4.14

Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

K Hall, Technology Transition Corporation, Ltd., Tyne and Wear, UK
© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

4.14.1
4.14.2
4.14.3
4.14.4
4.14.5
4.14.5.1
4.14.6
4.14.7
References
Further Reading

Overview
Why Hydrogen?
Hydrogen for Transport
Stationary Power
The Efficiency Debate
A Holistic Approach
From Here to There
Conclusions

Glossary
Demand-side management (DSM) Modification of
consumer demand for energy through education or
financial incentives.

Holistic Relating to or concerned with wholes or with
complete systems rather than with the analysis of,
treatment of, or dissection into parts [1].

351
352
353
354
355
355
357
359
359
360

Integrated gasification combined cycle
(IGCC) Technology that turns coal into a synthesis gas
and involves generating electricity from gas turbines as
well as steam-powered turbines.

4.14.1 Overview
Population growth is projected to continue in the foreseeable future. (Excerpted from data from US Census Bureau 2009,
Population Reference Bureau, and UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs as follows: [2–11]). More and more people are
living in metropolitan areas. Roads are becoming more congested [12], with incentives for mass transit and tariffs for driving
personal automobiles in crowded cities becoming more commonplace. As ultralow emission vehicles, such as hybrid electric
vehicles, do not contribute to the growing production of carbon emissions from vehicles, these are often exempted from
congestion charging and are therefore highly sought after vehicles in areas such as London, where congestion-charging policies
are in place.
The future presents an image of vehicles that rely less on a diminishing supply of fossil fuels and more on clean energy choices –
such as a cleaner energy mix for electricity, clean efficient hydrogen fuel cells, and even hydrogen internal combustion engines.

Added to a growing mix of taxis and buses running on cleaner energy technologies [13–16] the near- to mid-term future looks much
like the present day, only with cleaner air and fewer harmful emissions from transportation applications (Table 1).
Hydrogen energy can contribute significantly to the future energy mix due to its versatility. Not only can hydrogen be produced
from fossil fuel feedstocks, it can also be produced from renewable energy resources and nuclear power. The production of hydrogen
in any of these ways provides many benefits, including the ability to store intermittent energy (e.g., from wind or PV) for use when
demand outstrips supply, or in another application (such as transport) or another location. This solution affords greater options for
producing energy using renewable resources and providing this energy in many usable forms in the growing cities, providing clean
stationary power as well as transport fuel.
Producing hydrogen from fossil fuels makes sense when and where the fossil fuels are abundant, providing energy to the end
user without the carbon. Large-scale power plants, therefore, could sequester the carbon, and provide power as electricity, gaseous
hydrogen, or even liquid hydrogen if desired. The ability of large-scale power plants to provide energy in these three forms opens
new markets and delivers clean, reliable power.
It is important to understand that hydrogen energy will be used alongside many other forms of energy and enhance the overall
efficiency of delivering clean fuel for a variety of applications. How hydrogen will be used in the future depends on the specific needs
of the community. This chapter will describe many anticipated needs and how hydrogen can play a role in addressing those needs.
Today, there are many pre-commercial and early market applications of technologies that are critical on the path to a future
energy mix that do not rely on imported fossil fuels, and which contribute to carbon-reduction targets and allow communities to
make the most of the energy resources available to them. We will explore a number of these technologies and discuss their roles in
the transition to a low-carbon energy future where hydrogen energy plays a dominant role alongside clean electricity.
And finally, the chapter will describe the future applications of hydrogen energy with respect to the projected energy supply
needs.

Comprehensive Renewable Energy, Volume 4

doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-087872-0.00403-0

351


352


Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

Table 1

Projected increases in world population
United States Census
Bureau (2009) a

2010
2020
2030
2040
2050

6 830 586 985
7 557 514 266
8 202 205 367
8 748 743 446
9 202 458 484

Population Reference
Bureau (1973–2008) b

UN Department of Economic
and Social Affairs (2008) c

9 352 000 000

6 908 688 000

7 674 833 000
8 308 895 000
8 801 196 000
9 149 984 000

4.14.2 Why Hydrogen?
Let us begin by discussing the reasons why hydrogen is of interest. There are many, and in reviewing the key policy drivers for
hydrogen energy in a number of countries, The author has selected the predominant drivers that tend to appear in National policy
documents more often than not: Security of Energy Supply, Greenhouse Gases/Climate Change, and Air Pollution/Environmental
(United Kingdom Hydrogen Association [17], U.S. Department of Energy [18], Canadian Hydrogen Association [19], European
Comission [20], Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, India [21]).
By their nature, fossil fuels are used faster than they are produced. Although there continue to be significant resources discovered,
the cost of accessing these resources has to be balanced against the cost of obtaining energy from other resources. The issue is not one
of scarcity of supply of fossil fuels; it is more about the difficulties of increasing that capacity to keep pace with increasing demand
[22]. In addition, carbon-based fuels contribute greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. To ensure future supplies of fuel, and mitigate
potential damage to the environment from combustion of fossil fuels, there is a trend toward sustainable supplies of energy.
The World Commission on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as development that “meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [23].
In practical terms, resources that are used more quickly than they can be renewed and create environmental damage cannot meet
the requirement.
Therefore, although it is quite reasonable to expect that fossil fuels will continue to be a key part of our future energy mix, it is
also reasonable to expect a growing portion of this energy mix to come from low-carbon and diverse supplies, with a growing
emphasis on sustainability.
It is worth noting that indigenous, low-carbon energy supplies tend to be less dispatchable, or less capable of following demand
variations, than conventional technologies. Notable exceptions include large-scale hydroelectric and coal with precombustion
carbon capture and storage (CCS) [2] (Figure 1).
Therefore, a key risk associated with a decarbonized grid is supply variability resulting from the relatively poor dispatchability of
many low-carbon generators. This could result in increased difficulty in maintaining grid stability as low-carbon options are taken up.
Demand-side management (DSM) solutions are needed to ensure the necessary grid balancing. There are many DSM solutions
available, distinguished mainly by the storage timescales they provide. Batteries, flow cells, flywheels, and supercapacitors are

examples of short time-scale energy storage (less than a second to a few hours).
Electricity storage and pumped hydroelectric are examples of medium time-scale energy storage (hours to a few days).
It is important to recognize that the intermittent nature of many renewable energy technologies necessitates longer-term energy
storage (can be weeks or more). Hydrogen has a unique role to play in meeting these longer-term needs.
Hydrogen, like electricity, is an energy carrier, rather than an energy source. So, we are concerned with production, storage, and
use, as in the case of electricity. Assuming that the end products meet standard quality requirements, neither electricity nor hydrogen
retains any ‘memory’ of the feedstocks or methods used to produce it. Both are flexible that they can be produced from a variety of
feedstocks, providing energy in a usable form where and when it is needed. The societal movement to low-carbon options for energy
generation is compatible with both electricity and hydrogen; however with this shift comes new issues which must be addressed.
As renewable energy increases penetration in the energy supply, the need for longer-term storage becomes greater [24].
Generators such as conventional coal power plants, flexible combined cycle gas turbines, and open cycle gas turbine power
plants are low load-factor generators with a relatively low capital expenditure required.
Adding postcombustion CCS increases both the load factor and capital expenditure. One way this could be offset is to consider
precombustion CCS with open cycle gas turbine power plants. Precombustion CCS technologies are being developed. One leading
method currently being developed is a system called integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC), which involves generating
electricity from gas turbines as well as steam-powered ones [25]. This approach enables the sale of hydrogen for industrial uses as
well as a transport fuel.
As the energy supply becomes decarbonized and gas becomes more expensive, hydrogen from coal plus CCS or from electrolysis
becomes a viable option; and in fact becomes a very attractive option [26].
The point at which decarbonized hydrogen is competitive with conventional fossil fuel technologies depends on several factors –
including the price of carbon and the price of the fossil fuels. For example, when the CO2 value offsets the fuel conversion costs for a
given application, the use of CCS and hydrogen as an intermediary energy vector becomes competitive with natural gas for energy
generation.


Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

353

Changing energy markets

Energy security & climate change lead to

Drive towards indigenous, low-carbon and diverse supplies


Legend

Hydro

Allows
supply-side
management

High


These tend to be less ‘dispatchable’ (i.e., less capable of
following demand variations)

Open cycle gas turbine
(OCGT)

Geological, constrained resource
Geological, abundant resource

Coal with pre­
combustion CCS

Renewable, constrained resource


Medium

Combined cycle gas
turbine (CCGT)


Carbon intensity

Bio-energy (biomass,

biogas & biofuels)


Conventional coal

High
Coal with oxy-fueling or
post-combustion CCS

Requires
demand-side
management

Low

Dispatchability


Renewable, abundant resource


Low

CHP

Heat pumps

Nuclear fusion

Tidal

Nuclear fission

Solar (PV & thermal)
Wave
Wind

Low

Medium

High


Sustainability (Energy security + Low carbon intensity)

Figure 1 Dispatchability versus sustainability. Reproduced with permission from Gammon R (2010) Dispatchability versus Sustainability
Loughborough. Leicestershire, UK: Bryte-Energy Limited [2].

4.14.3 Hydrogen for Transport
There are currently many regions demonstrating hydrogen vehicles and refueling technologies. In September 2009, nine major

automotive manufacturers signed a letter of understanding to develop and launch fuel cell electric vehicles, with commercialization
anticipated in the 2015 timeframe [27].
Development of a hydrogen infrastructure for vehicles is well underway, with hydrogen stations across the world [28]. The
author has personally visited operating stations in California, Washington DC, Japan, Korea, the United Kingdom, and Germany.
The high energy density of hydrogen and rapid refueling times for hydrogen vehicles provide a distinct advantage to public charge
points for electric vehicles. In addition, home hydrogen refuelers are being developed which overcome the early difficulties of
deploying widescale infrastructure in advance of mass commercialization of vehicles [29] (Figure 2).
Research and development of hydrogen infrastructure is being conducted worldwide. The economics depend on a
number of factors including geographical location, hydrogen production techniques, storage technology and timeframe,
and distribution methods. Most cost-effective production techniques may vary as each region considers the resources
available to them.
Japan is intensely investigating options to provide sustainable stationary and transportation power to large cities and has
identified utilization rate as the key factor in making a hydrogen infrastructure economical [30].
Electrification of vehicle power trains is required to decarbonize transport. Batteries and hydrogen are two ways of achieving this
and all leading OEMs that have active programs in both areas. It is worth noting that commercial fuel cell vehicles under
development are hybrids, combining batteries, and fuel cells. The hybrid electric vehicle operates the fuel cell as an alternative
power unit to supply the power required by the vehicle, to recharge the batteries, and to power accessories such as the air conditioner
and heater. According to a US training module developed by the College of the Desert,
Hybrid electric cars can exceed the limited 100 mile (160 km) range-per-charge of most electric vehicles and have the potential to limit emissions to near
zero. A hybrid can achieve the cruising range and performance advantages of conventional vehicles with the low-noise, low-exhaust emissions, and
energy independence benefits of electric vehicles [31].


354

Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

2. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles introduction scenario
The densitiy of vehicles in the area


Initial market for fuel cell vehicles (Areas)
(Fleet vehicles in mega cities)

Passenger cars in of mega cities
(Yokohama, Kawasaki/Nagoya, Osaka)
Passenger cars in the central of Tokyo

Fleet vehicles in the central of Tokyo (Passenger car and light duty van)
T
a
r
g
e
t

(Passenger vechicles in mega
cities)

Passenger cars in of mega cities
(Yokohama, Kawasaki/Nagoya, Osaka)
Passenger cars in central Tokyo

2500 vehicles/km2
2000−3500
vehicles/km2
100−400
vehicles/km2

2500 vehicles/km2


2000−2500
vehicles/km2

(Passenger vehicles in
suburb of mega cities)
Passenger cars in suburb of mega citites

Vehicles
Number

1,000 vehicles
per year

1,000 vehicles
per year

500
vehicles/km2

Time

Figure 2 Honda solar hydrogen filling station in Torrence, California. Reproduced with permission from ENEA (2010) Vision of a Hydrogen/Electric
Energy Scenario. Rome, Italy: ENEA.

4.14.4 Stationary Power
Fuel cells that operate on hydrogen energy are available on the market today. They come in a variety of sizes for a variety of
applications. The solution is carefully matched with the problem that needs to be solved.
There is much more information on the variety of fuel cell technologies available today elsewhere in this volume. They are
mentioned here only to provide a brief context for a transition from the energy mix of today, to the energy mix of the future, where
hydrogen plays a more dominant role. It is anticipated the market penetration for stationary fuel cells will continue to grow, as

hydrogen becomes more widely available.


Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

355

4.14.5 The Efficiency Debate
Efficiency is a key issue that is often raised by those who believe hydrogen energy has no future. Some ask why we would convert
electricity to hydrogen, and then back to electricity. To answer this question, keep in mind that efficiency must not be considered in
isolation of the needs of society. In addition, consideration must be given to efficiency gains of capturing energy that would
otherwise be lost in order to gain a more complete picture.
How, for example, does one measure the efficiency of a system that allows you to capture renewable energy that otherwise would
have not been captured? Rather than turning some wind turbines off at night when supply outstrips demand, the turbines can be
allowed to operate fully, thereby increasing the utilization rate of the wind energy system. Wind power that cannot be used for
stationary power or exported to the grid could be used in power electrolyzers to produce hydrogen. This hydrogen could then be
used in stationary or transport applications where and when needed. Thus, although there will undoubtedly be efficiency losses in
each step of transfer or conversion, you are starting with a resource that was not going to be used at all. Therefore, even if you achieve
a system efficiency of 45%, for example, does it make sense to imply you are somehow ‘losing’ 55% of the energy when your starting
position was to lose 100% by switching off the wind turbines?
Even so, if we want to simply look at the efficiency of the stack and the electrolyzer system, recent progress reports show
electrolyzer stack efficiencies between the low seventies and the upper eighties, depending on the specific components and materials
used. System efficiencies, however, vary with the power of the system. Let us take sample data from recent research at NREL [32].
Looking at a 6.5 kW system at 135 A, a measured hydrogen flow of 1.05 Nm3 h−1, the reported High Heat Value system efficiency is
57.4 and the low heat value system efficiency is 48.5%.

4.14.5.1

A Holistic Approach


Hydrogen is meant to be considered holistically – throughout the energy chain. It complements electricity, allowing for useful
energy to be available in an appropriate form where and when it is needed. Both electricity and hydrogen will continue to be
important throughout the heat, electricity, and transport sectors; and both will continue to be produced in more sustainable,
environmentally friendly ways.
There have been many critics of hydrogen energy who point to narrow applications and show, correctly, that hydrogen may be
less efficient or more expensive than other technologies [33]. However, these critics fail to look at hydrogen’s role across the energy
spectrum, and therefore give any credit for hydrogen serving multiple needs simultaneously.
The following figure from AMEC depicts the potential complex role of hydrogen for providing the capacity, the flexibility, and
the sustainability of a future energy system across heat, electricity, and transport sectors (Figure 3):

GHG impact

Solids,
Coal

Fossil

Post & Oxy
combustion
Needs CCS

Primary resource

Distributed
heat

Poor

Electricity
applications


Responsive

Demand
management

Plant
turndwown

Carbon or
syn gas

H2 pipe
or store

Fischer­
Tropsch

Pre
combustion

Post & Oxy
combustion

Gas

Poor,
unless
no CCS


Additional
process

Transport

Liquid fuelICE

Liquid fuelAviation

Good
response
Other
chemicals &
products

Pre
combustion

H2 ICE

Oil

Biomass

1st
generation
impacting
land use
2nd
generation

careful land
use

Not
sustainable

Good

Good
response

H2 pipe
or store
H2 Fuel cell

Not
sustainable

Additional
benefits
with CCS

Good only
if small
scale

Responsive

Renewables


Good

Poor

Base loads

Nuclear (#)

Good

Poor

Good

Smart
electrolysis

Residual
needs use
fossil fuels

Time shift
loads

(# Higher temperature reactors will be able to directly produce hydrogen-this benefit is not shown here)

Electrical
storage

Batteries


AMEC October 2010

Figure 3 A holistic approach for hydrogen. Reproduced with permission from ITM Power (2010) Hydrogen Powered Home. Sheffield, UK: ITM Power


356

Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

NREL [34] has shown That hydrogen can be produced at the wind site for prices ranging from $5.55 per kg in the near term to
$2.27 per kg in the long term. A research opportunity in this scenario is the elimination of redundant controls and power electronics
in a combined turbine/electrolysis system.
Hydrogen fuel cells can be used as a buffer for intermittent renewable resources.
There are examples of systems that use solar or wind turbines, coupled with electrolysis for hydrogen production. Renewable energy
resources are not distributed equally throughout the world, and require significant areas to deploy technologies to gather sizeable
amounts of energy. In order for these types of energy resources to become more practical, the energy needs to be easy to store,
transport, and use. Coupling renewable resources with hydrogen not only achieves this, but it also allows this stored energy to be used
as a sustainable transport fuel [35]. One such project is the Wind2H2 project in the United States, which links wind turbines and
photovoltaics to electrolyzers, which pass the renewably generated electricity through water to split it into hydrogen and oxygen. The
hydrogen can then be stored and used later to generate electricity from an internal combustion engine or a fuel cell (Figure 4)
The Wind2H2 project seeks to improve the system efficiency of producing hydrogen from renewable resources in quantities large
enough and at costs low enough to compete with traditional energy sources such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Some success has
already been achieved in optimizing power electronics [36].
Renewable electricity, particularly which is above and beyond the demand for the direct electricity at the time and therefore would
not be captured, can be converted via electrolysis to produce hydrogen. This hydrogen can then be used to power the fuel cell during
peak demand. Critics will point to the fact that it is more efficient to use the renewable electricity directly – which is true when that is an
option. However, the nature of intermittent resources and transmission lines means that there will be times when the system is capable
of generating more electricity than is needed. Often, this results in some wind turbines being switched off, for example. The electricity
which could be generated by these turbines could be used to electrolyze water to store hydrogen for those times when demand is

greater than can be supplied directly from the renewable resources. In a case like this, how does one characterize the efficiency? The
system is using energy which otherwise would not have been captured at all. The turbines are already in place.
The efficiency debate applies to all areas of hydrogen production, storage, and use. The same debate can be made of electricity,
but rarely is made, because we do not wish to burn coal in our homes to heat water or power our television or computers. Both
hydrogen and electricity are used in a form which is clean and quiet easy to use where and when it is needed. Electricity provides
electrons, and hydrogen can provide electrons with gaseous or liquid storage. Yes, it takes energy to provide any of these. As society
moves to more environmentally sustainable energy resources, the game becomes one of capturing more of this energy, not only how
efficiently we use but also what has been captured.
Consider the case of renewable resources where 50% of the available energy is captured, and that is used 80% efficiently versus
adding hydrogen storage to capture 80% of the available energy which may be used 50% efficiently. The current efficiency debate
focuses only on the efficiency of use after conversion losses; however these two scenarios actually are comparable. Now when 95%

10 kW
Photovoltaics

Excess gridcompatible
electricity

Bergey 10 kW
Wind turbine
AC–DC
Converter

ASCO
transfer
switch

NPS 100 kW Power
wind turbine converter


DC–DC
Converter

Utility grid
AC power

Proton energy
Proton energy
HOGEN 40RE (PEM) HOGEN 40RE (PEM)

Teledyne
HM-100
(Alkaline)

Hydrogen engine
center 60 kW genset

Hydrogen Output
H2 filling station

Hydrogen compression
and strorage
3,500 PSI
115 kg hydrogen
storage capacity

Figure 4 Overall Wind2H2 system diagram.


Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells


357

of the available energy is captured and used 60% efficiently, more overall energy is available for use. So in this case, the efficiency
debate needs to include the ability to capture the resource in the first place as well as the conversion losses prior to use.
Recall the need for long-term storage of intermittent renewable energy discussed previously. The addition of electrolysis and
hydrogen storage means that the renewable resource need not be turned off overnight or during other times of low demand.
Capturing and storing some of this energy for use when demand outstrips supply increases the energy output from the renewable
energy system, helps manage supply and demand issues, and creates a store of energy which can be used in a number of
applications, including fueling hydrogen vehicles. Farms that operate wind turbines may use the excess hydrogen to power farm
equipment, becoming more self-sustaining; or the excess hydrogen can be sold as a commodity. In fact, hydrogen opens new
markets for electricity to include fuel for vehicles.
Critics will point out that electricity can be used directly as a vehicle fuel in battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Yes, of course, this is
true. The difficulty has been in ensuring the capacity required to provide the electricity to the vehicle while maintaining capacity for
other uses. In the case of hydrogen, which can be delivered as a gas or liquid as well as electrons, there are simply more options.
When and where it is not convenient to deliver electrons to the vehicle, hydrogen can be delivered as a gas or liquid, reducing
refueling/recharging times and avoiding an additional demand on the electrical grid. In areas where there is no electrical grid or no
additional capacity, this is especially attractive.
One reason someone may want to suffer the efficiency losses in converting electricity to hydrogen, and then back to electricity,
may relate to intermittency of renewable energy. During the times when a photovoltaic system or wind turbine is capable of
producing more electricity than the user can use at the time, the surplus renewable power could be used to make surplus electricity.
If there is a need to store this electricity, one option for this is through hydrogen production by electrolysis. Although there are
efficiency losses in this conversion, we are starting with energy that was not usable. Any energy captured in this way is basically
bonus energy that would have been lost otherwise.
What is then done with this energy is a matter of individual needs and circumstances. Someone may choose to store the
hydrogen, and then run the hydrogen through a fuel cell to create electricity locally when the demand for the renewable electricity
exceeds the supply. In this way, more of the renewable energy is captured than can be used directly, and this helps resolve the
intermittency issues with renewable energy. Hydrogen is used as an energy storage mechanism for renewable resource.
Perhaps there is not a need to capture the energy for local use. Or perhaps the renewable energy system is capable of providing
more electricity than can be used locally, even accounting for intermittency issues. In this case, the excess energy could still be

converted to hydrogen, but now the hydrogen could be sold as a commodity, or used to power vehicles. The ability to gain revenue
from this energy as a vehicle fuel may be an attractive option.
The author believes the key to the future of hydrogen energy lies in its flexibility. No single production method is expected to
dominate the future of hydrogen production. Precombustion CCS, electrolysis, nuclear, bio-energy, and others all will likely have a
role to play. The flexibility in production methods provides greater flexibility in solving a broader array of energy issues than a single
production method would.
It is worthwhile to consider the broader energy picture to better understand why energy conversion is not the barrier that it may
seem to be at first glance.
Figure 5 depicts a vision of a future hydrogen/electric energy scenario. It shows the flexibility in generation described in this chapter,
and how the hydrogen, regardless of how it is produced, can be delivered as electricity, gas, or liquid for a variety of applications.
In this hydrogen vision, hydrogen is produced from all available feedstocks, including fossil fuel power plants that utilize
Carbon-Capture technologies. The hydrogen that is delivered to the filling station has no memory – it may have come from any of
the available feedstocks. Yet, it is delivered to the grid, fuel cell, or vehicle in a standardized form, ensuring a consistent, robust
hydrogen infrastructure throughout the world.
The concept of sustainable energy with hydrogen as a key component is one that is embraced all over the world [38]. Even in
countries where hydrogen demonstrations are not yet as prevalent as they are in North America, Germany, and Japan, we are seeing
promising advanced research results. Scientists at Korea’s S&P Energy Research Institute, for example, are working on chemical
processes for manufacturing hydrogen that can reduce the cost of producing hydrogen by 20–30 times [39]. And in the last 3 years,
India formed a hydrogen association [40] and installed its first hydrogen fuel-dispensing bunk [41]. In addition, the first hydrogen
highway opened in Norway in 2009 [42].

4.14.6 From Here to There
To appreciate the potential of hydrogen energy, it is important to understand from the beginning. The starting point for a transition
that includes abundant clean hydrogen is where we are today. Presently, there is a robust electricity network and fossil fuel
infrastructure. Electricity is made predominantly from coal and nuclear feedstocks, with a growing portion coming from a variety
of renewable energy technologies. Supporters for hydrogen energy point out that as power production in general moves away from
fossil fuels, the amount of hydrogen produced from clean resources will also grow. Renewable resources will become the
dominating energy source and renewable electricity will require new energy storage capacities [43]. In this way, the carbon footprint
of hydrogen tracks the carbon footprint of electricity.
Figure 6 shows a home scenario where the homeowner is using renewable energy for electricity and generating hydrogen gas for

home appliances as well as the family car.


358

Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

Hydropower

Thermal solar
Wind turbine
Biomass

PV plant
H2

Power generation
Plant

H2 production plant

H2
CO2
Fuel cell plant
Filling station

Natural gas

Depleted gas well


Deep saline acquifer

HYDROGEN
VISION

Figure 5 Vision of a hydrogen/electric energy scenario, used with permission from ENEA. Reproduced with permission from ENEA (2010) Vision of a
Hydrogen/Electric Energy Scenario. Rome, Italy: ENEA [37].

Figure 6 Hydrogen powered home used with permission from ITM Power. Reproduced with permission from ITM Power (2010) Hydrogen Powered
Home. Sheffield, UK: ITM Power [44].


Future Perspective on Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

359

In this scenario, hydrogen again plays the role of energy buffer with intermittent renewable resources. In addition, it allows for a
separate stream of gaseous energy, suitable for home appliances and vehicles.

4.14.7 Conclusions
Hydrogen will have an important role to play in decarbonized transport and electricity generation, as part of a mix that includes a
range of other technologies (e.g., biofuel, BEVs, renewable resources, nuclear, and fossil fuel with CCS) (Orion Innovations [45]).
A major decarbonization problem will be heat, in particular season peak loads. Such loads may benefit from hydrogen, which is
commercially more attractive over longer-term storage.
The use of hydrogen energy offers benefits (United Kingdom Hydrogen Association [17]) at the large scale, such as hydrogen from
precombustion CCS, off-peak and grid balancing of national grid electricity, storage and supply of low-carbon energy for heat, and
particularly transport applications, as well as at the small scale, such as community and distributed systems utilizing wind, tidal, wave,
photovoltaic, and other renewable resources with hydrogen fuel cell systems, standby and mobile, and auxiliary power, just to name a few.
Hydrogen can contribute by acting as an energy store to balance supply and demand, in a similar manner to batteries with
electricity but at a lower storage cost; and providing an energy storage medium or a transport fuel as a sidestream from

precombustion CCS power stations.
Hydrogen is available today from refinery gasifiers with a wide range of inputs, natural gas, biogas or waste, and electrolysis of
water at overall efficiencies ranging from 50% to 70%. The hydrogen can already be made in large centralized plants or in smaller
distributed units located close to refueling requirements.
Construction of a hydrogen infrastructure will follow demand, under normal commercial terms. However, like recharging
points, the first refueling stations do need deployment support.
Improvements in utilization of renewable resources and hydrogen, as well as in system efficiencies will make these technologies
commercially attractive over a wider range of applications.
Electrolytic hydrogen is an embedded solution and will track the carbon footprint of the grid and the adoption of embedded and
off-grid renewable resources.

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Further Reading
[1] Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association. Renewable hydrogen production using electrolysis. />20Production%20Using%20Electrolysis_NEW.pdf (accessed 19 October 2011).
[2] Renewable Energy Policy Project (2002) Hydrogen and fuel cells. REPP. (accessed 29 October 2010).
[3] National hydrogen energy roadmap: Toward a more secure and cleaner energy future for America, US Department of Energy, November 2002.
[4] The hydrogen commercialization plan. National Hydrogen Association, 1996.
[5] European Comission (2008) HyWays: The European Hydrogen Roadmap. Brussels, Belgium: European Commission.
[6] A portfolio of power-trains for Europe: A fact-based analysis – The role of battery electric vehicles, plug-in hybrids and fuel cell electric vehicle.
[7] International Energy Agency (2007) Building the hydrogen economy: Enabling infrastructure development -Part II: Sharing the European vision, 10–12 July 2007, Paris, France:
International Energy Agency.