Information Assurance


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The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Networking
Series Editor, David Clark, M.I.T.
Information Assurance: Dependability and
Security in Networked Systems
Yi Qian, James Joshi, David Tipper, and
Prashant Krishnamurthy

Network Analysis, Architecture, and Design,
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Content Networking: Architecture, Protocols,
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Markus Hofmann and Leland R. Beaumont

Network Algorithmics: An Interdisciplinary
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George Varghese

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Wireless Communications & Networking: An
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Vijay K. Garg

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Jan L. Harrington

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Computer Networks: A Systems Approach,
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Network Routing: Algorithms, Protocols, and
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Deepankar Medhi and Karthikeyan Ramaswami

Deploying IP and MPLS QoS for Multiservice
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John Evans and Clarence Filsfils

Traffic Engineering and QoS Optimization of
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Gerald R. Ash

IPv6 Core Protocols Implementation
Qing Li, Tatuya Jinmei, and Keiichi Shima

Smart Phone and Next-Generation Mobile
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Pei Zheng and Lionel Ni


GMPLS: Architecture and Applications
Adrian Farrel and Igor Bryskin

Network Security: A Practical Approach
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Network Recovery: Protection and Restoration
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Jean Philippe Vasseur, Mario Pickavet, and Piet
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Routing, Flow, and Capacity Design in
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Wireless Sensor Networks: An Information
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Policy-Based Network Management: Solutions
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Telecommunications Law in the Internet Age
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Internet QoS: Architectures and Mechanisms
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Networked Applications: A Guide to the New
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The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Computer Security
Information Assurance: Dependability and
Security in Networked Systems
Yi Qian, James Joshi, David Tipper, and
Prashant Krishnamurthy

Digital Watermarking and Steganography,
Second Edition
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Network Recovery: Protection and Restoration of
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Demeester

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Information Assurance
Dependability and Security
in Networked Systems

Yi Qian
James Joshi
David Tipper
Prashant Krishnamurthy

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Information assurance : dependability and security in networked systems / Yi Qian ... [et al.].
p. cm. – (The Morgan Kaufmann series in networking)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-12-373566-9 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Computer networks–Security measures. 2. Computer
networks–Reliability. 3. Computer security. I. Qian, Yi, 1962–

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ISBN: 978-0-12-373566-9
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Printed in the United States of America
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1


To my wife Melodee, son Joshua and daughter Michelle
—Yi Qian

To my wife Tripti, daughter Jaimee, and parents Hem and Prava
—James Joshi

In memory of my father, C.E. Tipper who encouraged and enabled my education
—David Tipper

To my parents, Krishnamurthy and Shantha whose blessings
I count as my fortune every day
—Prashant Krishnamurthy


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Contents


1

Preface

xxiii

Contributors

xxvii

Information Assurance
by Yi Qian, University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, and
James Joshi, David Tipper, and Prashant Krishnamurthy, University of
Pittsburgh, USA
1.1

Introduction

1.2

Information Assurance: Dependability and Security of Networked
Information Systems 3

1.3

Book Organization
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3


1

7

The Three Parts of the Book 7
Chapter 2: Network Security 8
Chapter 3: Security for Distributed Systems: Foundations of
Access Control 8
1.3.4 Chapter 4: Network Survivability 9
1.3.5 Chapter 5: System Survivability 9
1.3.6 Chapter 6: Taxonomy and Framework for Integrating
Dependability and Security 9
1.3.7 Chapter 7: Stochastic Models/Techniques for Secure and
Survivable Systems 10
1.3.8 Chapter 8: Integrated Dependability and Security Evaluation
Using Game Theory and Markov Models 10
1.3.9 Chapter 9: Scenario Graphs Applied to Network Security 11
1.3.10 Chapter 10: Vulnerability-Centric Alert Correlation 11

1


Contents

xii

1.3.11 Chapter 11: Monitoring and Detecting Attacks in All-Optical
Networks 11
1.3.12 Chapter 12: Robustness Evaluation of Operating Systems 12
1.3.13 Chapter 13: Intrusion Response Systems: A Survey 12

1.3.14 Chapter 14: Secure and Resilient Routing: A Framework for Resilient
Network Architectures 13
1.3.15 Chapter 15: Wireless Systems Security and Survivability 13
1.3.16 Chapter 16: Integrated Fault and Security Management 14
1.4

Part I:

2

Conclusion

14

References

14

Foundational Background on Security and Dependability
Techniques

17

Network Security

19

by James Joshi and Prashant Krishnamurthy, University of Pittsburgh, USA
2.1


Introduction

2.2

Network Attacks and Security Issues

2.3

2.2.1 Network Communications 20
2.2.2 Some Example Security Attacks 23
2.2.3 Security Attacks, Services, and Architecture
Protection and Prevention 27
2.3.1
2.3.2

3

19
19

Firewalls and Perimeter Security
Cryptographic Protocols 30

2.4

Detection

2.5

Assessment and Response


2.6

Conclusion

37

References

37

26

27

34
36

Security for Distributed Systems: Foundations of Access Control 39
by Elisa Bertino, Purdue University, USA, and Jason Crampton, University of
London, UK
3.1

Introduction

39


Contents


xiii
3.2

Identification and Authentication
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4

3.3

Access Control
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5
3.3.6

3.4

4

Access Control Based on Subject–Object
Relationships 48
Protection Matrix Model 48
An Information Flow Policy for Confidentiality
Bell-LaPadula Model 55
Clark-Wilson Model 56
Role-Based Access Control 59

Overview of Relevant Standards
Advanced Approaches 65

Digital Identity Management
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4

3.6

46

Access Control in Distributed Systems
3.4.1
3.4.2

3.5

40

Password-Based Authentication 41
Insecure Communication Channels 42
Challenge-Response Systems 42
Authentication in Distributed Systems 43

53

60
61


72

Shibboleth 73
CardSpace 74
Higgins Trust Framework 75
Research Approaches 75

Conclusion

76

References

77

81

Network Survivability
by Bjorn Jager, Molde University, Norway, John Doucette,
University of Alberta Edmonton, Canada, and David Tipper
University of Pittsburgh, USA
4.1

Introduction

4.2

Prevention Techniques


4.3

Survivable Network Design and Traffic Restoration Concepts
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3

81
83

Typical Network Architecture 84
Basic Survivability Concepts 86
Basic Network Management Concepts

87

84


Contents

xiv
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.4

Protection versus Restoration
Other Issues 89

Transport Network Recovery Techniques

4.4.1
4.4.2
4.4.3
4.4.4
4.4.5
4.4.6

Automatic Protection Switching
Ring-Based Survivability 93
Span Restoration 95
Shared Path Protection 96
Shared Path Restoration 97
p-Cycles 98

4.5

Survivable Network Design Techniques

4.6

Multilayer Issues

4.7

Conclusion and Future Research Areas
References

5

88

91
91

101

104
107

108

113

System Survivability
by Axel Krings, University of Idaho, USA
5.1

Introduction and Background

5.2

Survivability and the Impact of Fault Models
5.2.1
5.2.2

5.3

119

Identification of Essential Functionalities 121
Tolerating Faults 123

Dealing with Common-Mode Faults 124
Applying the Notion of Optimality 125

5.4

Decentralized Storage

5.5

Survivability of Large Distributed Systems

5.6

Borrowing from Well-established Fields
5.6.1
5.6.2
5.6.3

5.7

115

Dependability Considerations 116
Survivability Considerations 118

Design for Survivability
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4


113

126
128
133

Problem Transformation 133
Scheduling Problems 136
Case Study: Autonomous Mobile Agents

Conclusion

141

References

142

139


Contents

xv

Part II: Modeling the Interaction between Dependability and Security 147
6

Taxonomy and Framework for Integrating Dependability

and Security

149

by Jiankun Hu, Peter Bertok, and Zahir Tari, RMIT University,
Australia
6.1

Introduction

6.2

Basic Concepts and Related Work
6.2.1
6.2.2

6.3

150

Dependability 150
Integration of Dependability and Security

Proposed Taxonomy and Framework
6.3.1
6.3.2

Key Notations of the Feedback Control System Model 154
Definitions of Basic Concepts of Dependability and Security within the
Proposed Framework 155


Dependability, Security, and their Attributes

6.5

6.4.1 Taxonomy of Faults 157
The Means to Attain Dependability and Security

6.6

152

154

6.4

6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3

7

149

155
164

Fault Prevention 164
Fault Tolerance 166
Fault Removal 166


Conclusion

168

References

168

Stochastic Modeling Techniques for Secure and Survivable
Systems
by Kishor S. Trivedi, Duke University, USA, and Vaneeta Jindal and
Selvamuthu Dharmaraja, Indian Institute of Technology, India
7.1

Introduction

7.2

7.1.1 Survivability and Security 172
Analytical Modeling Techniques 173
7.2.1

171

Markov Models

174

171



Contents

xvi
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.3

Semi-Markov Process 176
Higher-Level Model Formalisms

Security Modeling
7.3.1
7.3.2

Intrusion-Tolerant Systems [3] 180
Security Modeling of SITAR Security System [4]

7.4

Survivability Modeling

7.5

7.4.1 System Description [31]
Conclusion 205
References

8


177

179
188

190
192

205

Integrated Dependability and Security Evaluation Using Game
209
Theory and Markov Models
by Bjarne E. Helvik, Karin Sallhammar, and Svein J. Knapskog,
University of Science and Technology, Norway
8.1

Introduction
8.1.1
8.1.2

8.2

Previous Work
Outline 213

Stochastic Modeling
8.2.1
8.2.2

8.2.3
8.2.4
8.2.5

8.3

209
212
213

Failure Process 215
Modeling Intrusion as Transitions 216
Modeling the System 217
Obtaining System Measures 218
Model Parametrization 220

Predicting Attacker Behavior
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3

Reward and Cost Concept 222
Modeling Interactions as a Game
Stochastic Game Model 224

8.4

Defining and Solving the Game

8.5


Tuning the Game Parameters
8.5.1
8.5.2
8.5.3

8.6

225
230

One Possible Attack Action 231
Two Possible Attack Actions 233
Attacker Profiling 235

Case Study: DNS Service
8.6.1
8.6.2

221

236

Stochastic Model 237
Stochastic Game 237

223


Contents


xvii
8.6.3
8.6.4
8.7

9

Four Scenarios 238
Comparing the Scenarios

Conclusion

240

References

243

239

247

Scenario Graphs Applied to Network Security
by Jeannette M. Wing, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
9.1

Introduction

9.2


Algorithms for Generating Scenario Graphs
9.2.1
9.2.2

Attack Graphs are Scenario Graphs

9.4

Network Attack Graphs

9.5

9.6

9.7

257

Example Network Components
Sample Attack Graphs 264

Attack Graph Analysis
9.6.1
9.6.2

259

266


Single Action Removal 267
Critical Action Set Minimization

Practical Experience
9.7.1
9.7.2

251

253

Network Attack Model 253
Network Components 254

Example Network
9.5.1
9.5.2

248

Symbolic Algorithm 248
Explicit-State Algorithm 250

9.3

9.4.1
9.4.2

267


269

Performance 269
Toolkit 271

9.8

Related Work

9.9

Future Work and Conclusion
References

10

247

272
274

276

279

Vulnerability-Centric Alert Correlation

by Lingyu Wang, Concordia University, Canada, and Sushil Jajodia, George
Mason University, USA
10.1 Introduction


279

10.2 Review of Alert Correlation and Related Techniques
10.3 Attack Graph

284

282


Contents

xviii
10.4 Alert Correlation, Hypothesis, Prediction, and Aggregation
10.4.1
10.4.2
10.4.3
10.4.4
10.4.5

287

Alert Correlation in Offline Applications 287
Vulnerability-Centric Alert Correlation 289
Alert Hypothesis and Prediction 292
Alert Aggregation 296
Empirical Results 298

10.5 Conclusion


300

10.6 Acknowledgments
References

300

301

Part III: Design and Architectural Issues for Secure and Dependable

11

Systems

305

Monitoring and Detecting Attacks in All-Optical Networks

307

by Arun K. Somani and Tao Wu, Iowa State University, USA
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1
11.1.2
11.1.3
11.1.4

307


Security Problems in All-Optical Networks 308
Possible Attacks 308
All-Optical Network Attack Types 309
Issues in Crosstalk Attack Diagnostic Algorithms 310

11.2 Crosstalk Attack Features and Monitoring Techniques
11.2.1 Crosstalk Attack Features 311
11.2.2 Security Consideration 312
11.2.3 Overview of Current Monitoring Methods
11.3 Node, Attack, and Monitor Models

311

313

315

11.3.1 Node Model 315
11.3.2 Crosstalk Attack Model 315
11.3.3 Monitor Node Model 318
11.4 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Crosstalk Attack Detection
11.4.1 Single Crosstalk Attack in a Network
11.4.2 Monitoring Relationship 320
11.5 One-crosstalk Attack Diagnosable Conditions

320

320
325


11.5.1 Detecting the Status of a Connection under One–Original Attack Flow
Conditions 327
11.5.2 Computational Complexity 329


Contents

xix
11.6 k-Crosstalk Attacks in the Network

329

11.6.1 k-Crosstalk Attack Diagnosable Condition 330
11.6.2 Detecting Global Status of Connections 334
11.6.3 Computational Complexity 335
11.7 Sparse Monitoring and Routing Algorithms

336

11.7.1 Sparse Monitoring, Test Connection, and Routing for a Single Original
Attack Flow Policy I 336
11.7.2 Examples 337
11.7.3 Sparse Monitoring, Test Connection, and Routing Policy II 338
11.7.4 Connection Routing Algorithm in One–Original Attack Flow
Networks 340
11.7.5 Example 341
11.8 Sparse Monitoring, Test Connection, and Routing for More than One Original
Attack Flow 342
11.8.1 Examples 343

11.9 Conclusion 345
References

12

345

Robustness Evaluation of Operating Systems
by Andréas Johansson and Neeraj Suri, Technische Universität
of Darmstadt, Germany
12.1 Introduction

349

12.1.1 Case Study
12.2 Evaluation Goals

351
352

12.2.1 Case Study 353
12.3 Target System 353
12.3.1 Case Study 354
12.4 Error Model and Workload Selection
12.4.1
12.4.2
12.4.3
12.4.4
12.4.5


Error Type 356
Error Location 358
Error Timing 358
Workload Selection 358
Case Study 359

12.5 Robustness Metrics
12.5.1 Case Study

361
362

355

349


Contents

xx
12.6 Presentation and Interpretation of Results

13

12.7 Conclusion

369

References


370

365

377

Intrusion Response Systems: A Survey
by Bingrui Foo, Matthew W. Glause, Gaspar M. Howard, Yu-Sung Wu,
Saurabh Bagchi, and Eugene H. Spafford, Purdue University, USA
13.1 Introduction

377

13.2 Static Decision-making Systems

381

13.2.1 Generic Authorization and Access Control—Application Programming
Interface 381
13.2.2 Snort Inline 384
13.2.3 McAfee Internet Security Suite 385
13.2.4 Other Systems 386
13.3 Dynamic Decision-making Systems

387

13.3.1
13.3.2
13.3.3
13.3.4


Broad Research Issues 387
Adepts 388
ALPHATECH Light Autonomic Defense System 390
Cooperating Security Managers and Adaptive, Agent-Based
Intrusion Response Systems 392
13.3.5 Emerald 394
13.3.6 Other Dynamic Intrusion Response Systems 396

13.4 Intrusion Tolerance through Diverse Replicas

397

13.4.1
13.4.2
13.4.3
13.4.4
13.4.5

Broad Research Issues 398
Building Survivable Services Using Redundancy and Adaptation
Scalable Intrusion-Tolerant Architecture 399
Survival by Defense Enabling 400
Implementing Trustworthy Services Using Replicated State
Machines 401
13.4.6 Distributing Trust on the Internet 402

13.5 Responses to Specific Kinds of Attacks

403


13.5.1 Primitives for Responding to DDoS 404
13.5.2 CITRA 404
13.5.3 Cooperative Counter-DDoS Entity 406
13.6 Benchmarking Intrusion Response Systems
13.7 Thoughts on Evolution of IRS Technology

407
410

398


Contents

14

xxi
13.8 Conclusion

412

References

412

Secure and Resilient Routing: Building Blocks for Resilient
Network Architectures

417


by Deep Medhi, University of Missouri–Kansas City, USA, and Dijiang
Huang, Arizona State University, USA
14.1 Introduction

417

14.2 Traffic Engineering Perspective and its Relation to Network
Robustness 419
14.2.1 An Illustrative Example 421
14.3 Components of a Resilient Network Architecture

423

14.4 Threats and Countermeasures in Link-State Routing

424

14.4.1 Link-State Routing Model and Threat Model 424
14.4.2 Preventive Cryptographic Countermeasures against Attacks
14.5 Resilient Architecture: Virtualization and Routing

428

435

14.5.1 An Enabling Framework for Adaptive and Secure Virtualized
Networking 435
14.5.2 Routing Protocol Extension: OSPF-E 440
14.5.3 Network Analysis: Preliminary Results 444

14.6 Conclusion

446

References

446

14.A Secure Group Communication
14.A.1
14.A.2
14.A.3
14.A.4

15

449

Using One-Way Function Chain to Build Key Chain
Key Distribution 451
Key Agreement Protocol 454
Assessment 456

449

459

Security and Survivability of Wireless Systems

by Yi Qian, University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, and

Prashant Krishnamurthy and David Tipper, University of Pittsburgh, USA
15.1 Introduction

459

15.2 Background

460

15.3 Current Security Approaches in Wireless Networks

463


Contents

xxii
15.4 Current Survivability Approaches in Wireless Networks

465

15.5 Framework for Wireless Network Survivability and Security

467

15.6 Interaction between Survivability and Security in Wireless Networks

470

15.6.1 Extending the Framework to Include Interactions between Security and

Survivability 472
15.6.2 Case Study I: Idle Handoffs 475
15.6.3 Case Study II: Key Management in Heterogeneous Sensor Networks 476

16

15.7 Conclusion

484

References

485

489

Integrated Fault and Security Management

by Ehab Al-Shaer, DePaul University, USA, and Yan Chen, Northwestern
University, USA
16.1 Introduction

489

16.2 Active Integrated Fault Identification Framework
16.2.1
16.2.2
16.2.3
16.2.4
16.2.5


490

Background 490
Related Work 491
Challenges and Problem Formalization 492
Integrated Fault Intrusion Reasoning 495
Simulation Study 502

16.3 Fault and Security Management on High-speed Networks
16.3.1
16.3.2
16.3.3
16.3.4

Background 506
Related Work 508
Architecture of the HiFIND System
Evaluation 515

16.4 Conclusion

520

References

520

Index


506

511

523


Preface

WHY THIS BOOK IS NEEDED
About five years back, we initiated an information assurance program at the University of Pittsburgh under the flagship of Laboratory of Education and Research
in Information Assurance Education (LERSAIS), which was created for that
purpose. We had to often explore and discuss issues related to security, dependability, survivability, etc., with respect to what could be accommodated within the
area of IA, while planning for (a) the curricular content that aligns with the
National Security Agency’s center of excellence in information assurance education (CAEIAE) program and it’s Committee on National Security Systems (CNSS)
information assurance (IA) standards (now considered the US national IA education standards), and (b) the long term research agenda for LERRSAIS. Coming
from different research background including that of security, dependability and
others, we often found it difficult to reconcile the different perspectives related to
the notion of IA and more specifically that of assurance which roughly appears to
have brought together the notion of integrating security and dependability aspects of
networked information systems. We realized that there is no well established definition of assurance, and more importantly, there is a lack of interaction between
the security and the dependability communities. At the same time, our interest in
research related to integrated approach to addressing security and dependability
aspects grew and we were convinced that such an approach would help generate
more wholesome solutions to trustworthy and high assurance systems.
With the rapid developments in information technologies (IT) over last several
years, our global society has embarked in a path where we are critically dependent on IT infrastructures. Infrastructural failures, cyber attacks and cyberwars
are now looming realities that can have catastrophic effects on the global society
and each individual’s life. With the growing complexity and interconnectedness
of information systems, even simple disruptive event can have dire consequences.



Preface

xxiv

Securing and ensuring the dependability of such IT environment is a growing
challenge and there is a critical need for pragmatic solutions that can accommodate known and unknown disruptive events and enable systems to adopt and
survive any type of disruptions. We are convinced that only through the involvement of both the dependability and security communities can such a singular goal
of developing highly assured, survivable information systems can be achieved.
While there have been some efforts towards this direction, it has not been very
successful. We planned this book with a hope to generate the needed momentum
that matches the criticality of this need.

APPROACH
Both security and dependability areas are rich and well-developed enough to have
several books on their topics and trying to bring all issues together is going to
be simply futile. Our attempt here, therefore, has been to bring together issues
that emphasize the interaction and integration between the technologies available within the security and dependability areas with the hope to convince the
readers about the importance of and the critical need for combined, more holistic approaches. Towards this, we have included chapters that provide overviews of
the various issues in a concise manner as well as more technically detailed chapters
that focus on some significant issues. We have also tried to accommodate the diversity of issues by incorporating chapters that focus on different systems and architectural components such as operating platforms, wired and wireless networks,
applications, etc.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are sincerely indebted to the contributors of this book for their support and
diligent work, without which this book would not have been possible. We express
our deep appreciation for their understanding and bearing with our organizational weaknesses. We would like to thank the reviewers of proposal for this book
for their comments and suggestions. In particular, we were highly motivated by
their support for the view that “interaction” aspect of our goal for the book is a

crucial component; their “cautionary note” with regards to the challenge of appropriately hitting the “interaction” note helped us take extra measure to ensure that
we achieve that goal. We hope that we have done that.
We express our thanks to the staff of Elsevier Inc. for their support for this
undertaking. In particular, we would like to thank Rick Adams, Senior Acquisitions Editor at Elsevier, for all the support and guidance, as well as for providing