complex. The cognitive, emotional, and situational
context plays a major role both in the codification of raw data and experiences and in the decodification
process. On the contrary, ICTs, as any technology, tend to support processes which are context-free. As
this goal is impossible to attain, ICT engineers choose another strategy—they define a given context
of codification and decodification and derive a list of requisites for the design of effective information
and communication formats. It is easy to preview that the research agenda in next years will give more
attention to the efficiency and effectiveness of information formats in given organizational contexts.
Many theoretical issues are involved in this research area, such as relationships between tacit and explicit
knowledge, information and knowledge, and much more.
The sense-making frame. A key point of knowledge management is that a knowledge asset is useful

inasmuch that it is continuously redefined by individual and collective learning. If the organization is not
able to actively reconstruct its knowledge assets, knowledge disappears. Thus, any organization based
on knowledge assets must be a learning organization, able to produce knowledge from knowledge. We
know that the learning activity is a linking activity that makes connections between different pieces of
information and a sense-making activity that constructs meaning for linked items. ICTs play a major
role in supporting the connecting activity, while their role in supporting the sense-making is extremely
poor. Probably we need a better understanding of time dimensions involved in developing new knowledge by cognitive actors (individuals and groups). The cognitive actor, while considering new pieces of
information, constructs hypotheses, conjectures, inferences, images within three temporal coordinates.
The first coordinate is the actual flow of messages coming from context. The second coordinate is that
of intentions, desires, goals, plans, and the imagined future being sought. The third coordinate is that of


xvi

the past experiences and previous knowledge. These three temporal coordinates define the structure of
sense-making. Up to now, the research agenda on ICTs has been mainly focused on spatial dimensions
of knowledge management and the efficiency of spatially dispersed knowledge resources and communities. Nevertheless, previous years have found researchers devoting more attention to time issues
involved in knowledge management, and to the impact of ICTs on duration and rhythms of individual
and group tasks. In the future, it is expected that the research on how IT can support sense-making will
receive more attention.
Learning society. The most important claim of researchers and practitioners in the field of KM is that
information is widely dispersed in society. Individuals have pieces of information from which others can
benefit, but groups often fail to access to the information that the individuals have. In this respect, ICT
is expected to produce a dramatic impact in helping people to elicit, transfer and aggregate relevant and
dispersed information. The prerequisite is that individuals, groups and institutions are able to create a
digital world, where most of knowledge circulating in the human society is encoded in digital artifacts.
This digital layer of packaged information is inherently chaotic, as it is built bottom-up without a general design. Moreover, each day new information, new databases, and links modify this world. Thus, it
is hard to have stable patterns in this chaotic world. Consequently, patterns could emerge only through
the continuous work of knowledge mediators, learning agents of sorts, which patrol the chaotic digital
world and construct coherent patterns of links between knowledge committers and knowledge suppliers

(Google is an example of such a mediator). A knowledge mediator is one of the players that are necessary to build an effective socio-digital learning society. The task of mediators is to construct a coherent
pattern of relationships between knowledge committers and knowledge suppliers. It is easy to forecast
that huge research efforts in next years will be dedicated to design and build mediation technologies
for the socio-digital learning society. The integration of several mediation technologies, such as wikis,
blogs and other collaborative platforms is already bringing about effective exploitation of the collective
intelligence of large mass of knowledgeable users. More sophisticated tools, capable to enable easy access to huge bodies of knowledge, are expected to come.
This book, carefully edited by Ettore Bolisani, will provide a wide audience of readers with a general
view on research questions and recent advancements on the impact of Internet on knowledge management.

Giuseppe Zollo,
University of Naples “Federico II”
September, 2007


xvii

Preface

Knowledge management for the Knowledge society
Even in the scientific context, sometimes the words can become buzzwords, after they are used for some
time. This is the case of ”Knowledge Society”. An impressive number of studies in many disciplines
deals with, mentions, or has something to do with this term (more than 17.000 documents that include
this keyword can be retrieved with a simple look-up in “Google Scholar”). Indeed, the knowledge is
increasingly recognised as the pivotal element of our activity, our economy, and, thus, our society. Today,
much of the work of scientists and practitioners, in several fields, is centred on how this “asset” can be
produced, handled, exchanged, stored, and more generally used to generate value for individuals and
organisations.
But what does “knowledge society” exactly mean, and how will the term be interpreted in this book?
Here, it is not a matter of definitions (which we will happily leave to philosophers and luminaries) but,
rather, of more basic questions: what is exactly the difference between “knowledge society” and just

“society”? Does this mean that we witness some sort of change, the birth of something that did not exist before? Does it mean that only today we are aware that something (the “knowledge”) can assume
unprecedented forms, or is finding fresh ways to be processed, which justifies our new (or renewed)
attention?
It would be easy to say that the key of this change has to be found in the impressive advancements
of ICT and Internet technologies. Indeed, it appears even obvious to associate the development of the
knowledge society with the progress and widespread use of ICT applications. Unfortunately, this is not
an answer but, rather, raises additional questions. The revolutionary potential of these technologies has
been fully recognised only decades after their invention. Computers were invented about 70 years ago,
an almost biblical time, considering the speed of our current lives. The Internet was ideated in the 1950s,
and its technical feasibility was demonstrated a few years later.
The experts of innovation studies would probably say that this is common because the processes through
which an invention becomes and innovation, spreads and finally, impacts the world significantly, depend
on complicated dynamics, and are affected by the interactions of several factors, which takes a much
longer time than often predicted. All this is true, but still does not explain the nature of today’s change.
Why just a few years ago we used to talk of “information society” and “information paradigm,” and now
we have turned to the “knowledge society”? What is the difference? What did it change, and how? And
does this mean that, in the next future, we must expect to deal with “another kind of society”?
Actually, this is not a book of history, and we do not need to find the explanations of how we arrived somewhere, and why. Nor we are interested in making forecasts. Rather, focusing on the research
on knowledge management, this book lives in the present, and intends the knowledge society not as a
paradigm or a model that already exists and just needs to be explained, but something that we are trying


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to build, both conceptually and practically. It is the view of this book: a sort of constructivist perspective
on the emerging knowledge society and, in this, of the role, knowledge management (KM).
KM, intended as the set of deliberate, coordinated, and systematic methods for the management of
knowledge in organisations by means of appropriate organisational practices and ICT tools, is increasingly popular, but its development is relatively recent. It can be said that managing knowledge has
always been one of the major concerns of humanity, but the origins of KM as a branch of management
can be traced back to the early 1990s (Prusak, 2001), although KM scholars often cite antecedent works

of eminent scholars (e.g., Drucker, 1967; Machlup, 1962; Polanyi, 1967). It is not the purpose here to
go further into the definitions or history of KM (the reader can, however, find many references in the
various chapters). What is clear is that the idea of KM is strictly intertwined with the idea of building
the knowledge society, as it represents one of its concrete bricks.
If the building of a knowledge society relies on the development of KM, here we have both good
and bad news. The good news is that there is an impressive effort of practice, research, and education
in KM rises the expectation of a bright future for this field. The investments in KM programmes by
companies are increasing, and regard not only the major multinationals but also smaller companies, in
many industries and countries. Courses and even entire “universities” are devoted to KM. KM-related
jobs are increasingly offered by companies, and there are professionals and consultants whose services
specialise in KM. As regards the scientific research, there is a huge and increasing number of studies,
books, and specialised conferences.
The bad news refers to a some persistent weaknesses of KM, seen as a scientific discipline. A first
problem comes from the extreme heterogeneity of approaches, conceptual references, and application
fields that can be found. KM initiatives are proposed in totally different environments: in business and in
non-profit organisations; in multinationals and smaller companies; in very heterogeneous areas ranging
from R&D to operations management, from healthcare management to ICT design. This witnesses the
transversal interest in the issue, but at the same time, arises the question of consistency of approaches and
methods. Although, sometimes, common viewpoints or approaches are proposed, even the conceptual
backgrounds of researchers and practitioners are often heterogeneous. More generally, it is even difficult to draw the boundaries between KM and all the related areas (Information Systems and Computer
Science, Sociology, Business Management, Economics, etc.).
Should we resign ourselves to develop distinct KM approaches for the different situations, or are
there some “shared fundamentals” that we can try to build up? This is, indeed, what distinguishes a
well-established discipline from just “a set of practices.” As KM researchers, we need to proceed with
the setting of these fundamentals. This work has been started by the KM community in recent years
(see recent collections such as Holsapple, 2003; Schwartz, 2006), but it still requires efforts of analysis,
systematisation, and formalisation. In relation to this, the book deals with this question by focusing
particularly on a specific topic: the processes of knowledge exchanges in networks that, in the current
context of research and practice of KM, appear to be particularly important.


Knowledge exchanges in networKed environments
The problem of managing knowledge is, essentially, a problem of knowledge exchange. To be managed,
the knowledge needs to be retrieved from some source, processed, and then distributed to other users
(Garavelli, Gorgoglione, & Scozzi, 2002).
Thus, knowledge exchanges are the essential ingredients of KM. Although the topic of knowledge
exchange seems well focalised, a rapid glance at the KM literature is enough to highlight that there are


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several problematic aspects that make this topic a challenging terrain for both the research and the practice. An essential problem results from the extreme variety of situations to which the issue of knowledge
exchange can be related. It can be said that a myriad of knowledge exchanges continuously occurs in
disparate contexts, even when they are not explicitly identified and recognised. An interpersonal communication is an exchange of knowledge, but also economic transactions between two trading firms can
be seen as (or involve) a knowledge exchange. Even two computers exchanging messages are, somewhat,
part of a kind of knowledge exchange. What’s more, one can speak of knowledge exchange even when
there is someone that communicates a message to a broad audience: a TV programme is a process of
knowledge exchange, as is the publication of a book or a Web site.
Thus, there is a problem of definition. There is no clear consensus here, and distinct terms (such as
knowledge sharing, transfer, exchange) are used (Boyd, Ragsdell, & Oppenheim, 2007; King, 2006),
also with different shades of meaning (in this preface, we will just speak of knowledge exchanges, but
we will more generally mean all the terms previously indicated).
In addition, the exchange of knowledge is a process that involves various elements (i.e., the knowledge
objects exchanged, the sources and receivers, the carrier or medium, the mechanisms used, etc.). Thus,
a researcher can decide to centre the analysis on one specific element, or to include different variables
or factors, or to focus on the intertwined relationships among all these.
Due to these complications, the characterising aspect, the implications, and the practical questions of
knowledge exchange are many. Here, we will explicit focus on the perspectives adopted by researchers
whose main field is that of KM. The contributors to this book were asked to explain their viewpoints,
research methods and interpretative models, and to debate the findings of their studies, with the purpose to clarify the state of our knowledge about this issue and discuss the prospective fields of study.
In particular, they were invited to provide insights into some open questions that we will briefly recall

in the following pages.

Processes
How do people and organisations exchange knowledge? An effort or modelisation of the mechanisms and
rules that are employed is essential. Also, the nature of the “object” of exchange has to be specified. The
classic distinction between tacit and explicit knowledge is fundamental, but needs further explanation.
Another open question is the difference between interpersonal and interorganisational exchange.
Knowledge exchanges between organisations are, or involve, knowledge exchanges among individuals.
The relationships among these two kinds of exchange need a conceptualisation that has not been achieved
yet, and the literature often focuses on specific aspects or specific practical cases.
The human-machine knowledge exchange is a related issue. Technologies are the fundamental support
of KM practices. The way knowledge embedded in an individual can be “extracted,” codified, stored in a
device, and then retrieved and delivered to other individuals for reuse, is one important field to explore.
Also, the connection between the findings of technical research with the problems of interpersonal or
interorganisational relationships still requires a conceptualisation.

Value
The motivation of exchanging knowledge with others, or in other terms, the value that the players ascribe to this activity, is another hot issue for KM, and a central theme of this book as well. The current
practice shows that KM initiatives that do not account for the motivations of participants in knowledge
exchanges are likely to fail (Brydon & Vining, 2006). There is, thus, the need to explain the factors that


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can facilitate and hinder the personal participation in a process of knowledge exchange. Motivation
can be seen from different viewpoints, and based on various conceptual references. It can be related
to distinct but intertwined concepts, such as the personal utility (i.e., knowledge is exchanged to solve
a problem or accomplish a task), the economic value (knowledge is exchanged as a sort of good), or
the social motivation (individuals exchange knowledge because they belong to a particular context). A
systematisation of all these aspects is thus necessary. Again, the difference between personal or organisational value should be clarified.


Networks
Although knowledge exchange can be simply depicted as involving one source and one receiver, this
process does not occur in a vacuum but, instead, in a complex configuration of relationships that involve
several players. The structure and nature of the networks of interpersonal or interorganisational links,
and the distinct roles performed by the various players, are thus an essential focus of analysis. The web
of social relationships is one element that attracts the interest of researchers. Hot issues in the KM literature are, for example, the cultural distance between players and the trustworthy climate that facilitates
the sharing of knowledge. Here, various models and references are often drawn from a multiplicity of
disciplines and fields. An effort of systematisation is required.
The technological infrastructure of the network is another essential issue. There is a rich and significant literature on knowledge management systems and, more generally, on the use of ICT applications
for supporting knowledge exchange between individuals and/or organisations. However, technology is
not the panacea for any problem of knowledge exchange. The multidimensional and elusive nature of
the notion of knowledge often challenges the efforts of ICT researchers and designers. The potential,
but also the limitations of technology and the future prospects, and the way these are related to the other
elements previously mentioned, are another area that still deserves an in-depth analysis.

aims of the booK and audience
As mentioned, the aims of the book are to illustrate, compare, and discuss models, perspectives, and
approaches that can be helpful to understand the state-of-the-art of the current studies of the topic of
knowledge exchange in networked environments seen from different viewpoints, and to depict the possible trajectories of the future developments both in the research and in the practice.
The collected chapters provide a rich panorama of the prospects of research on the topic, formulated
by scholars working in independent areas. The reader will thus be given a good view of the variety of
viewpoints and approaches and, at the same time, indications of the “shared elements” (language, terms,
conceptual references) that can be intended as the foundations of an emerging and fascinating field of
study.
In this sense, and in coherence with the constructivist view of the knowledge society, this book project
should be intended more as a “laboratory of ideas” rather than an “encyclopedia.” The comparison of
contrasting viewpoints and the “remote debate” among scholars working on distinct but related fields,
provides essential food for thought to the reader, and helps to build a “common interface” enabling
the communication between different disciplines and areas. The assumption (and the hope) is that this

“cross-fertilisation” can help to overcome the limitations of the single viewpoint, and that the systematic comparison and discussion of different but converging approaches can set the grounds for a shared
language and an agreed conceptual framework, can favour the exchange of findings and ideas and builds
the foundations of the future research.


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Clearly, any multidisciplinary project is risky, since it involves different disciplines and academic
traditions that can be distant (and, sometimes, idiosyncratic). However, the nature itself of the problem
makes the effort valuable. In addition, the possible drawbacks have been minimised by organising the
process of collection and revision of chapters in an appropriate way. Contributors were asked to submit
chapters on specific topics, but aiming at explaining concepts, theories, approaches, and perspectives
underpinning their current research (rather than illustrating the “last empirical findings”). Secondly, a
double-stage reviewing process of chapters has been conducted, to ficilitate the understanding by readers specialising in other disciplines. Each chapter has been reviewed by both referees specialising in
the same area of the author, who assessed the scientific quality of the chapter in that specific field, and
referees specialising in a completely different field, who assessed the “readability” of the chapter and
provided suggestions to simplify the language, clarify concepts, make bridges towards other disciplines,
and so forth.
The principal audience of this book will consist of scholars and researchers in KM. The book is, in
fact, firstly designed to provide “food for thought” for the future research. However, practitioners might
find new ideas for a dynamic sector such as knowledge-based or Internet-based services. Graduate and
postgraduate students might also find useful references for their work.
The sources of value can be various. As mentioned, the book can help to understand the broad picture
of the state-of-the-art of the current research on the topic, and depict the possible trajectories of the future
developments. Secondly, it can enable the building of a common set of concepts, terms, references, and
approaches in disciplinary areas that are sometimes too distant. Another element of significance is the
huge amount of references that is collected here. The contributors were asked to attach a special “additional reading” section that, added to the references directly quoted in their chapters, thus constitutes
a comprehensive collection of the current literature on the topic of knowledge exchange, and a unique
source of reference to the reader.


structure of the booK and contributions
Once the chapters were collected, the book was organised in two parts. The first section is entitled
“Models,” and gathers the contributions that focus on the conceptual modelisation of the context where
knowledge exchanges occur, or deal with general key factors affecting these processes. Compared with
the second section of the book, these first chapters have fewer links with specific application problems,
although their analysis can provide elements that can be of use both to formulate research hypotheses
or to inspire practical implementations of KM. These first chapters can be further classified in relation
to their conceptual backgrounds and the main focus of analysis, or better, to their distinct viewpoints
of the topic.
A first viewpoint refers to a human-oriented approach to KM, and highlights the social and personal
issues affecting the exchange of knowledge. In her “Knowledge Sharing: Interactive Process Between
Organizational Knowledge Sharing Initiative and Individuals’ Sharing Practice,” Shuhua Liu reflects
on the relationships occurring between individuals’ practices and organisational settings in knowledge
exchange. As mentioned before, KM programmes have the aim to facilitate the exploitation of knowledge
by organisation, but since organisations are made of individuals, the complex relationships between these
different entities need a clarification. In particular, based on a review of established theories in sociology, management science, and organisational behaviour, the author attempts to develop elements of a
new model that explains how the organisational settings influence the way individuals share knowledge.
Knowledge is not something that can be “detached” from the individual, but rather it is built through


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a sense-making process occurring in a context of social interactions, and subjected to the institutional
and organisational arrangements that regulate or influence these interactions. This view has interesting
implications for KM. In particular, for a successful knowledge management initiative, both the formal
and informal organisational factors that influence the individuals’ behaviours and their knowledge-sharing practices need to be clearly identified. Also, this analysis sheds a new light on the role of ICTs in
knowledge exchange that should be designed in relation to the social processes and the organisational
activities.
The next chapter, “The Centrality of Team Leaders in Knowledge-Sharing Activities: Their Dual
Role as Knowledge Processors” by Evangelia Siachou and Anthony Ioannidis, also investigates the

relationships between individuals and organisations in knowledge exchange. The authors analyse the
crucial role of team leaders as knowledge processors in favour of the other team members. In particular,
they focus on action teams that deal with unpredictable situations and thus, need to obtain and make
instant use of accurate knowledge, although their analysis might be applied to other virtual structures.
The authors argue that team members cannot have access to critical knowledge directly, for lack of
time or other constraints. Thus, the team leaders, being knowledge processors, act both as recipients of
knowledge transferred from outside the team (from Internet repositories, external colleagues, or other
sources) and as sources of knowledge for their team members. The capability to seek, filter, and deliver
knowledge contents in the right way represents an essential skill. Well beyond the particular context
considered here, the analysis of the role of leaders proposed by the authors provides useful insights into
the complex relationship between the way organisational units are structured, and the effective processes
of knowledge transfer that occur among their members.
The theme of the social context is also treated by Kerstin Siakas and Elli Georgiadou in their “Knowledge Sharing in Virtual and Networked Organisations in Different Organisational and National Cultures.”
The authors, however, have a wider focus, and discuss the factors that affect knowledge sharing processes in culturally diverse networked organisations. Indeed, considering that the most important KM
programmes are implemented by large and dispersed multinationals, this issue becomes of particular
interest. There is often the assumption that ICT applications, providing standard communication platforms, can “magically” solve all the problems of knowledge exchange in virtual organisations between
physically remote members. As the authors argue effectively, this view neglects the issue of the cultural
distance that can hinder the effective transfers of knowledge. Indeed, this is an emerging issue for the
management of multicultural companies (see, for instance, the related studies of the so-called “diversity
management”), but is relatively new in the field of KM, and often treated without the necessary theoretical background. Based on authoritative studies of the notion of culture, the contribution examines
the impact of different cultural values and perception on knowledge sharing and, consequently, on the
effectiveness of KM programmes.
The following two chapters treat much more directly the issue of technology for KM. Axel-Cyrille
Ngonga Ngomo, in his “Towards an Implicit and Collaborative Evolution of Terminological Ontologies,”
opens a window to one of the more advanced fields of computer science applied to KM: the development and use of ontologies. This contribution has also the merit to provide a good example of technical
literature in KM that has reached a considerable degree of formalisation. The problem of capturing
the tacit components of knowledge in a way that can be handled and delivered automatically, can be
seen as a particular process of knowledge exchange that challenges both KM researchers and computer
programmers. The use of ontologies, which can be roughly defined as representations of knowledge
in a form that can be interpreted by machines (and other persons), raises several issues that have not

been resolved completely. Here, the author stresses some problematic questions: first, the connection
between the representations of an individual’s knowledge (i.e., personal ontologies) and a representation


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of knowledge that should be valid for a group of individuals (global knowledge); second, the problem of
how ontologies can evolve along with time as the result of individual and organisational learning; and
third, how personal ontologies can evolve autonomously by interacting with other personal ontologies.
Although the chapter contains a high level of formalisation, even a non-specialist reader can have a good
idea of the current problems that this field raises.
The chapter by Kimiz Dalkir, “Computer-Mediated Knowledge Sharing,” offers a view of technology that leaves apart the idea of ICT applications as the panacea of any problem of KM. Instead, she
highlights that not all Internet-based knowledge-sharing systems are created equal: they differ in their
effectiveness when used for exchanging knowledge. Communication channels support different levels of
social interaction and this has an impact on knowledge sharing. It is necessary to define key knowledge
and channel attributes in order to understand how knowledge can be effectively shared using computers. Dalkir’s chapter examines the computer-mediated knowledge sharing mechanisms, and proposes
a typology based on media richness and social presence characteristics that can serve as a preliminary
conceptual basis to select the most appropriate channel. Also, as the author notes, computer-mediated
communication should not be thought of as a single communication channel, but rather a family of different
technological applications. The proposed framework of knowledge and channel characteristics provides
an alternative to the “one size fits all” approach to knowledge sharing on the Internet. Individuals wishing to communicate and collaborate using channel-mediated connections will be in a position to adopt
a more systematic and deliberate approach to matching each type of knowledge with the best channel.
As the computer-mediated communication technology evolves, and usage continues to intensify and
diversify, being able to assess the best vehicle for knowledge sharing will provide a valuable means of
ensuring both efficiency and effectiveness of the knowledge sharing. To this purpose, the modelisation
proposed by Dalkir represents a valuable conceptual tool.
The last two chapters of the first section treat the issue of how knowledge exchange is perceived and
valued by individuals and organisations, and the implications of this, especially in networked environments. Here, the KM literature still suffers a lack of formal modelisation for which a more direct relation
with the economic models can be of use.
My chapter, “Understanding Knowledge Transfer on the Net: Useful Lessons from the Knowlewdge

Economy,” discusses the contribution to the development of KM that can come from an “economic reading” of KM practices and, particularly, from the recent studies in the so-called “knowledge economy.”
Indeed, KM is making its way among the other more established branches of business management,
and a more direct link with the models and approaches of the economic disciplines would be useful
to systematise the conceptual backgrounds and to improve the formal modelling. However, KM and
Economics have often been distant areas, although recently, the attention to the economic models by
KM researchers has increased and, on the other hand, eminent economists show interest in the study of
knowledge as an explicit object of analysis. From these converging efforts, useful elements for the conceptual systematisation of KM can arise, and can give theoretical robustness to both the practice and the
research. The chapter especially focuses on the process of knowledge transfer that can be seen as a sort
of “market” between a source and receiver. This kind of modelisation provides novel interpretations of
the value and motivation that individuals and organisations can have when exchanging knowledge with
others. Additional issues (such as the cost and benefit of knowledge codification, and the mechanisms
that can favour or hinder knowledge markets) are also analysed.
Similarly to the previous chapter, in their “Knowledge-Sharing Motivation in Virtual Communities,”
Jengchung V. Chen, J. Michael Tarn, and Muhammad A. Razi treat the issue of motivation in exchanging
knowledge and in particular, they explore the motivation of members to exchange knowledge in virtual
communities. They analyse the underlying factors of such sharing behaviours and, like the previous


xxiv

chapter, they found their analysis on elements drawn from economic theories. The authors present a novel
conceptual model that illustrates the integrated relationship between transaction cost, expectancy value,
and knowledge sharing in a context of virtual communities. The notion of knowledge market is also examined, since knowledge sharing is a form of knowledge transaction, and the concept of market provides
an essential reference for understanding knowledge transactions and, thus, knowledge exchanges.
The second section of the book is entitled “Applications.” Here, however, the reader will not necessarily find detailed descriptions of methods, techniques, or tools (this was not the aim of the book).
Rather, these chapters are placed here because they focus more directly on particular issues of knowledge
exchange in specific contexts, which represents a good linkage between the formulation of general models
and the practical problems of their use. As the reader can notice, the chapters offer a good panorama
of the extreme variety of issues and situations. However, as done in the first section, they are classified
based on the similarity of applications or approaches. In particular, the first chapters are more focused

on “non-profit networks” or, in other words, on open environments, where the exchange of knowledge
appears a question of sharing rather than trading. The last chapters are, instead, more focused on business contexts.
Margarita Echeverri and Eileen G. Abels, in “Opportunities and Obstacles to Narrow the Digital
Divide: Sharing Scientific Knowledge on the Internet,” consider a problem that has become particularly
important with the upsurge of the Internet: the digital divide. This chapter is a good demonstration of
how the typical issues treated in the KM literature regard several heterogeneous fields. In particular, the
authors reflect on the possibility to freely exchange scientific knowledge, (that is, one that, by its very
nature, tends to be considered “public,” being the essential ingredient of education and development).
Here, the Internet has provided a new channel for disseminating scientific materials, for instance, in the
form of electronic journals: the access through the Internet is currently the fastest and least expensive
way to access this kind of knowledge. However, although the Web itself was conceived to encourage
knowledge sharing, several limitations can restrict the freedom of access, especially to those users that,
for various reasons, do not possess specific resources. In the literature of KM, there is little theoretical
and empirical work that addresses knowledge transfer through the use of open electronic networks. The
authors propose a conceptual framework of the knowledge transfer cycle, and examine the key factors
affecting the dissemination of scientific knowledge on the Web. Also, they discuss the results of a vast
survey that shows how having access to the Internet is not a guarantee of successful transfer of public
scientific knowledge. In relation to this, the current challenges facing the open-access initiative, of making scientific information free and available worldwide, are also discussed.
The chapter “Knowledge Exchange in Electronic Networks of Practice: An Examination of Knowledge
Types and Knowledge Flows,” by Molly McLure Wasko and Samer Faraj, analyses an open environment for knowledge sharing, but is more delimited in focus and in boundaries, compared to the previous
chapter. The study examines knowledge exchange in a global, interorganisational electronic network
of practice based on the Usenet. Similarly to the previous chapter, this kind of network is based on a
voluntary and globally distributed participation of members that do not have personal or organisational
ties. This can thus be defined as an open community, although, as the reader can see, the members share
a common interest in a particular topic, and the willingness to use a special infrastructure to transfer
knowledge. The scientific literature (and the press as well) often emphasises the importance of these
networks in supporting open knowledge exchanges, but there are few attempts to investigate in detail
why and how these processes occur. The purpose of this study is twofold: on the one hand, the authors
investigate what type of knowledge is being transferred in these networks, and second, how knowledge
is transferred across individuals. The chapter analyses and classifies the contents exchanged in the messages (for this, the study also provides a good example of method applied to this kind of KM research),