i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me great help

during the completion of my study.

Firstly, I would like to express my deepest sense of gratitude to my

supervisor: M.A Nguyen Thi Thu Hang who has contributed to my study with
many excellent suggestions, detailed critical comments and encouragement.

Secondly, I would like to thank all the lecturers, teachers and staff at Hung

Vuong University, especially those in Department of Foreign Languages who
have created favorable conditions for me to study and write the graduation
paper.

My sincere thanks go to all teacher- trainees and students in Viet Tri high

school and Viet Tri Industrial high school whose endless enthusiasm has
helped me to carry out surveys, which are very useful for my thesis.

I am really in indebted to my beloved family and my friends who have

encouraged me, given me useful suggestions, lent me materials and always
help me to stay on my toes and complete the thesis.

Although the study has been done with all my attempts, my limitations of

ability and knowledge may cause mistakes in the thesis. Therefore, I am

looking forward to receiving the sincere comments from all of you!

Viet Tri, May 2015

Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen


ii

ABSTRACT
As one of the first attempts to investigate giving feedback skills among

fourth-year students during their practicum at college levels, the paper aims at
exploring teacher- trainees' perception of effective feedbacks and the level of
effectiveness with respect to time, speech modification and techniques. To

fulfill this primary aim, both qualitative and quantitative methods with three
research instruments including observations and questionnaires were adopted.

The participants of the study were 8 fourth-year students of K10 English
pedagogical university and teachers of Faculty of Foreign Language, Hung

Vuong University. The most significant finding of the research was that the

language for instructions was the most problematic issue among the teachertrainees. Other difficulties included time and techniques for giving feedbacks

as well as checking students’ understanding. The paper, therefore, would

serve as a good reference for both pre-service and in-service teachers who
desire to have a closer look at this issue or to improve their giving feedback

skills.


iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................... i
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................. ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................ v
PART A: INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 1
1. Rationale of the study ..................................................................... 1

2. Previous studies .............................................................................. 3

2.1. In the world ................................................................................ 3
2.2. In Viet Nam ................................................................................ 4

3. Aims of the study ............................................................................ 6

4. Research questions .......................................................................... 6
5. Research methods ........................................................................... 7

6. Scope of the study ........................................................................... 7

7. The significance of the research ...................................................... 7

8. Design of study ............................................................................... 8


PART B:

CONTENT ......................................................................... 10

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................... 10

1.1. Classroom management ............................................................ 10
1.2. Feedback .................................................................................. 13

1.3. Practicum.................................................................................. 30

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY ..................................................... 33
2.1. Subject of the study .................................................................. 33

2.2. Research setting and participant................................................ 33

2.3. Research methods ..................................................................... 34
2.4. Data collection instruments ....................................................... 35


iv

2.5. Research procedure................................................................... 38

CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ................................ 40

3.1. Results from the questionnaire. ................................................. 40
3.2. Result from the observation ...................................................... 45
3.3. Data discussion ......................................................................... 46


CHAPTER 4: SUGGESSTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ................. 50

4.1. Suggestions............................................................................... 50

4.2. Implications .............................................................................. 52

PART C: CONCLUSION .................................................................. 54

1. Conclusion .................................................................................... 54
2. Contributions of the study ............................................................. 55

3. Limitations of the study ................................................................ 56
4. Suggestions for further studies ...................................................... 57

PART D: REFERENCES .................................................................. 59
APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE...................................................... 62

APPENDIX 2: OBSERVATION SHEET ............................................ 66


v

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1- The importance of giving feedback as perceived by teacher- trainees
Figure 3.2- The difficulty level of giving feedback
Figure 3.3- Teacher-trainees’ ratings of usefulness of feedback
Figure 3.4- Necessity for the use of full sentence when giving feedback
Figure 3.5- The level of difficulties in giving feedback



1

PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study

Nowadays, English has become a world language rather than the language

of only English speaking countries such as the UK and the US because the
number of the people who use English as a means of communication exceeds

much more than the number of the people who speak it as their mother
tongue. English is used as a common foreign language to contact the people in

other countries, and thousands of people belonging to various professional

groups are going abroad. Therefore, human being is appreciating the role of
English.

English has been considered to be the most necessary subject for students

in all levels of education systems. It has been used for Final Examination to
evaluate students’ level of knowledge. Thus, the demand of learning English

is gradually increasing. To meet the need of the society, education is required

to be improved, how to final the most effective method in teaching English
has become a big concern now.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as evaluated by Nunan (1991)


has put the emphasis on learning to communicate through the interaction

between the teacher and students and among students themselves in the target
language. Students are required to create and develop the habit of getting
involved in the lesson. The language classroom now has become more

learner-centered. Besides, Harmer (2001:56), when discussing learnercentered teaching, has put forward that teaching should make “the learners’

needs and experience central to the educational process.” In other words, the
teacher no longer keeps the center position in class. Instead, students are

encouraged to actively take part in the lesson by interacting with the teacher


2

who gives the feedback to help students to understand the lesson fastest and
most accurately.

School-based practicum feedback is considered a highly important,

influential and central component in helping teacher-trainees learn to teach

and teacher education programmers (Soares & Soares, 2002 & Simpson, 2006
cited in Al Sohbani, 2012). Practicum is viewed as critical to the development
of teacher-trainees because it is their first hands-on experience with teaching

(Al Sohbani, 2012:196). Effective practicum offers teacher-trainees an

opportunity to get both oral and written feedback from their mentors.

Moreover, practicum feedback should allow dialogue between students and

their mentors and promote their thinking and reflection skills and consolidate

their pedagogical skills. Effective practicum feedback should focus on the
task and the associated learning outcomes and inform the teacher-trainees

whether they are on the right track. Therefore, giving feedback is one of the
most important responsibilities of a teacher-trainee during their teaching
practicum.

Despite their importance, giving feedback during the teaching practicum

has scarcely been researched so far, especially in the context of Vietnam. In
Viet Nam there have not been any studies focusing on teacher-trainees, who
are learning to become teacher’s and needed to practice necessary techniques

and skills of teachers. Therefore, the researcher wanted to fill these gaps by
expanding the scale of the present research to the teacher-trainees in their
teaching practicum at university level. The study was entitled “Difficulties in
giving feedback by the fourth-year students of English during their teaching
practicum at high schools”.


2. Previous studies

3

2.1. In the world


Many studies have been made and become valuable to understand

thoroughly about this problem. One of them is “How to Give Effective
Feedback to Your Students” by Susan. M (2008). He studies so that giving

students good feedback on all their schoolwork is one of the toughest
challenges every teacher faces. But here at last is a guide that helps us always

know how to give the right feedback for all kinds of assignments, in every
grade level and subject area. Susan M. Brookhart covers every possible aspect
of the topic, including: What kinds of feedback work best in specific content

areas? When and how often to give feedback? Learn how to build a foolproof

feedback plan so that your feedback always helps students understand where
they are in their learning and what to do next, gives students the feeling that
they have got control over their own learning, creates a classroom
environment where students see constructive criticism as a good thing and
understand that learning can’t occur without practice.

Another study is “Providing Effective Feedback to EFL teacher-trainees”

by Holi & Hamed (2013). This study also aims to offer practical ideas that

would empower both teacher-trainees and supervisors in improving the
practice of giving and receiving feedback in practicum. The findings indicated
that teacher-trainees and their mentors perceived their feedback practices on

practicum positively; however, the teacher-trainees believed that both types of
feedback are important to them but they are in favor of written feedback more


than oral one. The study offered some pedagogical implications and
recommendations with regard to feedback on practicum.

The practice of English of language teaching by Jeremy Harmer (2001)

is an invaluable source of ideas for language teaching. All of these


4

contemporary issues are reflected in this study, which also looks at a range of

familiar topics, from motivation to the roles of the teacher, from classroom
management to feedback and correction. This study is aimed at practicing
teachers and those studying on in-service training program and postgraduate

courses. In that, it differs significantly from its sister volume, how to teach
English, which is designed specifically for those wanting a gentler
introduction to the science and art of teaching English.
2.2. In Viet Nam

The issue of giving feedback in language classroom was examined in

graduation paper for Bachelor of Art in English Language Teaching

conducted by Huynh Minh Hien (2008). The study titled “the Impact of
Online Peer Feedback on EFL Learners’ Motivation in Writing and Writing

Performance: A Case Study at Can Tho University”. In this paper, he

presented the results of his study on the impact of using online peer feedback

in writing classes. The study aims to find out the impact of online peer
feedback on learners’ motivation in learning to write in English and their

writing performance, the correlation between motivation in learning to write
and writing performance, and the students’ attitude towards this kind of
collaborative learning. The study tested the role of the online peer feedback

plays in developing students' writing abilities and increasing their motivation
in writing in English.

Another study is “Giving and checking instructions skill among fourth-

year students during their practicum” by Đinh Thi Ha Phuong (2011).

According to this study, the research paper is aimed to examine teachertrainees’ perceptions of giving and checking instructions skills. Moreover, the

study is also to find out the common techniques of giving and checking

instructions used by 4th year students in their practicum. Afterwards, the


5

effectiveness of these strategies is also examined so that it can figure out the

possible difficulties that teacher- trainees may encounter when giving
instructions in class, and pave the ways to improve their ability of giving and
checking instructions


Conducted in 2010, the study of Nguyen Thi Thanh Huong aimed at

finding out the difficulties in classroom management during their six-week

practicum. The critical role of classroom management in teaching and
learning, the difficulties of teachers in general and the novice in particular in

applying appropriate managerial strategies and the shortage of research in the

issue have driven the researcher to conduct a study on “4th Year Students’
Classroom Management Skills during Their Teaching Practicum at the

Faculty of English Language Teacher Education (FELTE), University of
Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University (ULIS-

VNU): Difficulties, Causes and Solutions”. First, the researcher conducted
with a view to finding out the difficulties fourth year students at FELTE,

ULIS-VNU have in managing classroom as perceived by them during their

teaching practicum at the FELTE, ED, ULIS-VNU. Then, the researcher

expects to identify the types of classroom management problems they
confront during their teaching practicum. Causes of and solutions to such
problems as perceived by the students themselves and as suggested by their
supervising teachers are also what the researcher aims at.

Despite the fact that giving feedback has always been a primary concern


for teachers in general and beginning teachers in particular, the systematic

study of effective giving feedback is a relatively recent issue in the field of
language research. Furthermore, there has been little attention paid to the
difficulties of giving feedback problems encountered by teacher trainees and


6

no previous research on the issue among teacher trainees who have their
teaching practicum at the college degree is carried out.

All in all, this is the first time the study “Difficulties in giving feedback by

the fourth-year students of English during their teaching practicum at high

schools” is carried out at Hung Vuong University. Apart from the other
studies, it focuses on giving feedback during the teaching practicum. This

study also aims to offer practical ideas that would empower both teachertrainees and supervisors in improving the practice of giving and receiving
feedback in practicum.

3. Aims of the study

The overall aim of this study was to explore how the fourth-year students

(the teacher-trainees) gave feedback during their practicum. To achieve this

overall aim successfully, firstly, the researcher wanted to find out the teacher
trainees perceptions of the necessity of giving feedback in teaching because


what teachers believe and think serves as the basis for their classroom
behavior and activities (Borg, 2003:81-82). Secondly, the study aimed to
investigate the common giving feedback that these teacher-trainees employed

in their lessons during their practicum. Next, the study hoped to find out the

effectiveness of these techniques as perceived by the teacher-trainees. After
that, the researcher expected to figure out the difficulties of giving feedback
that these teacher-trainees encountered. Suggested solutions to such problems

as reported by the teacher-trainees themselves were also what the researcher
aimed at.

4. Research questions

The aims of the study could be summarized into the four following

research questions:


7

1. What are the teacher- trainees’ perceptions of feedback in teaching?
2. How do teacher-trainees give feedback in their practicum?
3. What difficulties of giving feedback do the teacher-trainees face with in
their teaching during the practicum?

4. What are the solutions to their problems?
5. Research methods


In order to accomplish this thesis systematically and adequately, the

following methods have been used:

• Theoretical research method: Studying the related documents to give
background of feedback.

• Investigating method: to study the real situation of giving feedback of
teacher-trainees in the lesson.

• Mathematical statistical method: calculate the data collected from
many different materials related to give feedback, and give to get the
final results.

6. Scope of the study

In classroom management which composes of various components of

classroom management skills such as managing time and space, managing

students’ attention and engagement and giving instructions but also many

others. In fact, giving feedback is considered to be one of the most important
sub-skill of classroom management which decides the success of a lesson.
Hence, the researcher only studies one of them that is feedback.
7. The significance of the research

Feedback during the practicum is of utmost importance for teacher-


trainees to help them to develop their pedagogical and teaching skills. The


8

study helps the researcher, teacher-trainees improve skills of giving feedback
and its effectiveness in teaching to find out the best ways to make their
students interested in the lesson.
8. Design of study

Conducting this research, the researcher expected to identify the teacher-

trainees’ perceptions of the necessity of feedback in language teaching and

the most common giving feedback teacher-trainees tended to employ in their
lessons during the teaching practicum. Evaluation of the effectiveness of these
techniques as perceived by both the teacher-trainees the difficulties the
teacher-trainees encountered when using these techniques as well as solutions

to such problems in this research. Once completed, the research is hoped to

serve as a reference for those who want to have a clearer view of what
happens during the teaching practicum in general and of the use of giving
feedback in particular. Moreover, the findings could help the teacher-trainees

improve their feedback giving as well as classroom management when they
become real teachers after graduation.

The study consists of three parts and references:
Part A. Introduction

Part A presents the overview of the study including the rationale for the

research, aims of the study, research question, and methodology of the study,

scope of the study, the significance of the research as well as the design of the
study.

Part B: Content
Part B is sub-divided into four chapters:


Chapter 1: Literature review

9

Provides the theoretical background of the study, including discussions of

the key concepts and related studies.
Chapter 2: Methodology

Describes the research setting, participants, and instruments of data

collection as well as the procedure employed to carry out data analysis.
Chapter 3: Findings and discussion

Presents and discusses the results that the researcher found out from the

collected data according to the four research questions. This chapter contains

four smaller parts, equivalent to give answers to the four research questions.

Specially, the last parts will research about the difficulties of giving feedback.
Besides, the chapter focuses on analyzes the results of giving feedback in
teaching and learning.

Chapter 4: Suggestions and implications
This chapter focuses on giving some suggestions to improve difficulties

for teacher- trainees during their teaching practicum at high school. And then,
it gives implications for teacher-trainees and students in using feedback.
Part C: Conclusion
Part C summarizes the major findings recorded during the making of the

thesis, presents the limitation of the study, and provides some suggestions for
further.


10

PART B: CONTENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter embraces two main sections including key concepts and

related studies. In the former section, definitions as well as distinctive features

of giving feedback are examined. These include practicum, classroom
management, giving feedback. The latter part, on the other hand, gives a brief
overview of previous studies related to researching on giving feedback and
giving feedback in practicum.


1.1. Classroom management
1.1.1. Definition

Although the fundamental importance of classroom management in

teaching and learning has been universally recognized, it is still a relatively

recent phenomenon in language classroom research. As explained by
Evertson and Weinstein (2006), part of the reason lies in the fact that the term
classroom management has acquired “considerable surplus meaning”.
Different experts hold different views about the issue.

Under the light of psychological principles, Bagley (1907) interpreted

classroom management as a means of “slowly transforming the child from a
little savage into a creature of law and order, fit for the life of civilized

society” (as cited in Emerson & Weinstein, 2006:19). His assumption was
based on the belief that school serves as preparation for democratic

citizenship so management principles should not be restricted to short-term
efficiency only but be considered in terms of the ultimate goal of education.
This viewpoint is further supported by Brown (1952) as he emphasized

Christian values of school as preparation for a civilized life. Classroom
management studies of the 1950s and 1960s were also noted by Withal and


11


Lewis (1963, as cited in Emerson & Weinstein, 2006:25) to be under the
influence of educational psychology that emphasizes teacher characteristics
and instructional methods; of the mental health movement that focuses on

causes of anxiety or other hindrances to motivation; and of social psychology
that revolves around leadership style, social climate, decision-making
processes and pattern of participation. In other words, management in this
sense was quite generic and moralistic.

On the other hand, the term classroom management is described as the task

of maintaining order, of ensuring that classroom lessons run smoothly despite

disruptive behaviors by students. For instance, as pointed out by McCaslin

and Good (1998), classroom management is often considered a means of

managing students’ behaviors - getting them to respond quickly to teacher
demands, needs, and goals (as cited in Emerson & Weinstein, 2006:4).

Similarly, in The New Teacher’s Companion: Practical Wisdom for
Succeeding in the Classroom (2009), Cunningham argued that teachers cannot

teach and few students can learn if all students are not aware of the rules for
behaviors that apply to them. Teaching and learning will be thriving if clear

expectations and consequences that address and eliminate problems are

established from the outset. Nonetheless, “classroom management is a
multifaceted endeavor that is far more complex than establishing rules,


rewards, and penalties to control students’ behavior” (Emerson & Weinstein,
2006:5).

1.1.2. The importance of classroom management

According to Emerson and Weinstein (2006:4) classroom management

initially plays two important roles which are “to establish hand sustain an

orderly environment so that students can engage in meaningful academic
learning” and “to enhance student social and moral growth.” Emerson and


12

Weinstein (2006) also categorize classroom management into five sub-skills
which are:

- Develop caring, supportive relationships with and among students
- Organize and implement instruction in ways that optimize students

access to learning

- Use group management methods that encourage student engagement with

academic tasks

- Promote the development of student social skills and self-regulation
- Use appropriate interventions to assist students who have behavior problems.

According to McLeod, Fisher and Hoover (2003, cited in Nguyen, 2010),

classroom management involves planning the curriculum, organizing routine
procedures, gathering resources, arranging the environment to maximize
efficiency, monitoring students’ behavior, and anticipating, preventing and

handling problems arising. Although aspects of classroom management may
vary according to different ways of categorizing, most of the researchers all
agree upon three key elements of classroom management including:
- Managing time and classroom space
- Managing students’ behavior
- Managing instructional strategies
1.1.3. Components of classroom management

Under the light of this perception, Nguyen & Luong (2010) proposed a

framework to evaluate the effectiveness of classroom management which
composes of various components of classroom management skills:
- Managing time


- Managing classroom space

13

- Giving and checking instructions
- Checking understanding
- Monitoring
- Dealing with disruptive students
- Giving feedback

- Motivating students
As mentioned by Clivechung (n.d.), a series of classroom research studies

by Kounin and his colleagues (1970) identified the key concepts that
contribute to effective management of which the central attention was put on
instructions affecting the flow of activities. According to Plevin (n.d.),

effective classroom management means that teachers have to get students to
follow their instructions.

Therefore, feedback given to students is a crucial tool of classroom

management. In fact, giving feedback was considered the most important subskills of classroom management which decided the success of a lesson.
1.2. Feedback

1.2.1. Definition

Before investigating different aspects of the issue, it is crucial to explain

the term feedback. Feedback was defined by Ur (1996, as cited in Vo,

2009:20) as “information that given to the learner about his or her

performance of a learning task, usually with the objective of improving the
performance”.


14

Giving feedback is one of the most fundamental responsibilities of a


teacher. Formative feedback gives information to teachers and students about
how students are doing compared to the learning goals. If done well, feedback

can exert profound influence on the students (Brookhart, 2008), the power of

which lies in its addressing both cognitive and motivational factors at the
same time. The cognitive factor is good feedback providing students with

information of where they are in their learning and what to do next. Once
students understand what they are required to do and why, they have the

feeling of being in control over their learning, which is meant by the
motivational factor.

Research on feedback revealed that quality feedback, whether spoken or

written, helped learners to confirm the intended learning outcome of the
learning and motivate them to move on and enables them to assess their own

learning and performance and lets them to identify their next step (Black &
William, 1998, cited in White, 2007:301). Feedback was currently seen as the

heart of assessment for learning and teaching (Smith, 2010). Mentor feedback
on practicum was viewed as the one which a trainer critiques a student

teacher’s lesson with positive and negative evaluation, and provides advice
and suggestions for future use (Copland, 2011:3832). Moreover, feedback

enabled teacher- trainees to know their strengths and weaknesses by engaging


in a dialogue with their mentors or supervisors and it should be dialogic
between mentors and teacher- trainees rather than didactic or imposed one

(Timperley, 2007, cited in Smith, 2010: 38). Feedback and teaching practice
are considered to be a central component in teacher- trainees (Copland,
2009:466). Concrete feedback would help the teacher- trainees to ‘‘visualize

their evolving style, clarify what they need to work on, and concretize their
own vision of good teaching’’ (Feiman-Nemser, 2001: 23 cited in Moody,


15

2009: 163). White (2007) claimed that constructive practicum feedback could

highlight for teacher-trainees the things that were important to focus on and
directs their learning towards further critical learning
1.2.2. Components of feedback

Feedback has two main distinguishable components: assessment and

correction.” Harmer (2006, as cited in Vo, 2009:20) also supported this theory
by stating: “feedback encompasses not only correcting students but also
offering them an assessment of how well they have done”. In other words,

both authors both agreed that feedback consists of two components:
correction and assessment of the students’ performance. In addition, its two
most popular modes in the classroom are oral feedback and written feedback


(To et al, 2008:21-22; Gower et al, 1995:169-170). Within the specific
context where the teacher-trainees are allocated to be in charge of reading,

speaking and listening skills only, the type of feedback investigated in the
paper is oral feedback.

In assessment, the learner is simply informed how well or badly she/he has

performed. English percentage grade on an exam would be one example; or

the responses “No” to an attempted answer to a question in class; or a
comment such as “Fair” at the end of a written assignment.

In correction, some specific information is provided on the aspects of the

learners’ performance: through explanation, or a provision of better or other

alternatives, or through elicitation of these from the learner. Note that in

principle, correction can and should include information on what the learner
did right, as well as wrong, and why.


1.2.3. Benefits of using feedback

16

Giving feedback is one of the most important responsibility of a teacher.

By giving feedback, you can help your students evaluate their success and

progress. Feedback can take a number of forms: giving praise and
encouragement, correcting, setting regular tests etc. Research on feedback
reveals that quality feedback, whether spoken or written, helps learners to

confirm the intended learning outcome of the learning and motivate them to
move on and enables them to assess their own learning and performance and

lets them identify their next step (Black & William, 1998, cited in White,
2007, 301). Feedback is currently seen as the heart of assessment for learning

and teaching (Smith, 2010). Mentor feedback on practicum is viewed as the
one which a trainer critiques a student teacher’s lesson with positive and

negative evaluation, and provides advice and suggestions for future use
(Copland, 2011: 3832). Moreover, feedback enables teacher- trainees to know

their strengths and weaknesses by engaging in a dialogue with their mentors
or supervisors and it should be dialogic between mentors and teacher- trainees

rather than didactic or imposed one (Timperley, 2007, cited in Smith,
2010:38). Feedback and teaching practice are considered to be a central
component in teacher- trainees (Copland, 2009: 466). Concrete feedback

would help the teacher- trainees to ‘‘visualize their evolving style, clarify
what they need to work on, and concretize their own vision of good teaching’’
(Feiman-Nemser, 2001: 23 cited in Moody, 2009: 163). White (2007) claimed
that constructive practicum feedback could highlight for teacher-trainees the

things that are important to focus on and directs their learning towards further
critical learning.


The type and extent of feedback and its timing depends on a variety of factors:


17

- Individual student: Different student respond to different types of
feedback. Unconfident students may need more coaxing and
encouragement, whereas students who are more self-confident and

perhaps have an external exam to pass usually appreciate more direct
correction from the teacher.

- The culture you are teaching in and the expected roles of the teacher.
- The stage of the lesson and the type of activity. For example, structured

or controlled activities require a different type of feedback from guided

or freer activities. Written activities require a different type of feedback
from oral activities.

- The stage in the course.
Feedback on school practicum is of utmost importance for teacher-

trainees to help them to develop their pedagogical and teaching skills. The
aim of feedback is to bring about self- awareness and improvement. Everyone
thrives on genuine praise and encouragement. When giving feedback on oral

or written work, always be on the lookout for positive points to comment
upon. Try to find areas of improvement in individual students’ work and also


comment on progress made by the class as a whole- work successfully
completed and achievements made. The ways teacher gives positive feedback
can include the informal praise on individual achievement privately or in front
of the class.

1.2.4. How to give effective feedback

According to Harmer (2006), “feedback encompasses not only correcting

students but also offering them an assessment of how well they have done”.
Therefore, to give effective feedback, teacher need to have two main
distinguishable components: correction and assessment.


a. Correction

18

To give effective feedback, Brookhart (2008) said that teachers should

take into consideration the issues of what to correct, how to correct, who to
correct, how much to correct and when to correct.
 What to correct

The first question teachers should ask themselves about the issue is what

to correct. Brookhart (2008) believed that the content of the teacher’s
feedback should involve choices about focus, comparison and valence.


Regarding the choice of focus, four levels of feedback is distinguished by

Hattie & Timperley (2007, as cited in Brookhart, 2008:20-21): feedback about

the task, feedback about the processing of the task, feedback about selfregulation and feedback about the self as a person. Feedback about the task

refers to information about errors - whether something is correct or not, about
the depth or quality of the work that is based on certain criteria. One example

is “the thesis statement in writing as well as in speaking should tell the
listeners your opinion about the issue, whether you approve of it or not”.

Feedback about the process of the task includes information about how they
approached the task, information about the comparison between what they did

with how they did and information about possible alternative strategies as

well. For instance, the teacher may comment on a student’s piece of writing
like “Refutation is one way to emphasize your point. What else could you do
to make convincing arguments?” Meanwhile, self-regulation feedback draws

connections between students’ work and their intentional efforts, “it is good

of you to have interactions with the audience while presenting” for example.
Whereas, feedback about the self as a person includes personal comments

from the teachers. Generally, it is not a good idea to use this type of feedback
since it does not contain information that can be used for further learning.



19

Choosing the content of the teacher’s feedback also involves the choice of

comparison. Brookhart (2008:22-23) listed out three types of feedback
comparison, namely criterion-referencing, self-referencing and norm-

referencing. Criterion-referencing feedback is feedback comparing the

students to a learning target, which helps students decide what their next
learning goal is. For example, “Your voice is very soothing, yet lacks
emphasis” implies that you should have stress on certain syllables and words.
Self-referencing feedback, meanwhile, gives information about the process or
methods the students use. This type of feedback is particularly necessary for
struggling students who need to realize that they make progress. Whereas,
norm-referencing compares the performance of one student to that of others,

which is not strongly recommended since it may create negative competition
among the students.

Moreover, feedback should be positive. Being “positive” does not mean

being diplomatically happy or only saying good things about the students’

performance. Being positive means demonstrating how good a student’ work
is compared to the criteria and how the strong points of the student’s

performance show his/ her ability. Being positive means pointing out where
further improvements are needed and suggestions for correction. In other
words, good feedback is not only about the good point of the students’


performance but the area that needs to be improved as well. Brookhart (2008)
listed out the following table:


20

Table 1.1 - Feedback Content (Brookhart, 2008)

Feedback content
can vary in...
1. Focus

In these ways...
- On the work itself

- On the process the student used to do the work
- On the student’s self-regulation
- On the student personally

2.Comparison

3. Valence
 How to correct

-To criteria for good work (criterion-referencing)
-To other students (norm-referencing)

-To students’ past performance (self-referencing)
-Comments on the good points


-Comments on the points that need further
improvement.

Several researchers and authors have suggested various techniques for

correcting errors in general and spoken ones in particular. One of them is

Nguyen et al (2003:21-23) with the seven techniques for oral feedback. They
are: finger correction, question mark, alternatives, blackboard prompt,

student-to-student correction, modeling, and delayed correction. Teachers
may base on the specific learning goals and types of learning activity to
choose the most appropriate one.
 Who to correct

Concerning the question of who to correct, Gower et al (2008) asserted

that in many cases, the student is able to correct the mistakes by himself or
herself, either completely unprompted or under the assistance of the teacher
and the peers. As a result, not only the teacher but also the students participate