MARITIME
EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
A Practical Guide


MARITIME
EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Published by The Nautical Institute
202 Lambeth Road, London SE 1 7LQ, England
telephone: 0171-928 1351
fax: 0171-401 2817
First edition published
Copyright

1997

© The Nautical Institute, 1997

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publishers, except for the quotation of brief passages in
reviews.
Although great care has been taken with the writing and production of this volume, neither The
Nautical Institute nor the authors can accept any responsibility for errors, omissions or their
consequences.
The opinions expressed are those of the authors only.

All photographs

and diagrams acknowledged

Typeset by Javafame Computer Services
Saffron Pane, Hall Road, Lavenham, Suffolk CO 10 9QU, England

The Repro Company,

Frontispiece:

Printed in England by
Hayes Road, Southall, Middlesex UB2 5NB

JiI70rk at Sea by Captain D.A. Hawker, taken from a study undertaken
The Marine Society. The artist lives near Northampton.

when working as an artist tutor for


CONTENTS
Foreword 1 - Mr W.A O'Neil ..............................................................................................................................
Secretary General, The IMO

4

Foreword 2 - Captain L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI,
President, The Nautical Institute 1993-1996 .............................................................................................. 5
Maritime Education and Training - The Overview ..........................................................................................

6


SECfION I - Applying the concepts of learning
Chapter
1 Concepts of learning and their application .................................................................................................

8

by Mr. Don Baillie ExC FNI

2

Concepts, skills and competence
by Mr. Don Baillie ExC FNI

3

Group learning and training techniques ...................................................................................................
by Mr. Robert L. Tallack BSc FNI, Northstar Maritime / Hill Tallack

23

4

The preparation of a lecture .......................................................................................................................
by Elaine Ives BSc FRMetS andJohn McEnaney BA MNI

33

5

Factors to be considered when developing a curriculum for maritime education and training ......... 38

by Professor Captain Gunther Zade FNI, World Maritime University

6

Training in the Royal Navy - its management and methodology
by Rear AdmiralJ.H.S. McAnally LVO MNI

in a maritime setting ...........................................................................

16

.......... ,............................................. .45

SECfION II - Learning resources and educational technology
Chapter
7 Making the most of learning resources for both college and student .................................................... 56
by Dr. Alston Kennerley PhD FNI, University of Plymouth, UK

8

Electronic and multi-media systems and their value in education and training programmes
by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI, Technovo Training Systems Ltd.

9

The development of computer based instructional programs ................................................................
by Captain Michael Vanstone MNI, Technovo Training Systems Ltd.

68


10 The use of simulators as tools for training and examining seafarers .....................................................

76

........... 62

by Dr. Michael L. Barnett PhD BSc MNI, Warsash Maritime Centre

11 The role of the simulator instructor and the need for instructor qualifications .................................... 85
by Captain Roger Syms BSc (Nautical Studies) MRIN FNI, Australian Maritime College

12 Managing navigational simulation .............................................................................................................

89

by Captain Samar J. Singh ExC MPhil PhD FNI, Hong Kong Polytechnic University

13 The role and use of simulators for bridge resource management
by Captain Piet Pols, MarineSafety

International,

training ........................................... 99

Rotterdam

14 Training in shiphandling skills - optimising experience, simulation and time on manned models ....... 107
by Captain Nigel W Hunt BSc FNI, Warsash Maritime Centre

15 The use of tactical warfare simulation for naval training ......................................................................

by Lt. Cdr. Andrew C.Y. Prince RN, Royal Navy School of Maritime Operations,

113

HMS DRYAD

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

1


SECfION III - The organisation

of education and training
Chapter
16 Afloat and ashore: where are tomorrow's skills being developed? ......................................................
by Mr.]. David Precious AMNI, Precious Associates Ltd.
17

The responsibility of a college principal - integrating a maritime college
with the maritime environment ...............................................................................................................
by Captain Wan Shukry Wan Karma MSc, Maritime Academy of Malaysia Melaka

120

126

18

Developing company based training and the training of trainers ........................................................

by Mr. Glyn Cunnah BSc MNI, BP Shipping Ltd.

132

19

The training, updating and upgrading of maritime lecturers ...............................................................
by Professor Captain Gunther Zade FNI, World Maritime University

140

20

Higher education in maritime disciplines - the development of graduate and
post graduate programmes .......................................................................................................................
by Mr. Steve Bonsall BSc MNI, LiverpoolJohn Moores University

144

21

The development and implementation of the 1995 STCW Convention
by Mr. Stephen E. Chapman BSc FNI

22

Translating international maritime training standards into national regulations ................................ 160
by Professor Captain P.S. Vanchiswar ExC PhD FNI, World Maritime University

23


Training ship training ................................................................................................................................
by Captain James C. De Simone BS MBA MNI,
State' University of New York Maritime College, U.S.A.

............................................

154

167

SECfION IV - Fundamentals

of assessment and evaluation
Chapter
24 An introduction to norm referenced and criterion referenced assessment, marking and grading ... 173
by Professor Captain Peter Muirhead ExC MSc (Wales) FNI, World Maritime University
25

Preparing a company training strategy and assessing its effectiveness ................................................
by Mr. Keith Parsons MNI, V Ships

26

The management of seafarers' training by shipping companies through a group training organisation 186
by Mr Colin Chandler BSc MNI, Ship Safe Training Group Ltd.

27

An introduction to competence based training with a framework for vocational qualifications

by Mr. R.C. Matthew, UK Merchant Navy Training Board

28

The assessment of competence within a maritime vocational training scheme ................................. 196
by Captain Philip ].C. Smith ExC FNI

29

The role of continuous assessment and the use of projects in student development.
by Mr. Christopher]. Haughton BA Cert Ed MNI, Fleetwood Nautical Campus

30

The development and evaluation of examination systems based upon multiple choice criteria ..... 207
by Mr. Perry A. Stutman, United States Coast Guard

31

Learning from students - feedback and evaluation ...............................................................................
by Professor Captain Peter Muirhead ExC MSc FNI, World Maritime University

32

Management training and development in the shipping industry ....................................................... 229
by Mr. Peter Springett MBA DMS (Shipping), Odyssey Training Ltd.

2 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

180


..... 189

........................ 200

222


SECfION V - Towards specialisation
Chapter
33 The role of the educational consultant .................................................................................................... 236
by Captain L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI
34 Marine pilot training ................................................................................................................................. 241
by the late Captain James Drahos BS FNI, former Marine Pilot, South Central Alaska
35 Training for command ............................................................................................................................... 250
by Captain Peter Roberts BSc FNI
36 The need for commercial management .................................................................................................. 256
by Mr. Robert L. Tallack BSc FNI, Northstar Consultants
37 Training for new high speed craft services .............................................................................................. 265
by Captain Trevor Bailey MNI, Stena Line
38 Language training for non-native English speaking mariners .............................................................. 273
by Professor Captain F. Weeks ExC MA PhD FNI
39 Training sea and shore staff to meet the requirements of the ISM Code ............................................ 286
by Captain Graham]. Botterill FICS MIQA FNI, Ferriby Marine
40 Guidance on the implementation of IMO Model Courses .................................................................. 292
extracts from IMO pub. 096/88
41 The role of research in developing intellectual skills and their application ....................................... 302
by Mr. John S. Habberley BSc MPhil FNI, Warsash Maritime Centre
42 Self development programmes for seafarers .......................................................................................... 307
Mr. Brian Thomas BA (Hons) PGCE, The Marine Society, London

43 Aspects of distance education on board .................................................................................................. 311
by Mr. Pooran P. Chugani CEng FIMarE MIE DMS DPHE, India
44 Continuous professional development for maritime educators ........................................................... 320
by Mr. C.Julian Parker BSc FNI, Secretary, The Nautical Institute
APPENDICES
Appendix
Sources of information of particular value to maritime lecturers ......................................................... 327
I
II

Some training books available from Kogan Page Ltd ........................................................................... 328

III Some training books available from the Institute of Personnel and Development ............................ 331

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

3


FOREWORD I
by
Mr. W.A. O'Neil
Secretary

General,

The International

Maritime


Organization

Shipping is an international industry. It is therefore imperative that all seagoing officers share a common sense
of purpose and apply rules and regulations in like manner.
Also we have to recognize that every individual is different and there will be various paths through education
and training programmes towards certification.
Today, maritime education and training is based on standards established by IMO. The 1995 amendments to
the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW),
1978 entered into force in 1997 and, during the next few years, will result in training standards having to be
upgraded. The text of the original Convention has been almost completely replaced; equally important, IMO
itself has been given responsibility for ensuring that the new standards are complied with. Governments which do
not meet STCW requirements could find that their seafarers are denied employment on foreign flag ships because
their certificates are not internationally recognized.


FOREWORD II
by L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI
President, The Nautical Institute (1993-1996)
Welcome to the world of maritime education and training. For seafarers "welcome back", because you will have
been here before, as a student. With a predicted world-wide shortage of officers, maritime education and training
will become increasingly important in the next decade. We need to ensure that the best teaching practices are
used. The more effective they are, the quicker people learn. Better training methods mean better pass rates, higher
standards and shorter times to qualify. Effective training is good for the shipping industry.
This book, which contains some of the best advice available, is designed to improve our understanding and
organisation. It is well timed, for the moment of most need. It will help existing maritime teachers, trainers and
assessors and will be particularly useful for those seeking to enter this branch of their profession. It is a useful
guide and reference for all senior officers and managers whose job includes mentoring and guiding juniors and
trainees. It is also recommended reading for simulator manufacturers and others who serve this sector of industry.
Associated with the book there is a self-study distance learning diploma scheme for those who wish to enter the
maritime education and training profession. The scheme comprises six assignments, which demand a proven

capability to plan for and deliver competence, manage curriculum development and assess results. There is also
a project designed to provide the candidate with an in-depth specialised knowledge of a particular discipline.
Your professional work at sea or working ashore requires specific detailed knowledge and a wide range of
skills. Teaching requires different knowledge and skills. Maritime education and training needs a blend of the two.
It is not always the cleverest people who make the best teachers, but the ones who are best at passing on their
knowledge and skills. As a teacher your knowledge will need to go beyond the confines of certificates of competency
syllabuses. You must know your subject thoroughly and keep yourself up to date with new theories and current
practice. Teachers should provide a link to the wider understanding of technology, commerce and people. No one
can afford to throw their books away when they qualify. In a changing world, teachers can light the torch of lifelong learning, which their students will need.
This book, based upon the experience of respected teachers from many countries, will help you prepare to
work as a teacher or trainer, whether as a career change or for shorter assignments. It is said, "the best way to learn
a subject is to teach it". When I was allowed on my own in the classroom for the first time, and students asked
awkward questions, I realised the limits of my knowledge and experience. You cannot rely on recalling what you
were taught ten or more years ago: things have changed. There are ways of coping. I was fortunate to have a very
good teacher as my mentor when I started, but I wish I had also had this book!
Teaching comes more naturally to some people than to others, but all teachers need to plan and perform in a
professional and competent way. We all remember the teachers from school days who captured our imagination
and made subjects interesting. They tended to be the enthusiastic and happy ones. They were well organised,
maintained discipline, were sympathetic and supportive. Discipline and integrity are also important, particularly
when dealing with younger trainees and in examinations. I remember the first two students I had to fail for
attempting to cheat. They passed a piece of paper across and back, via the floor, while I was invigilating. It did not
help them. The first had written, "What is an Interscan Cursor?" and the other had replied "I don't know!"
We are very fortunate in the maritime world, and particularly in the professional bodies, that we have so many
people who are willing to make time and take trouble to pass on their skills to the next generation. I would like to
thank all those who have contributed to this book, which will take its place alongside those for Command at Sea,
Harbour Masters, Pilots and Surveyors. The Maritime Education and Training Diploma Scheme will take its place
too, by providing advice and guidance to those wishing to become specialists in this branch of their profession.
The rewards of teaching are many. Probably the greatest satisfaction is gained through seeing the success of
former students. The friendships and mutual respect developed between trainer and trainee tend to last well
beyond the gaining of certificates of competency or graduation. I can recommend it. If you wish to become a

teacher or trainer, think ahead and be prepared. The best place to prepare for teaching ashore, is while you are at
sea. This book will help you to "learn to swim" as a teacher, before being thrown in at the deep end. I wish you
success.
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

5


MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING
THE OVERVIEW
Maritime Education and Training, is designed to provide an authorative guide to effective practices. It includes
learned contributions from no less than 39 authors with a vast wealth of combined experience, from countries as
far apart as Australia, England, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, The Netherlands, Sweden and The United States of
America.
The editorial board for Maritime Education and Training included Captain Len Holder (former President, The
Nautical Institute), Mr. D. Baillie, Mr. S. Bonsall, Mr. G. Cunnah, Mr.J.S. Habberley, Mr. CJ. Houghton, Dr. A.
Kennerley, Captain C.F. Luddeke, Mr. K.A. Parsons, Mr. J.D. Precious, Mr. E. Raeng, Captain M.G. Vanstone,
Professor Captain G. Zade and Mr. Julian Parker (Secretary The Nautical Institute).
There are two forewords, one by Mr O'Neil, Secretary General of the IMO and one by Captain Len Holder,
who was President of The Nautical Institute from 1993 to 1996.
In Section I - Applying the Concepts of Learning - the principles of learning in a maritime setting are
explored and advice is given on various techniques and factors to be considered. The authors combine sea,
government, academic and consultancy experience and set the scene for maritime instructors on helping learners
to learn. The final chapter in this section is an interesting insight into training in the Royal Navy today, how it is
managed and the methods used.
Section II is about Learning Resources and Educational
Technology. Chalk and talk, whilst not to be
under-rated, have long been replaced by more modern technology. Electronic, multi-media and computer-based
programs are described and how best to use them. The authors, with world-wide experience in practical training
and education delivery, offer detailed and up-to-date advice. Simulators play an ever increasing part in training,

and the subject is extensively covered here, including the training of simulator instructors. Again, the Royal Navy
adds its view on training simulators at the end of the section.
The Organisation
of Education and Training is covered in Section III. University, academy, college and
company views come from highly qualified authors. Training ashore and afloat, how to integrate maritime training
with the industry, lecturer updating and implementation of the STCW Convention are amongst the items covered
in detail. An American view of training cadets afloat concludes this section.
In Section IV - Fundamentals
of Assessment and Evaluation - covers the vitally important task of
checking that learning is effective. Highly detailed chapters on assessment, evaluation, multiple choice questions,
feedback from students and management development are presented by authors with extensive and ongoing
experience ashore and afloat.
Section V - Towards Specialisation
- concludes this book with chapters on a fascinating of specialist
training matters, including consultancy work, pilotage, command, high speed ships, the commercial approach
and maritime English language. Meeting the requirements of the ISM Code and guidance on IMO Model Courses
are complemented by advice on self-development programmes, distance education and continuing professional
development.
The appendices give valuable details on sources of information and some training books available.
All in all, Maritime Education and Training provides highly professional, skilled and practical advice on maritime
education and training drawn from very experienced authors from countries all over the globe. This book should
be the text book of choice for all seriously interested in the subject.
J.A Hepworth
Lt Cdr RN (Retd) MNI

6 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE


MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING


- SECTION I Applying the concepts of learning

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

7


Chapter ONE

CONCEPfS

OF LEARNING AND THEIR APPLICATION
by Mr. Don Baillie Ex C FNI

Introduction
The aim of this publication is to help those who seek
guidance in the task of raising the professional
standards of seafarers through education and training.
These standards may be set by IMO, by examiners,
by lecturers, assessors, The Nautical Institute, or by
the example and demands of serving seafarers. The
standards are achieved through learning, alone or in
a group, at sea or ashore, by accident or by design.
That is why the guide begins with these reflections on
the key aspects oflearning. Many later chapters discuss
in detail ways in which trainers, tutors and students
set about organising effective learning. Here we review
the main ideas which help them to develop and select
an appropriate method for a particular situation.
"We live and learn". Think for a moment of all the

things you learned before you went to school: walking,
talking, eating (in the approved manner), being
respectful, laughing, and so on. Think what you
learned during your school years but not at school:
riding a bike, shopping, dealing with illness, much
more. In or out of school you will have had a few
inspiring teachers, many who shaped your learning
successfully, some who told you much that you have
now forgotten; but always the learning will have been
done by you. There is no doubt that you have the
ability to learn. Do not doubt that those whose
standards you wish to raise also have the ability to
learn.
You, and they, have learned (and forgotten) in a
huge variety of ways and circumstances from a large
number of different people. If anyone says to you
"There is only one way to learn" they cannot have

8 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

reflected for long on their own experiences. They may
have a strong need to believe that life is simple and
uncomplicated. Tell them "Variety is the spice of life".
You may recall some sayings about learning
teaching.

and

"It's never too late to learn"
"You can't teach an old dog new tricks"

"A little learning is a dangerous thing"
"We must learn to walk before we can run"
"Experience is the best teacher"
"Wise men learn from others, fools by their own
mistakes"
Take your pick. Each is sometimes true. None is
always a guide. For you who have an interest in
teaching, reflecting on your own experience is an
important starting point. You will probably recollect
that expertise
gives a teacher authority.
And
enthusiasm will often convey the importance, interest
or excitement of the subject. Both expertise and
enthusiasm are necessary or desirable, but they do
not guarantee to bring about learning. That is the
teacher's art.
We find it easier to begin studying navigation by
assuming the earth to be a sphere, the local surface of
the sea to be flat, and the tides to rise and fall in a
completely predictable way. These assumptions are
very helpful to begin with, and often can be taken 'for
all practical purposes' to be true. But the competent
navigator, who is a practical person, must know the
circumstances in which it can become uneconomic or
dangerous to cling to those simplified assumptions.



like exams or pleasing the teacher, because you cannot

vary your approach to allow for individual differences.
But if you are helping a shipmate, teaching in a tutorial
setting, or learning on your own the intrinsic
motivations can be used effectively.
The main reason for trying to use intrinsic
motivation as a teacher in marine colleges is simple
enough, and very relevant to the aims of The Nautical
Institute. Competence
examinations
are a very
powerful motivator for learning whatever has to be
learned to pass them, but the motive disappears as
soon as the exam has been passed. The successful
candidate for a Master's Certificate can then serve for
thirty or more years with the Authorities assuming he
will learn whatever is necessary to keep him
competent. But the only sure way for that to happen
is for him to want to go on learning, which is most
likely if he is driven by intrinsic motives. It follows
that while college teachers, and individual students,
will look to a variety of motives, no opportunity should
be missed to encourage the growth of intrinsic ones.
Serving officers are usually better placed to do this,
for two reasons. They can concentrate their help on
activities or subjects that are clearly necessary to the
efficient running of the ship they are on, not some
other type of ship, or some exam syllabus. It is here
that one finds job satisfaction, which is one of the
intrinsic motives. Secondly, the good ship's officer is
the one that the learner tries to emulate, and the

standards he sets are the ones which are taken to heart,
so to speak. College teachers help by making their
subject interesting and by referring to topics clearly
relevant but beyond the strict syllabus limits.
To conclude this section, let's review the main ways
in which a teacher, instructor or tutor can use
motivations to help a learner make progress. Initially,
vocational students are usually motivated by the desire
to pass exams and to master the skills and knowledge
required for their present or next job. The teacher
should make as clear as possible what that involves in
terms of effort by the leamer, and where possible
demonstrate the standard of performance
to be
achieved. This provides goals or targets, and it is bad
for motivation to discover later that you were aiming
at something else. But it is also bad for motivation if
the goal seems to be too far away to be reached, so
the teacher often breaks the process down into
manageable steps and can then use a wider variety of
means to help the learner along, such as a 'public'
commitment to devote a certain time to a task.
'Nothing succeeds like success'. Very few people
actually like having their mistakes pointed out,
necessary though this may be. So good teachers strive
to make sure that encouragement outweighs criticism,
and that criticism is presented as help rather than
punishment. When a class or individual learner is

10 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE


convinced of a teacher's good intentions they will
accept some rebukes, but if that comes early the effect
is likely to be sharply to diminish their willingness to
ask questions, risk failure, or seek help. So, be positive
whenever possible, and especially in the early stages.
The leamer's first impressions of a teacher are difficult
to change. The shared smile of pleasure, the "That's
right" and "Well done!" are effective.
Any breakdown in the 'cycle' oflearning can cause
loss of motivation, though sometimes it will provide a
spur to greater effort. So the later sections on attention,
perception
and feedback also contain relevant
references to motives.
The aspects of motivation included in this little
review are those which a teacher or instructor can most
easily influence. It would be unrealistic to make no
mention of the attitudes of the leamer, which can make
the teacher's task very easy or almost impossible on
occasions. But don't forget that a learner may think
his teacher has attitudes, too, which make learning
easier or harder!

Attitudes
An attitude is a readiness to act in a certain way. It is
often unpredictable, as when we talk of people being
'moody', but it seems to have a big influence on how
a person reacts to a situation. The outcome, in the
learning processes that interest us, is usually seen as a

willingness or unwillingness to take an active part. The
person with the attitude seems to evaluate whether or
not taking part is more likely to be harmful or
beneficial to them. They may push themselves
forward, or they may try to avoid being involved; to
catch or to avoid the teacher's eye.
There are usually two components to an attitude.
These are feelings, which are often more obvious; and
there are beliefs (or opinions) which the learner can
use to justify his attitude if challenged. These feelings
we tend to call positive or negative; they are probably
based in personal history, but also in aspirations. What
we believe about our self, the sort of person we are
and would like to become, is important but not easy
for others to see, or for us to be consistent about.
The other component is more open to influence.
The leamer's attitude to learning is strongly influenced
by his belief in its relevance to his purpose. If a task is
thought to be pointless, a skill obsolete, or a drill
ineffectual, the learner can believe he is justified in
avoiding the drudgery oflearning. At the other end of
the scale of relevance and interest he will approach
the task eagerly. And while every variation of attitude
lies between these poles, you may occasionally come
across even greater extremes - individuals who deny
responsibility for any success or failure, or who claim


total responsibility for it. But they are unlikely to have
prospered in the teamwork necessary at sea, or in a

college.

enough to encourage dreams. Fatigue, whether from
previous activity or lack of sleep, is obviously
unhelpful, as are hunger, hangovers and a full bladder.

It is normal for any learner to feel some anxiety
about things he cannot yet do, and confidence about
things already achieved. Too much anxiety is
undesirable, as is overconfidence, but in dealing with
individuals the teacher can often use a little of one to
modify the other. Not by ridicule or sarcasm, which
are as damaging in private as in public, but by facing
the overconfident with a more complex problem, and
by reminding the anxious that they have a record of
success already.

Unhelpful mental states such as anxiety and
boredom also distract attention from learning. You
may even be feeling a little of that now, reader, because
all this is well known to you. What is the best response
for you? Read faster, skip a paragraph, make a cup of
coffee, scan through it again to make sure it's as
straightforward as you are thinking? I hope you do
what's best for you, but whatever you do it will involve
a change of activity, mental or physical or both. You
will be more active than before, and this is one of the
keys to effective learning. It is why this author who
has no control of how you learn, only what is on the
page in front of you, frequently asks you to stop

reading and think, recollect, imagine - any activity to
make a change, however short, from just reading.

Psychology sheds a little light on attitudes, and
provides plenty of food for the thoughtful teacher, but
it does not provide answers. This is because attitudes
are so closely associated with individual experience,
personalities and preferences. Yet a professional study
programme which gives no attention to attitudes, and
especially 'openness' to going on learning, is in danger
of being a bag of tricks performed for examiners but
not carried out where it matters - on the ship.

Attention
It is obvious that the learner has to pay attention to
whatever he is trying to learn. Some students have
tried to improve their memorisation of the Collision
Regulations by falling asleep with their 'Walkman'
playing the words into their unconscious ears, but the
effectiveness of learning while asleep has not been
established. By contrast the effectiveness of taking a
rest from time to time is a universal experience. Reflect
again on your own experience; most people will recall
occasions when a problem which has been causing
difficulty is put aside. After a period of attending to
something entirely different you return to the problem
and quickly hit upon the solution. Coincidence? Or
perhaps the change of activity caused, or permitted,
you to forget the unsuccessful methods of solution
which were hard to get out of your thinking while you

persisted. Whatever the reason, the concept of
attention is not as simple as it first seems. You can
have too much of it. Also, it can be directed at the
wrong things. My physics teacher in pre-sea training
always emitted a whistle when pronouncing the's'
sound in words like whistle and pronounce. I can
remember that, from over forty years ago, more clearly
than what physics he taught me.
What can teachers and learners do to maximise
attentiveness? Both can be conscious of a few bodily
matters, though only one may be able to do anything
about them. Fresh air to breathe, good lighting for the
eyes to work by, no distractions for the ears (though
music doesn't seem to distract the individual), and
enough comfort for the blood to circulate yet not

But if you are expecting to start or to improve your
teaching or instructional skills there are plenty more
ways to get and hold the attention of learners which
will be dealt with in later chapters. You will be a
planner, a performer, a communicator, a source of
knowledge and a demonstrator of skills. A character,
perhaps,
who will be remembered
by future
generations with affection or respect. One who holds
attention, by style or by authority.
Before we change the subject let's change the
activity again. Try to recall two or three people who
have taught you things, in school, college or at sea.

Did they all hold your attention in the same ways?
What did they have in common and what were their
differences? Did they all make you and their other
students learn efficiently? Would you like to emulate
any of them?
I have directed your well-motivated attention
towards positive aspects of your experience, but there
is much to be learned by reflecting on things you will
hope NOT to do yourself. Some of the most
knowledgable of men never quite master the need for
voice modulation and eye contact, or the modest skills
of slide projection.
The aim of attracting and directing the attention
of the learner is to achieve the next condition for
successful progress along the spiral, which is correct
perception
of what has to be remembered
or
performed.

Perception
Perception refers to the ways in which the brain
organises the information brought to it by the senses.
Despite a century of research this is still a controversial
matter when it comes to explanations. Fortunately,

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

11



the principles guiding teachers are generally accepted
and we can leave the theorists to their work.
To illustrate the concept of perception we will take
examples from the senses of hearing and sight, but
you will soon see that the ideas apply to touch, taste
and smell as well. The letter 'N can be written or
printed in thousands of slightly or considerably
different ways; yet most of these different visual
patterns arriving at your eyes are given the same
meaning by your brain. Sometimes you have to make
an effort, mainly you don't, but in any event you
perceive the same thing - unless the differences are
important. In that case you may perceive a capital,
italic or Greek a; but there are still thousands of ways
that one of those can be represented to your eyes, so
the event is much the same - you construct the same
perception, though the light falling on your eye is
different. Closer to our interests, consider how we hear
the same instructions or advice from many different
pilots, each with a unique accent and style of speech.
Between ear and brain we decode these different noises
so as to perceive the same words in one language.
A different process may be at work when, on the
bridge on a dark night, you see a single white light.
This simple signal to your eye could have a large
number of meanings once your brain gets to work on
it, and some that don't come to mind. Your perception
here is clearly affected by past experience
and

learning, and particularly by the context. On a main
shipping route but well away from land you may
perceive a masthead or stern light, and get a nasty
shock if it turns out to be an improperly lit fishing
vessel.
Perception, then, is the way the brain "makes
sense" of what our senses detect. Psychologists
entertain us with examples of how we can be misled.
Space limits us to two. In the first, one of the main
lines looks longer than the other. In the second the
long lines appear to converge when they are parallel.
Check them for yourself.

You will be familiar with a reverse process, whereby
you "see" a circular plate despite the image on your
eye being the ellipse produced by a tilted circle. The
brain has learned this trick and it serves us well.
Another aspect of perception is referred to in the
English saying that "You can't see the wood for the
trees". Too much detail prevents us from grasping the
main idea. Or if several people say the same thing but
slightly out of phase the listener misses the message.
Too many instructions baffle the learner.
But once you have perceived a wood, or a ship,
you are likely to be interested to know what kind of
wood or ship it is, and in this case the development of
perception involves discrimination,
attention to
significant detail, and so on, so as to refine the brain's
ability to make more, or more accurate meaning from

the sense data available.
This is the teacher's chief interest in ideas about
perception. They may help him to communicate
accurately and clearly, and to diagnose and correct
the misperceptions and vagueness in the developing
ideas and skills of his students. With adult professional
students the main task for the teacher, or the student
learning on his own, will often be making the right
connections between what is known already and what
is new.
Language is obviously a vital tool in learning, and
almost any word may be wrongly perceived or call
up a faulty concept in the student's mind. We shall
see that feedback to the teacher is vital in correcting
perception. The lone student is at great disadvantage
at this point, but benefits from the development of
strategies to test his own understanding which prove
invaluable later; actively 'making sense' of what has
to be learned is a form of problem-solving of general
application. If 'teacher' does too much of the work,
this general mental skill will not be promoted.
Acquiring knowledge and skills presents enough
problems for the learner without teachers adding to
them. So the teacher plans his approach
with
perception as a factor. For example, when we are
learning to use a PC it is all too easy for an enthusiastic
instructor to expect the learner to attend to the
keyboard, the screen and the instructor's words
simultaneously.

Unless the three sources of
information are presented in a careful sequence the
beginner is likely to be confused. Yet each source is
simple enough in itself, so he will be tempted to say
that he has followed, and hope the teacher goes away
for long enough for him to sort out what was
happening by trial and error.
When helping the student to acquire knowledge
from books or lectures, the perception of significant


ideas, names and formulae is aided by such wellknown means as underlining,
capitals, and box
diagrams. Teachers use the loudness and tone of their
voices to emphasise important things, not only the
words they speak.
The main skill involved in perceptual learning is
discrimination, which is the ability to differentiate
between similar sensory signals. For example,
engineers need to be able to discriminate between
smells that are normal and those that might be
associated with danger; or, if they have lost that skill,
they still need to tell which alarm sound relates to
which danger. Bridge watchkeepers have to try to
judge whether or not the bearing of an approaching
ship is changing enough for safety.
Sharpening these skills is one of the unending tasks
of teachers and instructors. It is not much talked about
because it is an integral part of their work in most
contexts. It usually crops up when the learner admits

to feeling "confused". The eyes and ears may be getting
contradictory signals, or the new ideas will not fit
comfortably with the information already held in the
brain. The teacher (or book) may be responsible for
the confusion, but in this unfair world one of the
satisfying moments in a teacher's life is when the
problem is resolved, and the learner says with relief
"Ah! I see!". Perception complete.

The activity of the learner and the
teacher
At last we have got to the engine room of the business
of education and training, you are probably thinking.
Correct.
But this is the shortest section of this chapter. The
reason is that the main techniques of teaching, such as
lecturing, coaching, computer-based
learning and
simulation and the use of visual and other aids are
all given chapters to themselves later in the guide. Here
we can review the features we expect any of these
techniques to have, ifthey are to succeed in connecting
the learners permanently to the subject matter.
We have seen that the presentation of what has to
be learned should increase rather than undermine the
learners' motivation and attention, strengthen positive
attitudes and lead to accurate perceptions. This is
obviously easier if the subject-matter is seen to be
relevant and interesting, and the learner has a good
grasp of necessary prior knowledge and skills. Later

we shall see the importance offeedback iflearning is
to be efficient, and of repetition if it is to be effective.
This section is headed 'activity'. Recall a typical
successful learning occasion. You will have been active,
mentally and probably physically as well. If you had

a teacher he will have been active, too, either directing
you or passing on his knowledge or skill in a dynamic
way which kept your attention focused. Thus,
purposeful activity is a basic feature of most learning,
and in situations where that is difficult to observe, such
as in lectures or when reading, the experience is less
likely to be memorable.

Feedback, or knowledge of results
You have probably used correspondence courses and
written essays during your training. If so, you may
recognise that many people, on receiving work back
from the marker, take good note of the mark awarded
but pay little attention to any detailed comments. They
may, in the case of correspondence
course work,
hardly remember the questions. The overall mark may
make them feel good, bad or indifferent. If they feel
good it will help their motivation to keep going; if
they feel bad it may spur them to greater efforts; but
in any case the feedback is too remote in time from
the specific learning to be of much use unless they
revise the learning when the results arrive. No wonder,
then, that a lot of vocational study has to be repeated

in college whatever was attempted at sea - unless there
is strong motivation from other sources.
Contrast the feedback in correspondence courses
with that given to students preparing
for oral
examination. Each highly specific question requires a
quick and usually brief answer which is instantly
assessed and 'rewarded' or corrected. Such feedback
is efficient both for the learning of the subject matter
and for strengthening the motivation of the successful
student. "Nothing succeeds like success", providing
we are talking of small steps and immediate feedback.
Success in a final exam is a different matter.
Undoubtedly it is gratifying and good for motivation.
Unfortunately unless the exam scripts are returned to
the candidate - an unusual procedure - he cannot be
certain which questions he answered correctly. So with
a pass mark of 70% there is a possibility of being
mistaken about more than 25% of the subject matter
on which he has been tested for competence. No
information has been provided on the syllabus items
not covered in that particular examination paper. This
should remind us that however important the exams
are for motivation, it's the quality of the training and
learning that counts in setting overall standards of
competence!
Training on board provides the opportunity to
make full use of feedback
because
two-way

communication between learner and instructor can
be immediate and of high quality. College training
programmes will make provision for one-to-one
contacts in which the teacher has the chance to test
individual understanding closely, and to diagnose the
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

13


source of failure to comprehend or perform accurately.
But the economics of educational institutions usually
requires that a high proportion of time is spent in
lectures, libraries or working alone, and these are times
when feedback may be of uncertain quality or absent
altogether.
Where active learning is at its most effective the
concept of feedback is itself a two-way one. The learner
can question his instructor, to test or extend his own
understanding, just as the instructor questions the
learner to assess the effectiveness of his teaching.
Compare the potential ofthat situation with a lecture,
a video or a guide like this!
Feedback is not all conducted in speech and
writing. Interaction between teacher and student is,
like any other conversation
or meeting, full of
nonverbal signals. Gestures, nods, smiles, frowns, eye
movements and body posture are all used to convey
meaning. But they can also be habits that are unhelpful

to good learning. For example, there are learners who
habitually nod and smile whatever the teacher is
saying. The teacher may feel pleased, but the feedback
is unreliable. Another example is the lecturer who has
a way of saying "OK?" at the end of most sentences.
It sounds like an invitation to stop him if you don't
understand, but his audience knows that the lecture
will never end if we all air our doubts; so all he sees
are the nods. Nods are nice to receive, so he pays more
attention to the nodders and the feedback again
becomes unreliable.
Turning our attention back to the learner, and the
importance offeedback to him, one last example can
be drawn from the development of skills. Manual
steering involves relating visual signals about existing
and desired headings to the amount of wheel applied
in the prevailing conditions. Visual feedback is
obviously essential to the process, and it is provided
both by the deviation from the desired heading and
by the rate of change. The skilled helmsman relates
the two effectively, as does the auto. But notice the
two general points: the feedback is essential to skill
acquisition; and the sooner you get it the better. In
practice good feedback also motivates the learner to
improve by his own efforts.
This completes one cycle of our ideal spiral of
learning. Very occasionally, the strength of one feature
will be such that we will learn from the first experience.
Powerful motives, an extremely positive attitude, a
clear insight, a feeling of exhilaration, or very painful

(or pleasant) feedback; any of these may account for
us learning something at the first attempt.
More often, however, we shall have to repeat the
effort in total or in part to satisfy ourselves or others
that we have learned and retained some knowledge

14 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

or skill - memorised the facts, grasped the idea, or
'got the knack'.
In any event, between the first exposure to
something new, and the belief that we have 'learned
it', no account would be complete without referring
to the faculty with which we retain something from
each cycle - our memory.

Memory
It is not just education and training that rely on the
idea of memory. All progress, meaning desired
improvement, and all continuity, by which individuals,
families, nations, religions try to maintain the best of
the past, depend on memory. And yet science still
struggles to provide an adequate explanation of its
operation. Computers can have memories (well, that's
what we call them; superstores might be a better name)
of huge size, and retrieval systems of staggering speed.
They can be made to simulate all sorts of scenarios as
though they remembered
them, to be expert,
intelligent, masters of chess and so on. But when it

comes to forgetting, dreaming and having new ideas
they are no match for humans. Perhaps science will
crack it next year, but meanwhile we must do the best
we can with brain cells instead of microprocessors.
To the teacher or the lone student we can offer
some guidance. First, there is no substitute for
repetitive practice at the two extremes oflearning. To
achieve and maintain the highest levels of skill; and
to memorise unrelated facts (such as morse code
signals, or the order of the alphabet) there are no short
cuts. Of course the teacher can organise the
opportunities and provide feedback; and occasionally
a gifted learner will turn up who has a 'photographic
memory' or is a 'born shiphandler', but don't count
on it. There is no escaping that some learning requires
persistent application, not to say drudgery, to achieve
the memorisation needed by head and hand.
Second, the practice is usually more effective when
spaced out rather than concentrated in long sessions.
This is not 'common sense' and sometimes upsets
accountants who would prefer to pay for short,
intensive coaching; that may be good for computers
but it doesn't suit humans. This we know from
experience as well as from research. Spending too long
at one go trying to learn to drive a car, or to memorise
the Colregs, or to comprehend the law of contract, is
counterproductive.
For some reason a change of
activity, just as much as a rest, helps us to remember
for the long term. And the more different the

intervening activity, the better; asking your trainee (or
yourself) to calculate a Pacific tide as a change from
European ones is a recipe for confusion rather than
rest. The toilets at the Nautical College, Wars ash, used
to have a wall chart of the International Code flags on


the back of the door. What better regular but spaced
out practice, with quite different activity in the
intervals, could you contrive? Whether the cadets were
paying attention to the learning task I cannot say.
Third, most of the knowledge that a seafarer has
to acquire is not like the Morse or International Codes,
but is based on subjects which have a sound basis in
science or experience. Memory in these areas is well
served by making connections. For example, building
the study of stability up from our basic understanding
of water pressure and gravity; or, in a different way,
extending
our understanding
of navigation
by
developing the general concept of position lines. Being
able to use these connections is often the difference
between 'knowing' the facts and 'understanding' the
subject. The memory is then in a condition to grow
easily and to tackle problems effectively.
Fourth, the process of storing and retrieving
information is immensely helped for us humans by
the use of any device which extracts significant

features. An obvious example is an abbreviation. It
seems a paradox that it can be easier to remember
three things - the abbreviation, the fact that it's an
abbreviation, and what it's an abbreviation for - GM,
for example - than just to remember the name
Metacentric Height. More significant devices are :rhymes (our grandfathers learned much of the Rule
of the Road in verse form) like "Error East, Compass
Least"; sayings like "Men very easily make jugs serve
useful and numerous purposes" whose initial letters
trace the sequence of planets outward from the Sun;
and any rule, rule of thumb, sequence, procedure or
formula that helps us to pull out of the memory the
full details stored there.
Even more efficient than these verbal and symbolic
compressions are direct visual representations. The
power of visual aids is detailed elsewhere in this guide,
so it is enough here to state that sketches, diagrams,
plans and silhouettes, for examples, are presentations
whose simplifications are good news for our memories.
A fine example is the familiar diagram of the purely
imaginary Celestial Sphere which reduces a huge
amount of information to a compact and much more
memorable space. Tabulations and 'family trees' are
other examples of ways of compressing information
about relationships, just as are drawings of ships.
Pulling the picture-memory out of store and talking
about it is far more efficient than memorising a written
verbal description.
If you have read through this chapter you may have
wondered where perception stops and memory begins.

Memorising and remembering can be seen as storing
and retrieving perceptions. We also have seen that the

brain processes information from the senses, and then
tries to fit it in with the memories already in store, to
form perceptions. We are struggling, together, to
understand what is happening in our nervous systems
and brains and so are several branches of science and
philosophy. The tongue and the word processor (and
the teacher) can only deal with one aspect at a time,
whereas the brain can and does link them all
inextricably in its actions.
Be that as it may, the swift and certain application
of professional
competence
depends on a wellequipped and well-disciplined memory.
To summarise the ways in which the role of
memory in learning can be developed, there is first
the repetitive spaced practice in recalling factual
material. Then there is the recognition, and later
recollection, of the connections between things. This
forming of 'mental maps' is helped by simplified
presentations, especially visual aids which pick out the
significant features of what has to be remembered. It
is as though a good memory is first and foremost a
well-organised store, with good signs and labels, or a
good 'cargo plan' from which retrieval at the right port
in undamaged condition can almost be guaranteed.

Conclusion

A teacher or instructor is many things. He (or she) is a
source of knowledge, a demonstrator of skill, a judge
of standards, a mentor passing on the values and
expectations
of his main occupation,
one who
encourages, steers and prompts those who want or
need to make progress, and shares the pleasure of
success and the disappointment of setbacks. To do
these things well the teacher must communicate well,
so it should be no surprise that some of the best
teachers are like good actors. They perform well in a
variety of roles, and they have thought hard about
their parts. You will find this illustrated in many of the
following chapters of this guide.

In this first chapter we have chosen to place the
learner at the centre of the process and to see how
learning involves his active contribution, which the
teacher may have to stimulate. We have scanned some
of the aspects of the psychology oflearning which have
most relevance to adult vocational study and offered
a few examples from the wide spectrum of a deck
officer's interests. If your appetite for further study
has been whetted there are many fascinating books
on motivation, perception and remembering from
which to choose. But you will find the points of special
interest to nautical teachers applied elsewhere in this
guide. Good reading.


MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

15


Chapter TWO

CONCEPTS, SKILLS AND COMPETENCE
IN A MARITIME SETTING
by Mr. Don Baillie Ex C FNI
Following pre-sea training at King Edward VII Nautical College in London, Don Baillie served his apprenticeshiP with what is now
BP Tankers and was a deck officer with BP and P&O.After obtaining the Extra Master's Certificate hejoined the teaching staff of his
old college. While teaching he obtained an advanced diploma in mathematics and attended a teacher training course. In 7965 he was
appointed to the staff of the only UK college which prepared seafarersfor lecturerposts in nautical colleges.
Five years later, when he was completing studies for a Master's Degree in Educational Research, he was invited to become one of
Her Majesty's Inspectors monitoring the work of technical colleges in general and marine colleges in particular. In that capacity he
advised the UK Department of Education on the needs and quality of nautical education, and represented that Department on the
Merchant Navy Training Board, the National Sea Training Trust, and on committees of the Council for National Academic Awards, the
Technician Education Council and then BTEG. He worked closely with the Department of Transport's Chief Examiners in curriculum
and examination developments and the provision of simulators, and published many reports on aspects of nautical education and the
work of the marine departments and faculties.He organised several conferencesfor lecturers in marine fields, and recently retired after
23 years as H M Inspector.

Introduction
To achieve competence a learner has to acquire some
knowledge and develop some abilities. To be awarded
a Certificate he has to have them assessed. In this
chapter we take a look at the division of practical
competence into skills and concepts (or underpinning
knowledge), and the implications for teachers and

assessors.
To begin with, the division is in essence a
convenient one for talking about the way we can
organise teaching and assessment. It is not an accurate
description of human learning. Skill and knowledge
are normally interwoven. Usually we add to our
knowledge by learning a skill, and we refine our skills
as we develop related concepts. This is a common
experience on simulator courses, for example.
There are some skills - like swimming - which we
can develop with hardly any important knowledge,
and there is knowledge - like the meaning of chart
symbols - which we can acquire without any special
skill. The way we teach these is not very cont~tious;
practical experience for one and rote memonsmg for
the other. But where knowledge and skill help each
other there is always scope for trying out different
amounts of each, in different orders.
Likewise the method chosen for the assessment of
competence usually relates to the relative importance
of skill and knowledge in the competence concerned,
but this is distorted by considerations of cost and
credibility. For example, the skill aspects of positionfixing,. s~ch as. they are,. have been as ses sedin
unrealIstIc and mappropnate ways for t he best 0 f
16 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

reasons - to keep the cost down. My shipmates
probably had a much better idea of my competence
than the examiner who passed me, but I needed the
Government's approval even more than I wanted

theirs.
These two aspects of competence are sometimes
given the names 'Knowing That' and 'Knowing How'.
We shall not follow that attractively simple path,
because we need to look deeper. If you are allowed to
establish your competence in a skill by describing how
you would do it, rather than by actually doing it in
the presence of an assessor, you are only proving you
know that it ought to be done in this way, not that you
can do it. 'knowing that' has taken the place of
'knowing how'. The real skill has not been assessed.
You have persuaded the assessor of your competence
by your knowledge of associated concepts - know-how
- without demonstrating command of the skill itself.

Concepts - the basis of 'underpinning
knowledge'
When we say that we have a concept of something,
we mean that we are able to think in our brains about
·
.
·
·
.
a th 1ng or 1d ea w h 1Ch IS ou t Sld e th ose b raIns, m th e
"real" world. For example, we can think about 'ship'
or 'officer' or 'headway' without having to have a
O

•


picture of any of these concepts in our mind's eye.
Concepts are the basic elements of the work of the
mind. They are comparable to genes in biology. They
link the information we receive from our environment
with the sense that we make of it, and how we respond
to it. Some people say that every word we use stands
for a concept, and for the purposes of communication,


and particularly teaching, this can help. If your junior,
or trainee, doesn't understand a statement, you need
to be sure which word or words are causing the
difficulty.
In the adult world most of the concepts behind
everyday
words are well-established
in most
individuals, and the teacher is mainly engaged in
refining them, connecting them or introducing new
ones which help to build professional
or other
knowledge, and competence.
The word 'concept' itself, like some other words,
can be ambiguous. It sometimes stands for your own
private understanding of what a word means. But it
may also stand for the accepted definition by a public
authority such as 'society in general', or 'the DTp', or
'the Law'. Here again it is often the teacher's job to
bring these two versions of a concept into line.

Progressive thinkers frequently try to expand or alter
the use of a concept, and the resistance to this can
lead them to propose new words, or uses of words,
which we sometimes call 'jargon'.
Jargon irritates us only if we discover that we 'knew'
what the jargon word stands for; we had the concept
already, but not the word. For example, many a small
businessman will have a very clear concept of how
the pricing of an item can affect sales and profits, but
seem to have no idea what the young salesman means
by 'elasticity of demand'.
So the teacher of 'new' concepts is in a minefield
(I hope we share the same concept of a minefield).
The learner may have a good conception of the new
material, but feels there must be more to it than just
learning a new name. Or the new name may call up
partial or irrelevant concepts already in his mind. Or
some of both. Since all the teacher has to help him is
language and imagination - a mass of concepts and
images of his own - he needs to be able to reach up to
a higher level of concept-making of his own, which
we call his understanding.
To say more about the learning of concepts we need
to take a look at the make-up of any concept or set of
concepts. What are their features and how are the
levels related?
Whenever a number of objects (ships, for example)
in the 'real' world have something in common, we
form a concept of them in our minds. Not only objects
are involved. Activities like 'sport' and qualities like

'strength' also lead us to form concepts. Unless it is
nice and simple, like 'triangle', a concept usually
involves several common attributes. A ship is designed
to float, but so is a buoy, so the concept 'ship' must
have other attributes which the concept 'buoy' doesn't
have. This is obvious; so it will be obvious that one

way to develop a concept is for the teacher to show
the learner where the boundaries of the concept are
to be found - by presenting items that have some
features of the concept, but others that don't belong.
The buoy floats like the ship, but doesn't carry cargo;
the ship floats like the buoy, but isn't moored in a
special place.
Of course some concepts can be simply defined in
terms of other concepts, for example 'ellipse'. Others,
like 'logarithm', have definitions that generations of
students have learned without any understanding.
Others again, like 'celestial sphere', are wonderful acts
of the imagination.
Let's stop with 'ship' a little longer. It is not a serious
problem that dictionaries have slightly different
definitions. It doesn't really matter thatthe borderline
between 'ship' and 'boat' is unknown. Practically
everyone HAS a concept of 'ship' and it is instructive
to think how they might have come by it. Perhaps
they came across 'boat' first, and think of a ship as a
big boat. That would be to develop a new concept
from its relationship with an old one. Or perhaps they
already have a concept from stories about Viking

'ships' and the Titanic; then their concept development
might be governed by asking of each new floating thing
with a mast, is this a ship? Here is a bulker, is it a
'ship'? Here is a tug, is it a 'ship'? The most famous
example of the difficulty of this approach is believing
that ostriches and penguins are really 'birds'.
Of course it is much more important to be clear
about a lot of other concepts, such as 'unstable' and
'untrustworthy' but here again there are basically two
approaches to learning the concepts. The concept
'unstable' can be learned by a definition which
includes all cases and excludes all others, but the
concept 'untrustworthy' must be refined by trial and
error, with no certainty at the borderline, and some
sort of ideal type to compare each case with.
We saw that concepts often overlap, as with ship
and boat. Another feature is that they may include, or
be included in, other concepts. For example fishingvessel, tug and passenger ferry all belong to the
concept 'vessel', and each breaks down to more
specific concepts that we can have of, for example,
tuna boats, trawlers and shrimpers. Concepts also tend
to be included in ever more general ones, used to
classify things. Thus vessels are included in the concept
'vehicle', and vehicles belong in the even more general
concept 'means oftransport'. This last would include
escalators as well as spaceships and mini-bulkers.
The interesting thing about this hierarchy of
concepts from the most particular to the most general
is that the intermediate ones seem the most important
for efficient learning. Once we have a good grasp of


MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

17


the middling concept it is easier to work out finer
discriminations of the more specific kind, as well as to
learn to use the more general ones which lead to a
higher understanding of our subject and its wider
connections.
Psychologists who have studied the learning of
concepts mainly agree that there is a sequence in which
a new concept is acquired. The speed at which any
one learner moves through the sequence varies a great
deal, but the sequence does not. Most of the research
involves children of school age and younger, and we
can reasonably assume that adults are much quicker
except where they have already formed some closely
related or erroneous concept which makes it harder
for them to grasp the new one.

thing on another (for example the dependence of
weight and momentum on mass); or a sequence, as in
sea states and wind force names; or there may be a
checklist of related attributes from which concepts are
drawn, as in identifying the passage of fronts in
meteorology.
If you are impatient to get on to skills and the
practical things of life, you have our sympathy. But if

you think that the idea of concepts is just an invention
of academics, recall the practical importance of
'bending moment' and 'metacentric
height' and
'position lines'. All are pure concepts. Understanding
them cannot be delegated, as skills can, to computers.

Skills

The four stages are as follows. First there is
recognition of an object, activity or quality as being
separate from its background or environment. Thus
an infant learns first that its mother is separate from
the rest of its surroundings, our ancestors saw that a
planet moved differently from the stellar background,
and the hospitals notice an unexpected level of skin
cancer in Australia.

To be a good footballer you need to playa lot of
football. To be a good writer you need to be a good
reader. Both skills need a lot of practice, but watching
football on TV will do little for your ability whereas
reading good books will improve your writing. So once
again there is no golden rule about learning, by which
a teacher can avoid thinking hard about how best to
help his students.

In the second stage of development the object, etc.,
is recognised in a different environment, from a new
angle or with a different sense - confirming its separate

identity. In the third stage several different objects are
recognised as equivalent to the first - establishing a
group or class ('people' for the infant, planets, and
widespread concern about skin cancer in the Southern
Hemisphere). Finally we reach the formal stage of
setting out the attributes
which allow correct
identification of the members of this concept - or
enabling us to distinguish it from other concepts
(human faces and voices, planetary motion, and
depletion of the ozone layer - a concept which we have
yet to name).

What do we mean by 'skill'? Or should I ask "What
are the defining attributes of the concept 'skill'?".
When I was a student of these matters our tutor
demonstrated his ability to sail a dinghy with one hand
while rolling and lighting a cigarette with the other.
We then had to write down what we thought was the
essence of 'skill'.

The most general description of this sequence is
"From the particular to the general, from the concrete
to the abstract, and from the known to the unknown".
Only if a concept can be defined in terms which
the learner already firmly understands, can the above
sequence be cheerfully ignored. A well-stated
definition, with examples proceeding from easier to
more difficult, and a few non-examples if necessary
to illustrate the boundaries of the group, will secure

effective learning in that case.
Not only is it usually wise to start concept
development from concrete experience when possible,
but adults can often be helped by being given an
overview of how new concepts relate to one another.
This may take the form of a hierarchy, as when dealing
with officers' responsibilities or the dependence of one

18 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

Phrases like 'effortless control', 'ability to attend
to more than one task', and 'mastery of tools' came to
mind. When we thought more widely of other skills,
we became more general and we settled on three wider
attributes. These were effectiveness, flexibility, and
anticipation.
By effectiveness we meant that the particular skill
can be performed quickly (apparently without much
thought), accurately and with a degree of physical
economy. The latter may give freedom to do other
things at the same time, or the stamina to go on for a
long time. The lower level of skill that we show during
learning will be relatively clumsy, i.e. less quick, or
less accurate, or more tiring.
Flexibility may be less obvious than effectiveness
but in the end is just as important. Inflexible standard
tests are often used to assess competence, for example
in car driving. This is fair on candidates as well as
measuring a baseline of competence. But in real life
exactly the same problem only occurs twice in the

most routine operations, and a skilled person is surely
one who applies his skill effectively in new situations.
This is often referred to under the head of 'Transfer of


Training', and is an ability where man - so far - seems
to be still ahead of the machine.
The third feature, anticipation, is perhaps an
element of flexibility. Most skills are acted out in
dynamic situations, so there has to be a predictive
aspect, foresight, which draws on the skilled person's
experience and imagination. Shiphandling involves
this to a high degree, as does the effectiveness of many
management skills. Precise prediction contributes
greatly to the effective co-ordination of our actions, in
both space and time.
The other approach to agreeing a concept of 'skill',
suggested earlier in this chapter, was by means of a
definition. You will find several in various dictionaries
and encyclopaedias. One which calls up a picture very
like the description of attributes is:- the capacity for
carrying out complex, well-organised patterns of
behaviour smoothly and adaptively, so as to achieve
a goal or outcome. This covers verbal and social skills
as well as physical tasks.
Some authorities divide skills into three types.
Perceptual skills are those with which we recognise
complex patterns (see Chapter 1). Then there are the
perceptual-motor skills in which the perceptual 'inputs'
are coordinated with physical movements to produce

'outputs'. Finally there are mental skills such as
reasoning. More important than classifications of this
kind is to distinguish a skilled performance from a
habit, which it can resemble. A habit lacks the
flexibility which was a feature of the true skill. A habit
may be an essential small component of a skill, an
automatic response to a simple stimulus, but the full
skill will include the ability to over-ride that habit when
circumstances change in a way not anticipated.
Some theorists (who usually base their theory on
observation of rats or pigeons) reject this distinction
and hold that all learned skills are chains of habitual
responses, each triggering the next response. As you
accumulate an ever-increasing 'bank' of these chains
of responses the chance of meeting a new situation is
decreasing. But when one leaves the laboratory the
number of possible situations you can meet increases
hugely. Then you have to match each situation to just
one of the numerous habits you have stored. This is
an unconvincing picture of skill because the bigger
your collection of habits the longer you will take to
choose the right response; this is the opposite of what
we experience - the more skilled you are, the faster
your reaction is likely to be.
It seems much more likely that by practice our
brain develops a set of rules which in effect tell us
how to respond, or the response most likely to be
appropriate
on the information
and experience

available to the brain - a sort of internal expert system
to which we go on adding by training or practice.

This leads us to consider how we acquire skills.
The importance of feedback to the efficiency of the
learning process is dealt with at length in Chapter 1.
We can certainly learn some skills without a training
programme - most early learning (to walk, and to
speak, for example) lacks a programme, but there is
plenty of feedback. The outcomes (falling over or
getting a response to a noise) provide the feedback
and thus are more important than inputs. However it
isn't long before imitation starts to be evident, and
inputs (which may be demonstrations
or training
programmes) can assume the greater importance.
Rewards, encouragement,
disapproval and so on
provide the feedback for imitative learning.
When language develops (and with it, concepts!)
direct instruction in skills - telling how - can be added
to the earlier two methods which I shall call trial and
error, and imitation. Most adult training is some
combination of these three. It is rarely obvious what
mixture gives the best results in any particular case,
because trainees respond so differently. This is also
dealt with in Chapter 1.
Earlier it was suggested that the brain controls skill
development like an expert system that is improved
by training or practice. Here are two more concepts

which it pays you to distinguish. Training involves a
deliberate scheme to assist the learner. It involves the
trainer guiding the learner to make more satisfactory
or effective actions, helps him to attend to the
appropriate feedback signals, encourages him and
evaluates his progress. As skill improves the actions
become smoother or quicker (or whatever the skill
requires) and then the learner can focus more attention
on the significant feedback. He thus takes charge of
his final development with the trainer having less
input. We often use the term 'coach' for someone
shaping the higher development of skills, and that may
be appropriate for senior officers helping to sharpen
their juniors' skills. But in a world where IMO
minimum standards may represent the only level
demanded,
skill development
in the years after
certification will depend on officers knowing how to
assess their own skills rather than leaving it to an
official trainer or assessor.
Practice may simply involve using the skill so far
acquired, however imperfect. Improvement is not
automatic. Golfers will know what I mean. The
benefits of simple repetition are not guaranteed,
especially when fatigue becomes stronger than
motivation. This underlines the need for the learner,
and especially the lone learner attempting to improve
skills from a self-study course, to have learned enough
about the guidance and feedback needed in his case.

Only then can he evaluate, modify, and so i!llprove
his own performance.

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

19


Any analysis of a skill will show that it is made up
of a collection of sub-skills which in turn may be
broken down until you get to those most basic
elements described earlier as perceptual, perceptualmotor, and mental skills. Thus, to take an everyday
example, making a cup of coffee might be reduced to
sub-skills such as pouring, handling a spoon, using
electric switches, measuring powder, and so on. Using
electric switches breaks down to recognising the
switch, coordinated movement to control it, knowing
when it is on or off, and so on. All very obvious, you
may say. Good. It is the trainer's job to decide how to
put these elements together and to recognise where
the overall performance is unsatisfactory because a
sub-skill has not been learned well, or is not being
integrated with other sub-skills.
Integrated? There are essentially three structures
which govern the connection of sub-skills - and hence
the training strategy needed and the assessment
possibilities. Simplest is the straight sequence, such as
we use in making the cup of coffee; there may be more
than one possible sequence, and the trainer might
judge that one is easier to learn, or is the custom on

that ship. Then the learner can master each sub-skill,
and then learn the rule for the sequence. After that,
guided "practice makes perfect", and the rule is
somehow absorbed into the subconscious, somewhere
in the brain, and controls the smooth performance
we recognise as 'skilled'.
The second structure of sub-skills involves using
them simultaneously. Occasionally it is only physically
possible to learn them simultaneously; for example
when starting to ride a bicycle. The skills to control
motion, balance and steering are connected in such a
way that learning anyone of them separately does
not help and can hinder progress. These are the kind
of circumstances in which the trainer is reduced to
urging the learner to "Have a go! You'll soon get the
idea/knack". It is 'Trial and error' on a big scale. To
get the measure of it, just try to write a brief manual
on how to ride a bike. Or how to throw a heaving line
accurately.
More often a skill breaks down into some elements
which have to be performed simultaneously and some
in sequence. For example, in measuring a sextant
altitude at twilight there is a sequence of sub-skills
concerned with preparing the instrument, and locating
the star. Bringing it down to the horizon, and
determining the exact altitude, though following the
sequence, each involve the co-ordination of two subskills (large and small adjustments to the instrument
while holding the image in place). These are
simultaneous perceptual and perceptual-motor skills.
Then there is another simultaneous pair, perceptualmotor and mental, as you weave your way back to

the chronometer in the gloom while counting the
seconds in your head.
20 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

To summarise, the trainer can be expected to be
more aware of the sub-skills which make up the skill
to be learned, than is the ordinary practitioner. He
needs to recognise what mix of sequential and
simultaneous connections is involved. He has to
choose the appropriate training approach for each subskill or group of them - demonstration/imitation,
trial
and error, or direct instruction.
The assessor will be equally aware of the sub-skills
if he has to make a judgment of how far the learner is
below a satisfactory performance, unless he is a final
examiner and can simply view the full skill in order
to make his judgment.
There is one other opportunity for the lone learner
to keep some of his skills sharper than might be the
case if he has no chance either to be trained or to
practise. Ocean-going watchkeepers of a serious turn
of mind (and, no doubt, their seniors) ask themselves
questions beginning "What if
?" to try to keep the
necessary actions fresh in their minds should some
emergency arise. This mental rehearsal can be far
more wide-ranging and frequent than drills. The
disadvantage, of course, is the absence of feedback!
If we seem to have become repetitive about the
importance of clear, timely and well-focused feedback

it is as a result of experience. Anyone going in for
teaching, or even a bit of helpful instruction of their
juniors, quickly finds that it is not until you try teaching
a subject or skill that you discover how much or how
little you understand it, whatever your qualifications.
This discovery, too, is the result of feedback - from
those you are trying to teach.

Competence
I do not know if any maritime administration has
defined competence, but if so I hope it is a definition
helpful to those who use it. 'Competence
is the
possession of the skills and knowledge required for
the award of a Certificate of Competency' doesn't help
us much, although college lecturers the world over
have learned what the words stand for. Interpretation
is a never-ending
business
of their's
and
administrations as they keep pace with the technical
advances and legal changes which take place in the
industries they serve or regulate.
At sea, competence is more likely to be defined as
a capacity to do a job efficiently in any circumstances
likely to arise. There are many reasons why these two
definitions differ, not least that they refer to quite
different concepts. Men of goodwill have always
wanted to keep the practical effect of these differences

as small as possible, and reform of the means of
attaining and assessing competence is thus a recurrent
feature in the modern history of seafaring.


In general terms administrations want a limited
number of certificates to be valid in a very wide range
of ships and trades, and for a long time. Good
shipowners are happy to add their own special
requirements, bad ones are only interested in manning.
Shipmates expect to be able to sleep soundly at night,
after being relieved on time. The attitudes of individual
seafarers vary, but probably most see competence
exams as hurdles to be cleared on the path to
promotion. Many experienced ones
have stories to tell which suggest that their competence
wasn't finally tested until they were in the job they
had already been qualified for. A small number have
been involved in inquiries which found them to be
incompetent despite having a Certificate.
If we focus on the concepts of competence which
an administration and a good serving master might
have, what will be the common attributes, and what
the significant differences?
There would surely be a large measure of
agreement
about a collection
of skills and
underpinning
technical

knowledge
at a level
appropriate for the job in question. The needs of the
ship as an operating unit could be agreed in a large
number of respects, especially relating to safe
navigation (I am only thinking of the deck functions).
The two concepts of competence will diverge at
some points. The shipmaster will tend to make some
allowance for experience, expecting more or less
competence according to age and background, while
the administration simply sets a minimum standard
for all. Administrations allow successful candidates to
display evidence that they may be incompetent. For
example they may set a 70% pass mark. This implies
that a Certificate of Competency can be awarded to
someone who gets 30% of their stability and navigation
calculations wrong! A shipmaster would take this as
evidence, if displayed at sea, that they are NOT
competent. This difference reflects the different
assessment methods employed.
It is inevitable that administrations will only update
the syllabus, or list of knowledge and skills, at intervals
so that the master of a modern ship will find some of
it out of date as a portfolio for current competence.
This will be exaggerated if shore-based assessors
cannot keep in touch with changing conditions at sea.
The shipmaster may also have limited sympathy with
the idea that his officers are expected to be competent
on other types of ship, of which neither he nor they
have experience.

A second dimension of competence
involves
personal
attributes
and professional
values.
Administrations may make an attempt to assess a
candidate's qualities, attitudes and motivation as they

The third aspect of competence, which overlaps
with the first two and may be conceived differently
by shipmasters and administrations, concerns the ship
as a social unit. Senior competency examinations pay
some attention to management
and leadership
knowledge. The weight to be given to knowledge is
often a matter of dispute, but the importance of skills
is not. Leadership styles differ, as do reactions to them,
but the importance of effective management to the
efficiency of safe operation on board can hardly be
doubted. This is true at all levels but it is rarely assessed
formally except at the higher levels, if then.
This is not altogether surprising because it is in the
social context that tensions about the conception of
competence are most likely to arise. For example, the
newly appointed officer, arriving from a Certificate
or refresher course, may find that 'the way we do things
on this ship', and the letter of the latest regulation, do
not exactly coincide. At once, there is a tension
between conformity and professional or personal

integrity which will require social skills to resolve.
The fourth area in which the concepts
of
competence differ is in the modes of judgment used
by administrations and shipmasters. Examiners like
precise and reasonably simple questions with which
to test candidates, and thereby produce fair tests in
the sense that each candidate starts from the same
place, however unrealistic that might be. Real life at
sea is a place of probabilities, approximations and
some unknown
quantities,
and it is in those
surroundings that the shipmaster makes his assessment
of competence.
The concepts differ, the circumstances differ; I am
not aware whether any research has been carried out
as to how often the judgments agree. Some of the
evidence from the Institute's
Marine Accident
Reporting Scheme, and from letters to 'Seaways',
suggests that agreement would be less than complete.
Finally, let's turn to another area of competence. This
guide is being written for those who wish to contribute
to raising standards in maritime training, either at sea

MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING

21



or in shoreside institutions. What makes a competent
trainer or lecturer?
Draw on your own experience as a trainee and
student. Among the attributes you would expect a
competent teacher to possess would be superior
knowledge and greater skill than those you sought to
achieve. Two exceptions to this general idea might
suggest themselves. There might be some obscure area
of operations - heavy lifts, or a very recent piece of
software, for example - where the competent teacher
will not pretend to know all, and will draw on other
sources, including other students in a class, or other
shipmates, to help learning.
The second exception relates to the highest levels
of skill and understanding. At most levels you expect
the teacher to be better at doing a task than the trainee.
But at the highest level the ambition of the competent
teacher is that his best students will actually perform
better than he. Or she. Coaches in sport are generally
NOT as competent as the best performers; they offer
other insights, motivation and a wealth of learning
from the experience of others. Likewise there are
competent trainers who can help practical men to
perform better than they.
Were it not so, the standards would be forever
sliding down. This is in contrast to teaching knowledge,
where scholars, researchers and practitioners are all
adding to what is known and can be passed on to the
next generation.


22 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

What else can we say of competent teachers?
Different styles of teaching appeal to different sorts of
learners. There are extremes along the range of
methods, from the autocrat who makes the learner do
nearly all the learning, to the instructor who never
stops talking. But a competent teacher who is going to
be effective with a variety of people learning a variety
of subjects and skills is certain to need to have a variety
of skills himself.
Above all he has to be a good communicator. Most
of us would like him to show positive attitudes about
the value of what he is teaching, with flashes of
enthusiasm, and seriousness of purpose, flavoured with
humour and illustrated with relevant anecdotes. Most
learners find these things helpful to their motivation.
But they must also be encouraged to reflect upon their
own experience - or what is sea service for?
Readers who studied Chapter 1, on the concept of
learning, may see that the concept of a competent
teacher can be derived from thinking about learning.
The competent teacher brings about the desired
learning effectively and efficiently. The two ideas are
inseparable. We hope you enjoy proving this for
yourself. Let the last word go to a Skipper, Mr
Humphrey
Bogart of the 'African Queen'.
"A

professional is one who can give his best performance
when he doesn't feel like it." Yet another angle.


Chapter THREE

GROUP LEARNING AND TRAINING TECHNIQUES
compiled by Mr. Robert L. Tallack BSc FNI
on behalf of Northstar Maritime and Environmental Consultancy
in association with Hill Tallack

Introduction
Training outside the more formal environment of a
nautical college has always been a feature of maritime
education. It has ranged from cadet training ships
through such informal activities as the noon sight
under the watchful eye of the navigating officer, to an
increasing onboard delivery by personnel officers,
college lecturers and consultants
as companies
endeavour to get more 'sea miles' from their trainees.
It also, critically, includes emergency drills - although
this is far too infrequently realised.
This chapter is designed to focus attention on some
of the questions which need to be asked when planning
group training activities and to highlight some of the
techniques which may help 'non-professional' trainers
deliver more effectively.

Why?

'Why group training?' must be one of the first questions
a prospective trainer should ask. Is group training
better than the alternatives?
Today the trend is to offer people a range of options
for learning. This to a great extent derives from the
ability of modern technology to package and transmit
information, which has led to the development of
Learning Resource Centres within companies - and
similar facilities will appear increasingly on board.
These offer individuals the option of self study through
text, multimedia
and video. The emphasis
is
increasingly on encouraging people to own and
manage their own development
with companies
offering a range of alternative ways for people

continually to develop and improve themselves already Continuous Professional Development (CPD)
is well established in many of the professions.
However effective self study and self study
techniques become, at some stage within the learning
process it is still necessary for there to be human
interaction. At one end of the scale this may be a one
to one student - tutor relationship or traditional
classroom based teaching and it also includes seminars
and conferences. Group training is also an important
part of this process and it is part of the trainer's, or the
personnel or training manager's responsibility to
decide which is the most effective learning process in

order to achieve a desired training outcome.
Cost, inevitably, is one of the first factors to be
considered. It is easy to be driven by 'what is cheapest?'
often dressed up to sound like 'what is more costeffective?'. A better approach is generally 'what is the
best I can buy with the allocated funds within my
budget?' This immediately raises the question of what
is the desired outcome; is it to achieve a well trained
and well motivated crew or is it to meet irksome
statutory requirements?
Generally
speaking,
beneficial when:
•

•

group

training

is most

Practical activities have to be demonstrated or
practised (and competency based learning places
great emphasis on the ability to demonstrate
capability); and
There is a benefit to be gained from sharing the
experience of other participants (and, possibly,
other companies or other industries).
MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING


23