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Introduction
to Governmental and
Not-for-Profit
Accounting


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Seventh Edition

Introduction
to Governmental and
Not-for-Profit
Accounting
Martin Ives
New York University (retired)

Terry K. Patton
Midwestern State University

Suesan R. Patton
UHY LLP

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ives, Martin.
Introduction to governmental and not-for-profit accounting / Martin Ives, Terry Patton, Suesan Patton.—7th ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Introduction to governmental and not-for-profit accounting / Martin Ives . . . [et al.]. 6th ed.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-277601-1
ISBN-10: 0-13-277601-4
1. Fund accounting. 2. Finance, Public—Accounting. 3. Nonprofit organizations—Accounting.
I. Patton, Terry K. II. Patton, Suesan R. III. Introduction to governmental and not-for-profit
accounting. IV. Title.
HF5681.F84R39 2013
6579.835—dc23
2012020546

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 10:
0-13-277601-4
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-277601-1


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BRIEF CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Governmental and Not-for-Profit Accounting Environment
and Characteristics 1

Chapter 2


The Use of Funds in Governmental Accounting

Chapter 3

Budgetary Considerations in Governmental
Accounting 58

Chapter 4

The Governmental Fund Accounting Cycle: An Introduction
to General and Special Revenue Funds 100

Chapter 5

The Governmental Fund Accounting Cycle: General and
Special Revenue Funds (Continued) 127

Chapter 6

The Governmental Fund Accounting Cycle: Capital Projects
Funds, Debt Service Funds, and Permanent Funds 182

Chapter 7

The Governmental Fund Accounting Cycle: ProprietaryType Funds 228

Chapter 8

The Governmental Fund Accounting Cycle: Fiduciary
Funds 264


Chapter 9

Reporting Principles and Preparation of Fund Financial
Statements 308

Chapter 10 Government-Wide Financial Statements

15

355

Chapter 11 Federal Government Accounting and Reporting
Chapter 12 Accounting for Not-for-Profit Organizations
Chapter 13 Accounting for Health Care Organizations

398

435
487

Chapter 14 Analysis of Financial Statements and Financial
Condition 535
Chapter 15 Fundamentals of Accounting
Index

574

617


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CONTENTS
Preface xiii
About the Authors

xvii

Chapter 1 GOVERNMENTAL AND NOT-FOR-PROFIT ACCOUNTING
ENVIRONMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS 1
Governmental and Not-for-Profit Organizations 2
The Operating Environment 3
Users and Uses of Accounting Information 6
Objectives of Financial Reporting 7
Distinctive Accounting and Financial Reporting Characteristics 8
Accounting Principles and Standards 10
Organization of Textbook 12
Review Questions 13
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 13
Exercises 14

Chapter 2 THE USE OF FUNDS IN GOVERNMENTAL

ACCOUNTING 15
Fund Accounting 18
Measurement Focus and Basis of Accounting 21
Governmental-Type Funds 27
Proprietary-Type Funds 36
Fiduciary-Type Funds 43
Review Questions 46
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 46
Exercises 47
Problems 50

Chapter 3 BUDGETARY CONSIDERATIONS IN GOVERNMENTAL
ACCOUNTING 58
Budget Laws 60
Budgetary Types and Approaches 60
The Budget Process 63
Service Efforts and Accomplishments 70
Budgetary Review 70
The Budget Document 73
Legislative Consideration and Adoption of the Budget 73
Property Tax Levy 75
Using Budgetary Information 76
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Contents


Classifying Revenues and Expenditures 78
Budgetary Accounting 81
Other Aspects of Budgetary Accounting 88
Review Questions 91
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 91
Exercises 92
Problems 95

Chapter 4 THE GOVERNMENTAL FUND ACCOUNTING CYCLE:
AN INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL AND SPECIAL
REVENUE FUNDS 100
Background 101
Basic Entries in General and Special Revenue Funds 104
Fund Financial Statements 111
Closing the Accounts 115
Control Accounts and Subsidiary Ledgers 116
Other Matters and Concluding Comments 117
Review Questions 118
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 118
Exercises 119
Problems 121

Chapter 5 THE GOVERNMENTAL FUND ACCOUNTING CYCLE:
GENERAL AND SPECIAL REVENUE
FUNDS (CONTINUED) 127
Recognition and Measurement—General Principles 129
Property Tax Revenues and Receivables 131
Sales Tax and Income Tax Revenues and Receivables 136
Intergovernmental Grants and Other Revenues 138
Expenditures and Fund Liabilities 141

Interfund Transactions 145
Other Accounting Matters 149
Fund Balance Presentation 151
Review of Year-end Financial Statements 155
Review Problem on the General Fund 156
Review Questions 169
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 169
Exercises 170
Problems 174
Summary Problem—Complete Accounting Cycle of General Fund 179


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Contents

Chapter 6 THE GOVERNMENTAL FUND ACCOUNTING CYCLE:
CAPITAL PROJECTS FUNDS, DEBT SERVICE FUNDS,
AND PERMANENT FUNDS 182
Measurement Focus and Basis of Accounting 185
Capital Projects Funds 185
Debt Service Funds 198
Leased Assets 207
Permanent Funds 209
Concluding Comment 211
Review Questions 213
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 213
Exercises 214
Problems 217
Summary Problem 225


Chapter 7 THE GOVERNMENTAL FUND ACCOUNTING CYCLE:
PROPRIETARY-TYPE FUNDS 228
Overview 229
Specific Aspects of Internal Service Funds 231
Specific Aspects of Enterprise Funds 240
Review Questions 252
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 252
Exercises 253
Problems 255
Summary Problem 262

Chapter 8 THE GOVERNMENTAL FUND ACCOUNTING CYCLE:
FIDUCIARY FUNDS 264
Overview of Employer Government Pension and
OPEB Accounting 266
Fiduciary-Type Funds: Pension Trust Funds 273
Fiduciary-Type Funds: Investment Trust Funds 283
Fiduciary-Type Funds: Private Purpose Trust Funds 289
Fiduciary-Type Funds: Agency Funds 293
Review Questions 297
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 298
Exercises 298
Problems 302
Summary Problems 305

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Contents

Chapter 9 REPORTING PRINCIPLES AND PREPARATION OF FUND
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 308
Financial Reporting Objectives and GASB Statement No. 34 310
The Financial Reporting Entity 312
Overview of the Comprehensive Annual Financial Report 317
Minimum External Financial Reporting Requirements 319
Preparing Management’s Discussion and Analysis 320
Preparing Fund Financial Statements: General 322
Preparing Fund Financial Statements for Governmental Funds 324
Preparing Fund Financial Statements for Proprietary Funds 329
Preparing Fund Financial Statements For Fiduciary Funds 330
Preparing Notes to the Financial Statements 331
Preparing Required Supplementary Information 333
Preparing the Statistical Section 337
Review Questions 339
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 340
Exercises 341
Problems 343
Continuing Problems 350

Chapter 10 GOVERNMENT-WIDE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

355

Focus and Format of Government-Wide Statements 357
Preparing Government-Wide Financial Statements 368
Creating Government-Wide Financial Statements From Fund Financial

Data: Comprehensive Illustration 374
Capital Assets, Including Infrastructure Assets 385
Review Questions 388
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 389
Exercises 389
Problems 393
Continuing Problems 396

Chapter 11 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTING
AND REPORTING 398
Background 399
The Federal Accounting and Financial Reporting Model 408
Recording Transactions and Events 414
Federal Agency Financial Reporting 422
Review Questions 428


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Discussion Scenarios and Issues 428
Exercises 428
Problems 432

Chapter 12 ACCOUNTING FOR NOT-FOR-PROFIT
ORGANIZATIONS 435
Characteristics of Not-For-Profit Organizations 437
Financial Reporting 438
Contributions Other Than Services and Collections 444
Contributed Services 452

Contributions to Collections 453
Investments and Split-Interest Agreements 455
Other Accounting Matters 458
Fund Accounting in NFPOs 461
Illustration Using Funds 462
Review Questions 470
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 470
Exercises 470
Problems 475
Appendix 12A Not-for-ProfIt Colleges and Universities 482
Financial Statements of Not-for-Profit Colleges
and Universities 482
Notes to the Financial Statements 485

Chapter 13 ACCOUNTING FOR HEALTH CARE
ORGANIZATIONS 487
Health Care Service Providers 489
Introduction to Hospital Accounting and Financial Reporting 489
Patient Service Revenues 492
Investment Income, Other Revenues, and Gains 497
Expenses 500
Other Transactions 502
Accounting for Transactions with Restrictions When
Using Funds 504
Financial Statements 510
Review Questions 520
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 520
Exercises 521
Problems 525


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Contents

Chapter 14 ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND FINANCIAL
CONDITION 535
Information Content of Financial Statements: A Financial Analysis
Perspective 537
An Approach to Financial Statement and Financial Condition
Analysis 539
Financial Statement and Financial Condition Analysis Indicators 541
Governmental Financial Condition Assessment 550
Illustration of Analysis of Governmental Financial Statements 553
Illustration of Analysis of Not-For-Profit Hospital Financial
Statements 559
Review Questions 565
Discussion Scenarios and Issues 565
Exercises 566
Problems 569

Chapter 15 FUNDAMENTALS OF ACCOUNTING

574

The Accounting Equation: Transaction Analysis 575
The Accrual Basis of Accounting 582

Recording Transactions: Debits and Credits 586
Financial Statements 599
Closing the Books 602
Other Transactions and Other Matters 604
Review Questions 607
Exercises 607
Problems 613
Index

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PREFACE
We have had extensive experience in teaching, in working at all three levels of government, in setting accounting standards, and in auditing financial statements. We know that accounting standards have become increasingly complex in an increasingly complex world. Therefore, we wrote this
basic-level text on governmental and not-for-profit financial accounting and reporting with one key
objective: to make it easy to read and understand. To accomplish this objective, we followed this
general approach: discuss the accounting principle, show the journal entry, provide an illustration.
Given that the text is designated as an “introduction” to the subject, we tried to cover the basic
accounting and financial reporting principles in as comprehensive a manner as possible. To keep
the text practical and of the “real world,” we enhanced the discussion of the principles with numerous illustrations drawn from financial reports prepared by actual governments and not-for-profit
organizations. We updated the material to cover the latest accounting standards issued by the standards-setting bodies. Finally, we designed the end-of-chapter questions, discussion scenarios, exercises, and problems specifically to help students better understand the material covered in the text.
This text is written for college students (both accounting and public administration majors)
and for practitioners. To permit use by different types of readers, its 15 chapters cover not only the
specialized financial accounting and reporting standards applicable to the governmental and notfor-profit sectors, but also the basic processes of business-type accounting. Those who have not had
a course in basic accounting or who need a brief refresher can start with Chapter 15 (Fundamentals
of Accounting) and draw selectively on the governmental, not-for-profit, health care, and financial
statement analysis chapters. Because of its flexibility, this text can be used by all of the following:
1. Accounting majors who wish to learn the fundamentals of governmental and not-for-profit

accounting in either a full semester or less than a full semester
2. Public administration majors who have had no previous accounting training but who need
a basic understanding of general, governmental, not-for-profit, and health care accounting;
financial reporting; and financial statement analysis
3. Persons employed by governments and not-for-profit organizations, including the federal
government, health care entities, colleges and universities, and voluntary health and welfare organizations
4. Persons preparing for the Uniform Certified Public Accountant (CPA) examination, Certified Government Financial Manager (CGFM) examination, and civil service examinations
5. Persons who wish, on their own, to learn about the financial accounting and reporting
practices of governments and not-for-profit organizations

FEATURES OF THIS EDITION
Real Situations Illustrate the Application of Theory
To prepare for the practice of accounting, auditing, and financial management, students must be
able to visualize the application of accounting theory to real-world situations. In preparing this
seventh edition, we made a particular effort to increase the use of illustrations based on financial
statements issued by actual governments and not-for-profit organizations. For example,
1. Throughout the text we used the financial statements of Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania, a relatively small governmental entity outside Pittsburgh, to illustrate governmental transactions,
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xiv

Preface

events, use of funds, and financial reporting. Mt. Lebanon is small enough to allow students to readily visualize the transactions leading to its financial statements. To show how
financial statements are used in the real world, we added our own analysis of Mt. Lebanon’s
financial position in Chapter 14.
2. To supplement the data provided by Mt. Lebanon’s statements, we used the financial statements of many other entities, both governmental and not-for-profit. For example, we used
the notes to the financial statements of the American Museum of Natural History to illustrate accounting for collections held by museums; the financial statements of New York’s

Metropolitan Transportation Authority to illustrate how various types of subsidies are
reported by governmental enterprises; and the notes to Fordham University’s financial
statements to show how colleges and universities account for some of the more complex
contributions they receive.
3. To enliven the text, we significantly increased the special feature that we call Governmental (or Not-for-Profit) Accounting in Practice. For example, our detailed discussion of the
financial status of Social Security helps illustrate the extensive amount of detail provided
in the annual financial report prepared by the United States government; and our discussion of the procedures used by Charity Navigator to assess the financial performance
of not-for-profit entities helps illustrate the nature of the data provided in not-for-profit
financial statements.
Discussion of Modified Accrual Basis of Accounting Improved
Governmental accounting is taught after students have learned the theory of accrual accounting and the journal entries needed to record accrual-related transactions and events. Because
of this, some students have difficulty grasping both the concepts underlying the modified
accrual basis/financial resources measurement focus used in governmental-type funds and the
accounting and financial reporting implications. Therefore, we completely rewrote Chapter 5
for this edition.
Chapter 5 now contains extensive discussion of why modified accrual accounting is used,
the basic principles of modified accrual accounting, and—in a Governmental Accounting in
Practice illustration—a discussion of how financial statements prepared using modified accrual
accounting can mislead the unwary reader because modified accrual does not always measure the
economic substance of transactions and events. We believe our frank coverage of the subject—and
the classroom discussion it should engender—will help the student better understand it. Chapter 5
also includes more detailed discussion of the accounting entries needed to record transactions
and events under modified accrual accounting, a comprehensive end-of-chapter illustration that
covers the entire accounting and financial reporting cycle, and many new discussion scenarios,
exercises, and problems. We also rewrote Chapter 4 to better set the stage for the material covered
in later chapters.
Text Updated for New Accounting Standards
Keeping an accounting text up-to-date can be challenging because accounting standards-setters
are invariably working on new standards while the text is being written. This edition takes
account of all standards issued by the Governmental Accounting Standards Board through GASB

Statement No. 63 and even refers to several statements and concepts statements in progress while
the text was being written. Chapter 5 of the text was updated to incorporate the requirements of


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Preface

GASB Statement No. 54, which has had a major effect on fund balance reporting. All other chapters
were also updated to incorporate relevant new standards (and GASB Implementation Guides)
issued after the sixth edition of this text was prepared. We will keep instructors informed of relevant new standards through the Pearson web site.
Coverage of Other Types of Entities Expanded
Although most of this text (Chapters 2 through 10) is devoted to state and local government
accounting, we have continued to provide extensive coverage of the unique aspects of accounting
and financial reporting for the federal government and not-for-profit entities, including not-forprofit hospitals. We expanded Chapter 11 (federal government) to cite specific references to the
government’s Standard General Ledger. Exploring the citations included in this chapter will give
students greater insight into federal government finances; our new Federal Financial Reporting
in Practice provides an accounting perspective on the growth of the federal deficit.
We also added new illustrations to the material covered in the chapters on not-for-profit
organizations. All references to FASB standards and AICPA documents were changed to the
FASB’s new Accounting Standards Codification (ASC). Recognizing some of the more complex
financial instruments held by not-for-profit entities as a result of the contributions they receive,
we added a section on split-interest agreements.
Actual Financial Statements Analyzed
Accounting and public administration students need to understand not only how accounting
information is gathered and reported, but also how it is used. Therefore, we continued the chapter
on financial statement analysis (Chapter 14), which was included in previous editions. Our discussion of the principles of financial statement analysis is supplemented with our own analysis of a
real government (Mt. Lebanon) and a real hospital (unnamed). As a basis for analyzing the financial position of the hospital, we used “indicators” and “norms” taken from data on actual hospitals, available at various web sites. Our objective here was to provide the inquisitive student with
sufficient data to “do it yourself.”
Continuing Problems
This text has three “continuing problems” for instructors who like to reinforce the discussion of

accounting principles with problems that carry throughout the text. One problem, called Leisure
City, is designed to emphasize fund accounting. It starts at the end of Chapter 5 and covers fundlevel accounting and financial reporting in Chapters 5 through 8. The other two, called CoCo
City and Croton Village, also cover fund-level accounting transactions but are designed primarily
to emphasize fund-level and government-wide financial reporting. They are presented at the end
of Chapters 9 and 10 and are developed so that portions of each problem can be assigned, as
appropriate, with Chapters 2 through 10.
Ancillary Package
To assist instructors in the classroom, the solutions manual and test item file are available for
download by registered faculty at the Instructor Resource Center www.pearsonhighered.com.
Updates on new standards, prepared by the authors of this text, are also available at that site.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We sincerely appreciate the help of the many members of the professional community, students,
and faculty in preparing this edition and previous editions of this text. In particular, we thank the
following:
Joseph R. Razek and Gordon A. Hosch, who wrote the original text and who set the tone
for the content and presentation of the material in the subsequent editions. We have tried to continue on the path they set.
Those who assisted us in obtaining the financial statements and other material we used to
make governmental and not-for-profit accounting and financial reporting come alive. They are
Ms. Marcia Taylor, Assistant Manager of the Municipality of Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania, and a
member of the Governmental Accounting Standards Board, and Mr. John Lordan, Chief Financial Officer and Treasurer of Fordham University, New York. Marcia went beyond the call of duty
to answer the questions we raised to ensure that our many references to Mt. Lebanon’s financial

data were complete, accurate, and up-to-date.
Those who answered the questions we raised during the writing of this edition regarding
accounting standards and procedures. They include Mr. David Bean, Director of Research and
Technical Activities, and Mr. Kenneth Schermann, Senior Technical Advisor, of the Governmental Accounting Standards Board; and Ms. Wendy Comes, Executive Director, and Ms. Eileen
Parlow, Assistant Director, of the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board.
The people at Pearson, Donna Battista, Editor-in-Chief; Christina Rumbaugh, Editorial
Project Manager; Nancy Fenton, Senior Managing Editor; Clara Bartunek, Production Project
Manager.
Mr. Ives also thanks his wife, Eunice, whose encouragement in writing this text (and
reminding him when it was time to eat) helped make the project a joy. As new authors on the
book, Mr. and Mrs. Patton thank their coauthor, Mr. Ives, for his guidance and patience while
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Martin Ives, MBA, CPA (inactive), CGFM (retired), CIA, served for 16 years as Distinguished
Adjunct Professor of Public Administration at New York University’s Wagner Graduate School of
Public Service. Before entering the academic world, Mr. Ives was Vice Chair and Director of
Research of the Governmental Accounting Standards Board, First Deputy Comptroller of the
City of New York, Deputy Comptroller of the State of New York, and a member of the Federal
Accounting Standards Advisory Board.
In addition to this text, Mr. Ives is the author of the textbook Assessing Municipal Financial
Condition, coauthor of the textbook Government Performance Audit in Action, and coauthor of
Program Control and Audit and Financial Condition Analysis and Management. He has also written
chapters for books on auditing and municipal finance, has authored about 30 articles for the Journal of Government Financial Management, the Journal of Accountancy, the Internal Auditor, and
other professional journals, and has spoken to numerous professional and civic organizations.
Mr. Ives was founding president of the Albany chapter of the Institute of Internal Auditors,
president of the Capitol District Chapter of the American Society for Public Administration, and

a member of the founding board of the Association of Government Accountants’ Certified Government Financial Manager program. He has received many honors and awards, including the
Public Service Award (Fund for the City of New York); the Governor Charles Evans Hughes
Award (Capitol District chapter of the American Society for Public Administration); and the S.
Kenneth Howard Award (Association for Budgeting and Financial Management). He has also
been voted Adjunct of the Year by the students at NYU’s Wagner Graduate School.
Terry K. Patton, PhD, CPA, CGFM, is the Robert Madera Distinguished Professor of Accounting and Dean of the Dillard College of Business Administration at Midwestern State University in
Wichita Falls, Texas. He teaches governmental accounting, auditing, and accounting research and
communications. He received his Bachelor’s degree from Midwestern State University, a Master’s
degree from the University of North Texas, and a PhD from Texas Tech University.
Dr. Patton began his career in public accounting, where he audited local governments.
Later, he served as a Project Manager and as the Research Manager for the Governmental Accounting Standards Board. He has coauthored a governmental accounting book for practitioners,
Guide to Governmental Financial Reporting Model: Implementing GASBS No. 34, and another governmental accounting textbook published by Pearson Prentice Hall. He has published articles in
the Accounting Review, Accounting Horizons, the Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, and the
Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting, and Financial Management, among others. Dr. Patton
regularly speaks to accounting professionals on state and local governmental accounting topics.
Suesan R. Patton is the National Director of Quality Initiatives for UHY LLP in Dallas, Texas, as well
as the principal author of two PPC Thomson practitioner guides on governmental accounting
and financial reporting—Preparing Governmental Financial Statements under GASBS No. 34 and
Governmental Financial Statement Illustrations and Trends. Mrs. Patton also currently serves as a
member of the Association of Government Accountants Financial Management Standards Board
and as a reviewer for the Government Finance Officers Association’s Certificate of Excellence in
Financial Reporting Program.
Most of Mrs. Patton’s career has been spent in standards-setting, beginning as a Manager
with the American Institute of CPAs Accounting Standards Division and continuing with a
15-year stint with the Governmental Accounting Standards Board as a Senior Project Manager.
She received a Bachelor of Arts degree in English Literature with a Concentration in Accounting
from the University of Cincinnati.

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Chapter 1

Governmental and Not-for-Profit
Accounting Environment
and Characteristics

Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
Governmental and Not-for-Profit Organizations
The Operating Environment
Organizational Purposes
Sources of Revenue and Relationship with Stakeholders
Potential for Longevity
Role of the Budget and Legal Requirements
Users and Uses of Accounting Information
Objectives of Financial Reporting
State and Local Government Financial Reporting
Federal Government Financial Reporting
Not-for-Profit Organization Financial Reporting
Distinctive Accounting and Financial Reporting Characteristics
Use of Fund Accounting
Incorporation of Budgets into Accounting Systems

Measurement Focus and Basis of Accounting
Entity-Wide and Fund-Level Reporting
Financial Reporting of Restricted Resources
Accounting Principles and Standards
Establishing Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
Governmental Accounting in Practice: Establishing Standards in a Political Environment

Hierarchy of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
Organization of Textbook
Review Questions
Discussion Scenarios and Issues
Exercises

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2

Chapter 1 • Governmental and Not-for-Profit Accounting Environment and Characteristics

After completing this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
▪ Their distinguishing characteristics
▪ Their operating environment
▪ The needs of users of their accounting information
▪ The objectives of their financial reporting
▪ The distinctive characteristics of their accounting and financial reporting
▪ The jurisdiction of their accounting standards-setting bodies

T


he entities covered in this textbook—state and local governments, the federal government,
and not-for-profit organizations—represent a significant portion of our total economic
activity. Government consumption expenditures account for more than 20 percent of gross
domestic product, some $2.9 trillion of the $14.1 trillion of gross domestic product in 2009. But
consumption data alone do not measure total government expenditures because they exclude significant payments to individuals for Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid. When payments to
individuals are included, total state and local government current expenditures were more than $2.0
trillion, and total federal government outlays were nearly $3.0 trillion in 2008. To give you an idea of
the financial scope of not-for-profit entities, the Internal Revenue Service reports that the total
expenses of Internal Revenue Code 501(c)(3) organizations (religious, educational, charitable, scientific, and literary entities) were $1.3 trillion in 2007.
Why is governmental and not-for-profit accounting covered separately from business enterprise accounting? In fact, many aspects of governmental accounting and most aspects of not-forprofit accounting are no different from those of business enterprise accounting. Governments and
not-for-profit entities do have some unique transactions—governments are financed primarily by
taxes, and not-for-profit entities receive significant amounts of contributions. But the answer to the
question lies deeper than that. Governmental and not-for-profit entities operate in an environment
different from that of business enterprises, and the users of their accounting data have somewhat
different information needs. For example, the legally adopted budget plays a particularly significant
role in governmental financial activities. Legal restrictions and resource-provider restrictions on the
use of resources play a greater role in governmental and not-for-profit entities than in business
enterprises. As a result, both internal accounting systems and external financial reporting for governmental and not-for-profit entity users are designed to provide certain types of data that differ
from the data reported by business enterprises.
This chapter discusses the characteristics of governmental and not-for-profit entities, the
major differences between their environments and that of business enterprises, and the distinctive
accounting and financial reporting resulting from those differences. This chapter also describes
the accounting and financial reporting standards-setting process for governmental and not-forprofit entities.

GOVERNMENTAL AND NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
It is not always easy to distinguish among governmental, not-for-profit, and for-profit organizations.
The distinction lies less in the functions these entities perform than in the details of how the entities
are organized, governed, and financed. For example, hospitals may be for-profit, not-for-profit, or



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Chapter 1 • Governmental and Not-for-Profit Accounting Environment and Characteristics

governmental organizations. A hospital is not necessarily a governmental one just because it was
financed partly with tax-exempt debt issued by a governmental agency. An entity is not necessarily a
not-for-profit one just because it was created under a state’s not-for-profit corporation law.
Governmental entities include the following:
•
•
•
•
characteristics of
government
organizations

Federal government
General-purpose political subdivisions (such as states, counties, cities, and towns)
Special-purpose political subdivisions (such as school districts)
Public corporations and bodies corporate and politic (such as state-operated toll roads and
toll bridges)

Other organizations created by governments by statute or under not-for-profit corporation
laws are governmental if they possess one or more of the following characteristics: (1) their officers
are popularly elected, or a controlling majority of their governing body is appointed or approved by
governmental officials; (2) they possess the power to enact and enforce a tax levy; (3) they hold the
power to directly issue debt whose interest is exempt from federal taxation; or (4) they face the
potential that a government might dissolve them unilaterally and assume their assets and liabilities.1
characteristics
Not-for-profit organizations exhibit certain basic characteristics that distinguish them

of non-forfrom business enterprises. Not-for-profit entities (1) receive contributions of significant amounts
profit
of resources from resource providers who do not expect equivalent value in return; (2) operate
organizations
for purposes other than to provide goods and services at a profit; and (3) lack ownership interests
like those of a business enterprise.2 As a result, not-for-profit organizations may obtain contributions and grants not normally received by business enterprises. On the other hand, not-for-profit
organizations do not engage in ownership-type transactions, such as issuing stock and paying
dividends. Four broad categories of not-for-profit organizations are discussed in this text: voluntary health and welfare organizations, health care organizations, colleges and universities, and
other not-for-profit organizations.

THE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT
Governmental and not-for-profit organizations operate in a social, legal, and political environment different from the environment of for-profit business enterprises. As a result, users of governmental and not-for-profit financial statements have somewhat different needs than do users of
business enterprise financial statements. These environmental differences have caused accounting
standards-setters to develop accounting and financial reporting requirements for governmental
and not-for-profit entities that sometimes differ from requirements for business enterprises.
The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB), the accounting standards-setting
body for state and local governments, suggests that the major environmental differences between
governments and business enterprises relate to organizational purpose, sources of revenue,
potential for longevity, relationship with stakeholders, and role of the budget.3 Some of these

1

For further discussion, see American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, AICPA Audit and Accounting Guide,
Health Care Organizations (New York: AICPA, 2006), p. 2; and Martin Ives, “What Is a Government?” The Government
Accountants Journal (Spring 1994), pp. 25–33.
2
Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 4, “Objectives of Financial Reporting by Nonbusiness Organizations”
(Stamford, CT: Financial Accounting Standards Board, 1980), par. 6.
3
“Why Governmental Accounting and Financial Reporting Is—and Should Be—Different,” Governmental Accounting

Standards Board (2006).

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Chapter 1 • Governmental and Not-for-Profit Accounting Environment and Characteristics

factors apply as well to differences between the environments of not-for-profit entities and business enterprises. In the discussion that follows, we combine some of these factors and add another
to show their potential consequences for accounting and financial reporting.
Organizational Purposes
Business enterprises exist to enhance the wealth of their owners. Because income is quantifiable
and can be measured in monetary terms, business enterprise financial reporting focuses primarily
on earnings and its components. A corporation might be considered an attractive investment if
its revenues have exceeded its expenses consistently, and investors can look forward to continued
growth in the bottom line.
In sharp contrast, governmental and not-for-profit entities exist to provide services to
their constituents. They generally try to accumulate a reasonable surplus of financial resources
to cushion against economic contraction and to provide for emergency needs. But these entities do not operate to maximize inflows over outflows. Indeed, if a local government were to
accumulate large operating surpluses, many taxpayers would soon complain that they were
being overtaxed.
For governmental and not-for-profit organizations, reporting whether inflows exceeded
outflows is only part of the picture. The challenge to financial reporting lies also in demonstrating accountability for the resources entrusted to these organizations. When used in the broad
sense of the term, accountability embraces not only probity and legal compliance, but also efficiency in delivering services and effectiveness in accomplishing program results. The GASB
encourages state and local governments to report on outputs (including cost per unit of service)
and outcomes (program results) to supplement their annual financial reporting. The federal government already requires federal agencies to prepare an annual Performance and Accountability
Report, which encompasses both financial and performance reporting.
Sources of Revenue and Relationship with Stakeholders

Business enterprises derive virtually all their revenues from exchange transactions, generally
involving specific products or services, between willing buyers and sellers. Governments, on the
other hand, obtain most of their revenues from taxation—wherein taxpayers involuntarily transfer resources for a basket of services that may or may not bear a direct relationship to what the
taxpayer wants or needs. Many not-for-profit entities obtain significant resources from voluntary
donors who expect no product or service in exchange, but who are nevertheless concerned with
whether their donations are achieving their intended purposes.
Taxes and donations are unique to governmental and not-for-profit entities and hence
require special accounting standards appropriate to those transactions. Equally important, the
nature of taxes and donations creates relationships with the providers of those resources that
emphasize the accountability aspects of financial reporting, discussed in the preceding section.
Financial reporting for business enterprises means reporting to owners and lenders who
can divest themselves quickly of their investments if they choose to do so. Also, for business
enterprises, accountability to their customers is direct and immediate: A consumer who doesn’t
like the product or service simply will not buy it again. In contrast, taxpayers are unlikely to be
able to move from the jurisdictions where they reside as readily as investors can sell securities,
and taxpayers may not benefit directly from the services provided by the taxes they pay. Similarly,
donors often cannot see for themselves the results of their contributions. The need for and means


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Chapter 1 • Governmental and Not-for-Profit Accounting Environment and Characteristics

of demonstrating accountability take on added significance because of the nature of the relationship between these entities and their stakeholders.
Potential for Longevity
Business enterprises are at risk of going out of business for many reasons, such as global competition, emerging products, changing consumer tastes, inefficiencies, and recession. Not-for-profit
organizations face similar risks. Business enterprises may also go out of business by being bought
out by other enterprises. However, because of the power to tax and the nature of their services,
general-purpose governments rarely go out of business and are not bought and sold like business
enterprises.
As a result, governmental accounting standards-setters have tended to take a longer-term

perspective than their business enterprise counterparts in developing accounting measurements
for certain types of transactions. One notable difference concerns the standards for pensions and
other postemployment benefits.
Role of the Budget and Legal Requirements
Business enterprises are free to provide only those goods and services they believe will enhance
their profits. They usually cannot be required to provide goods and services against their will,
and if they cannot cope with the legal or social environment, they are free to leave the market.
Their spending decisions may or may not be subject to budgets, but if they are, the budgetary
amendment process is relatively simple. Commercial organizations also can borrow money when
convenient, subject only to requirements of lenders and investors.
Governmental entities, on the other hand, are required by law (constitution, charter, or
statute) to provide certain services. For example, most city charters provide for police and fire
protection. Managers cannot refuse to provide these services because of cost or because they
believe their residents do not deserve them. Indeed, local government managers often complain
about “unfunded mandates” from higher-level governments—requirements to perform specific
services without an equal amount of resources being provided.
Most of the resources obtained by governmental entities come from taxes, higher-level government grants, and borrowing. Some special-purpose governments, such as colleges and universities, also receive significant resources in the form of donor contributions. Spending decisions
made by the federal government, states, and general-purpose local governments are based on
budgets that have the force of law. Budgetary appropriations typically cannot be exceeded without specific legislative approval. Generally, resources provided by higher-level governments must
be used only for the specific purposes designated by those governments. Most governmental borrowings are constrained by law as to purpose, quantity, and timing. Amounts borrowed may be
subject to specific limits, such as value of real property in the jurisdiction. New bond issues may
require approval by the electorate or by a higher-level government.
Many not-for-profit organizations derive most of their resources from donor contributions, which may be subject to restrictions as to what they can be used for, when they can be used,
or whether they must be maintained in perpetuity. Recipient organizations are legally bound to
adhere to these donor restrictions.
Because of these factors, internal accounting for governmental and not-for-profit organizations generally focuses on the controls needed to ensure compliance with laws and donor restrictions. Accounting records and internal reports for governmental entities are designed to ensure

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Chapter 1 • Governmental and Not-for-Profit Accounting Environment and Characteristics

adherence to spending limitations contained in legally adopted budgets and other legal documents. Accounting records for not-for-profit entities are designed to ensure that purpose and
time restrictions imposed by donors are heeded. Further, external reports prepared by both governmental and not-for-profit entities are designed to inform users of the amount of available
resources that may be used without restriction for the general purposes of the entity as well as the
extent and nature of any restrictions.

USERS AND USES OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION
Persons both internal and external to entities use accounting information. It is important to
understand that internal users of information usually can specify the kinds of information they
need to fulfill their duties. Hence, accounting systems and most reports derived from those systems are designed primarily to meet the needs of internal users. For example, governmental managers need accounting information to keep day-to-day control over spending to ensure that
amounts authorized by the budget are not exceeded and that sufficient resources will be available
to cover the full year’s operations. Managers of not-for-profit entities need accounting data to
help keep expenses in line with budgets and within limitations imposed by donors and grantors.
Managers of both governmental and not-for-profit entities need to monitor the day-to-day availability of cash. Boards of trustees require reports derived from accounting systems to help them
perform their governance responsibilities.
In establishing financial reporting standards, however, accounting standards-setters
emphasize the needs of external users—those not directly involved in the operations of the
reporting entity—because they do not have ready access to the entity’s information. The major
external users of governmental and not-for-profit entity financial reports are resource providers,
oversight bodies, and service recipients. Resource providers include taxpayers, donors and potential donors, investors and potential investors, bond-rating agencies (which provide data to investors), and grant-providing organizations, such as higher-level governments and foundations.
External oversight bodies include higher-level governments and regulatory agencies. Service
recipients include citizen advocate groups. Because of the wide array of external users of financial
reporting, the statements and related notes that comprise external reporting are often referred to
as “general purpose” reporting.
Users of governmental and not-for-profit financial reporting might seek answers to the following types of questions:
• Does the entity have sufficient financial resources to provide a reasonable cushion against

near-term revenue shortfalls caused by economic contraction?
• What is the likelihood of the entity’s ability to pay its short-term and long-term financial
obligations?
• What is the entity’s ability to continue to provide a particular level of services?
• Does the entity use its resources consistent with budgetary limitations, donor restrictions,
and legal and regulatory requirements?
• Do restrictions on use of resources appear to be reducing flexibility in meeting program goals?
• Do financial data show evidence of inefficiency, such as excessive administrative and fundraising costs or slow collection of taxes receivable?
• Is there evidence of excessive financial risk taking?
External financial reporting by governmental and not-for-profit organizations provides information to help answer these questions.