VALUES, ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND WHAT
THAT MEANS FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE
BEHAVIOR IN VIETNAM
Duong Trong Hue* - Lukas Parker

- Linda Brennan

In tro d u ctio n
Concern for environmental issues has been increasingly salient in the public
agenda regarding sustainable development(Lima & Castro, 2005). Although no
common philosophy was agreed in the debates about sustainable development
because o f the different underlying world views in prioritizing policies and actions,
it was

often

conceptualized

as

a balanced

integration

between

economy,

environment and society(Giddings, Hopwood. & O'Brien, 2002). The recent
anomalous climate extremes and disasters were claimed to impede advancements in
sustainable development; hence making the connection between environment and

sustainable development even more salient (Hay & Mimura, 2010).
Similar toother developing countries, Vietnam is at a cross-road in terms o f
both development and sustainability. Vietnam has been growing at rapid rate and
with that comes various environmentally related 'growing pains',

including

infrastructure not meeting demand, traffic congestion, inefficient or lack o f waste
management mechanism, degradation o f water quality and air pollution due to
speedy industrialization. The

recent national report on V ietnam ’s environment

released by the Ministry o f Natural Resources and Environment (M NRE) in 2011
acknowledged these problems and suggested important implications for existing and
newly-launched strategies, laws and regulations in order to avert the degradation
path o f environment(Ministry o f Natural Resources & Environment, 2011). The
media at times reported environmental negligence incidences, mostly from private
or joint-ventured companies, including some high-profile cases such as the case o f
* Centre o f Communication and Design, RM1T University Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh City.
* Ph.D., Centre o f Communication and Design, RMIT University Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh City.
*** Prof., Centre o f Commerce and Management, RMIT University Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh City.
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VALUES, ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES.

Vedan (Thanh Nhat, 2009 ). In addition, reports o f cases overseas might also help to
hiehlieht and inject the environment issues into the public consciousness. As news
and reports increasingly exposed the link between environment and broader public

health concerns, quality o f life as well as concern for the planet in general, it is
possible that the change in environmental awareness and behaviours is taking place
toward a more positive end o f the continuum.
The purpose o f this studv is to provide a baseline indication o f general
public’s environmental attitudes with the aim o f providing the initial findings to
NGOs, public-health practitioners, social marketers, related governmental aeencies
and interested scholars delvina into the field of environment and social marketing.
The significance o f this study, in addition, lies in the fact that it concentrated on a
practical and day-to-day matter of the public-individuals and households’ practices
that are integrated in the triangle o f culture, market and sustainable development.
The outcomes o f this study are also expected to inform stakeholders of the
relationship between cultural belief and environmental behaviours.
Environmental Change in Vietnam
As pointed out by the governmental report (MNRE, 2011), the lack of
community participation in environmental

initiatives can

be detrimental to

government and civil society agencies’ efforts in promoting pro-environmental
ideas. Measures to engage and increase public participation in environmental
programs have been documented into two complementary ways, by focussing on
supply-side and/or demand-side responses. That is, social marketing and anti­
consumption efforts to decrease consumer demand allied with ‘upstream’ activities
designed to improve the environmental responsibility o f organisations (Brennan,
Binney, McCrohan, & Lancaster, 201 l).The supply side is often discussed in terms
o f the provision or availability o f environmental-sound solutions for day-to-day
activities. In Rothschild’s (1999) motivation-opportunity-ability framework, this is
the opportunity dimension. For instance, a functional and convenient public

transport alternatives to compete with private transport, providing ‘green’ product
alternatives in shops and supermarkets or shop assistants reducing numbers of free
shopping bags given to customers. Meanwhile, the demand-side focuses mostly on
informing and educating people to change their attitudes and make educated choices
about their day-to-day activities and purchases. In Rothschild's framework this is
commensurate with educating in order to increase motivation to behave.

Both

strategies work hand-in-hand to change consumers’ behaviour (Darnton, 2008;
Marshall & Biddle, 2001; Sniehotta, 2009).
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VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉU HỘI THẢO QUỐC TÉ LẦN THỨ TƯ

Table 1: the M-O-A Framework (adapted from Rothschild, 1999 pp 31)
MOTIVATION

No

YES

OPPORTUNITY

yes

no

Yes


No

ABILITY

1

2

"Ì

j

4

Yes

prone to
behave

unable to
behave

resistant to
behave

resistant to
behave

education


marketing

law

marketing
law

No

5

6

7

8

unable to
behave

unable to
behave

resistant to
behave

resistant to
behave


education

education

education

education

marketing

marketing

marketing

marketing

law

law

In order to understand the change o f public awareness and practices related to
environmental issues, and in the condition o f scarce empirical literature, it is
necessary to set up a baseline measuring level to record the longitudinal change
overtime.The literature to understand Vietnamese’s environmental attitude so far
has been based on the combination o f information from three main sources:
responsible governmental offices, news agencies’ reports and private companies
doing research on related environmental behaviours mostly in order to understand
their target markets.
Some desirable environmentally friendly behaviours undertaken by Vietnamese,
such as careful use o f energy and water, and reuse o f packaging such as bottles, jars

and plastic bass have been encouraged by responsible authorities and environmental
groups across the country(see for example: Mass
media also reports cases of grass-root level's awareness and practices that indicated
their participation into pro-environmental behaviours.
Some o f few studies regarding this topic in Vietnam were carried out byTaylor
Nelson Sofres (TNS), a market research company that has offices in Vietnam.
TNSsurvey about Vietnam environment in 2012 found that Vietnamese in general
believed that environmental pollution was a leading concern. An interesting
comparison was found in that they believe that the pollution was more likely to

154


VALUES, ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES.

deteriorate than the value o f the Vietnamese Dong, or the levels o f employment and
the cost o f living. This survey also showed that all age eroups were responsible for
this belief with young adults the least optimistic about the future o f the Vietnamese
environment (TNS, 2012). Another similar study from TNS in 2011 found that
Vietnamese felt that the five most important actions to protect the environment
were, in order o f importance: not littering, using less electricity or eas, separating
and recycling waste items, using fewer plastic ba2,s and using less water. This result
helped inform o f what environmental actions reflected the reported actions
undertaken by the respondents (2 0 1 1 ).
At the macro level, the government plays a major role in environmental
protection and rehabilitation although the past few years have witnessed the
increase o f civil society organizations participating in this area, particularly NGOs.
The data from the Vietnam NGO Resource Center showed that a significant number
o f NGOs focused their resources on environmental activities ranging from advocacy
to community-based programs. Apart from the NGOs, hierarchical mass

organizations such as the W om en’s Union, Youth Union and others have been
increasing their focus on promoting environmental awareness activities, such as
Green Summer (Mùa hè xanh), Scouts (Hướng đạo sinh). Recently, interesting
initiatives has been prompted by youths around the country such as the innovations
related to Earth Hour. Many commercial organizations have had organised
communities events to promote good environmental behaviour as part of their
corporate social responsibilities (CSR).
However, despite the above findings and development, the literature is very
scant in terms o f understanding the knowledge, attitude and practices o f people
regarding environment. Thus, it remains to be seen by and large whether the
activities mentioned as examples above are undertaken with a genuine regard for
the environment or simply due toother non-related reasons such as economic
necessity (saving cans to sell), or adherence to cultural values(frugality), etc.
Farmers, for instance, are known to reuse and recycling behaviour for efficient use
o f resources rather than for pro-environmental reasons. In other words, it is very
possible that these positive pro-environment behaviours embedded in the way
people live remains different from what scholars in environment would define as a
genuine concern for the environment. Behavioural economists and in some cases
social marketers would point to this as an opportunity: artificially increasing the
economic cost o f the ‘b a d ’ products, reduces the consumption o f the product and
hopefully makes ‘green’ alternatives more economically attractive. However, in
order to gain consumer-driven change communication and education is required to

155


VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉU HỘI THẢO QUỐC TÉ LẦN TH Ứ T ư

increase motivation. Apart from this, all supply and demand-side responses should
be supported with the requisite legislation, enforcement and advertising in order to

be successful (Brennan & Snitow, 2005; Snitow & Brennan, 2011).

L e g is la tio n

■*---------------------------- ►

E d u ca tio n

Figure I: T h e trip a rtite model of b ehavioural com pliance for effective
social m a rk e tin g cam paigns (Source: Snitow and B ren n an , 2011 pp. 387).
Overall, Vietnam has been already responding, to some extent, to these
environment-related issues. However, the attitude and behaviour relating to
environment remain hidden from empirical literature, which is crucial for both
theoretical understanding; and practical campaigns and policies promoting sustainable
development concentrating on environmental aspect. The understanding into the
public attitudes towards the environment has been achieved internationally based on
the scales created ecological scholars, which will be discussed in the following part.
The New Ecological P arad ig m
There have been a number o f scales that purport to measure attitudes towards
the environment, including: the Ecology scale (Maloney, Ward, & Braucht, Ỉ975),
the Environmental Concern Scale (Weigel & Weigel, 1978)and the New
Environment Paradigm(Riley E Dunlap, 2008; Riley E. Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978;
Riley E Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig, & Jones, 2000; Van Liere & Dunlap, 1981).
The New Environmental Paradigm scale is probably the most used
environmental attitudes measures(I”Iawcroft & Milfont, 2010). Whilst other scales
have become dated because o f their focus on specific environmental issues which
have become dated, the New Environment Paradigm has remained relevant because
it focuses on measuring general beliefs about the relationship between humans and
the environment (Hawcroft&Milfront, 2010).
The New Ecological Paradigm (NEP). the basis for this project, was created

by adding three more items to the original 12-point New Environment Paradigm
scale to give more balance to the scale, to incorporate a broader ecological


VALUES, ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES.

worldview to the scale and to update terminology (Riley E Dunlap, et al., 2000).
This revision is also more ‘balanced' than the original and the language and
terminology use is less dated (Hawcroft&Milfont, 2010). Although the New
Ecological Paradigm is an update o f the original New Environmental Paradigm, the
abbreviation o f both tends to be used interchangeably - NEP = NEP.
Both versions o f the scale have been used in hundreds o f countries (Dunlap,
2008; Hawcroft&Milfront, 2010), and have increasingly been employed in different
contexts within Asia, including some Vietnam’s neighbours, China (Chung & Poon,
1998, 2001)and Indonesia(Watson & Halse, 2005). To this day there has been no
widely circulated study using this scale in the Vietnamese context.
In addition to attitudes, values and social norms need to be understood
(Shalom H. Schwartz, 1992; S.H. Schwartz, 1994; Shalom H. Schwartz et al., 2001;
Thogersen & Olander, 2003). Thogersen(2004, 2006)and Thogersen and Olander
(2003) found limited evidence that environmentally friendly consumption patterns
spread through social groups; however, others have found that group norms are
powerful motivators for specific behaviors (Kallgren, Reno, & Cialdini, 2000;
Lapinski & Rimal, 2005; Nordlund & Garvill, 2002; Widegren, 1998). However,
while norms may be the impetus for action, according to Stern, Dietz and Kalhof
(1993), the value orientation o f the individual is potentially more important with
regards to propensity to pay more or perception o f the severity o f the threat to their
environment.
In light o f the discussion above, this study utilized the NEP scale to discover
the environmental attitude and value orientations o f Vietnamese based on the
following question:

RQ1: What is the relationship between Vietnamese cultural values and
their attitude towards environment?
Social Marketing and Environmental Change
The research using the new ecological paradigm provided meaningful
implications to not just scholars interested in learning about people’s environmental
attitude but also practitioners working in social marketing campaigns to promote
environmental change. In fact, environmental social marketing campaigns in several
countries throughout the world(Frame & Newton, 2007; McKenzie-Mohr, 2000;
Meneses & Palacio, 2007; Polonsky, Binney, & Hall, 2004) have used extensively
the empirical results from such studies to inform their campaigns. This section will
provide a brief discussion on social marketing and environmental change.

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VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉU HỘI THẢO QUÓC TÉ LÀN TH Ứ T ư

Both Kotler (1971) and Andreasen (2006) have defined social marketing as
similar to commercial marketing in most aspects except for the objectives o f the
marketers and their organizations in that they sought to change social behavior to
increase the quality o f life of the tareet groups and the society at large. Social
marketing activities have often been carried out based on the principles applied to
commercial marketing. This application has resulted in successful campaigns
changing people attitude and behaviors, especially in environmental areas (Altman
& Petkus, 1994; Frame & Newton, 2007; McKenzie-Mohr, 2000; Meneses &
Palacio, 2007; Polonsky, et al., 2004).
This success brought promises to the application o f social marketing in
providing Vietnamese people with environmental education, information and
communication campaigns that can change their attitude and behavior in a
sustainable way. One o f the areas that was reported by the recent national report on

Vietnam’s environment released by the Ministry o f Natural Resources and
Environment in 2011 was the lack of community participation. The report also
pointed out that in order to mobilize the public participation effectively, attention to
information dissemination initiatives must be particularly paid. It is in this very
point that social marketing comes into the discussion in order to help respond to the
need of increasing public participation.
Method
An online self-administered survey o f university students was undertaken in
Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City. The survey was conducted English, because the
student surveyed had high proficiency in the language, also it was to maintain the
reliability o f the scale. The NEP was used within the survey as were measurements
o f various environmentally friendly behaviours.
Furthermore, some o f Schwartz’s (1992) values were correlated with the NEP
scale. Schwartz’s (values were chosen to be correlated because they represent the
three universal requirements o f human existence: biological needs, social
interaction and demands o f group functioning (Shaỉom H. Schwartz, 1992; S.H.
Schwartz, 1994; Shalom H. Schwartz, et a l , 2001;

s. J. Schwartz et a l 2010).

Values can also help explain the attitudes and behaviour o f individuals, and the
characteristics and operation o f organisations, institutions and societies (de Mooij &
Hofstede, 2002; Hofstede, 1998).
The majority o f respondents, almost 87 percent, were from Ho Chi Minh City,
all others were residing in Ha Noi. Sixty point four percent o f the respondents were
female and 97.7 percent were 18 and 25 years o f age. It should be noted that the

158



VALUES, ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES.

survey undertaken only on students attending one private international university, so
it is likely a greater proportion o f the responses came from young adults who are
more likely to financially stable, have greater exposure to foreign teaching staff and
students and are probably more likely to speak English at a high level and therefore
more likely to be exposed to and convergent with environmental ideas covered in
English in the international media. These need to be taken into account when
reviewing the results.
Results

If things continue on their present course, we will
soon experience a m ajor ecological catastrophe
H um ans will eventually learn enough about how
nature works to be able to control it
The balance o f nature is very delicate and easily
upset
H um ans were m eant to rule over the rest o f nature
T he earth is like a spaceship with very limited
room and resources
The so-called “ecological crisis” facing
hum ankind has been greatly exaggerated
Despite our special abilities, hum ans are still
subject to the laws o f nature
The balance o f nature is strong enough to cope
with the im pacts o f m odem industrial nations
Plants and anim als have as m uch right as hum ans
to exist
The earth has plenty o f natural resources if we just
learn how to develop them

H um ans are severely abusing the environment
Human ingenuity will ensure that we do NOT
m ake the earth unlivable
W hen hum ans interfere with nature it often
produces disastrous consequences
Humans have the right to modify the natural
environm ent to suit their needs
We are approaching the lim it of the number of
people the earth can support
0% 10 20

30 40

50

60 70

■ Strongly Agree ■ 2 ■ 3 ■ 4 ■ % tf/6 ^ S tr^ íg ly ^ isa lÉ e e %

80 90 100
%

%

%

Figure 2: NEP Frequencies: The relationship between humans and
the environment
159



VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉU HỘI THẢO QUỐC TÉ LẦN TH Ử T ư

After the NEP scale items (see Figure 2) were summated to generate an index
score (O'Connor & Eskey, 2005)a Pearson product-moment correlation was
undertaken against six o f Schwartz’s (1992)values: achievement, benevolence,
conformity, hedonism, order and variety. These are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Correlation Table for selected Schwartz’s (1992) values and the NEP
Item
Item

1

1. VA L Benevolence

1.00

2. V A L Conform ity

.54**

1.00

3. V A L A chievem ent

44**

.35**


LOO

4. V A L H edonism

44* *

.36**

.35**

1.00

5. V A L Order

40**

.50**

38**

.18**

1.00

6. VA L Variety

32**

.21**


31 * *

.35**

.15*

1.00

7. N E P Sum m ated Scale

90**

.14*

24**

.14*

.21**

.25**

2

3

4

5


6

7

1.00

*p< .05, **p< .01

Discussion and conclusion
The items in the NEP (Figure 2) provide some understanding o f the level of
perceived urgency regarding the state o f the environment. A relatively large
proportion agree with the idea that an environmental catastrophe is about to occur;
with an equal number disagreeing with the statement that the crisis is exaggerated.
A generalised respect for the balance o f nature is indicated in the responses to
questions such as 'the balance o f nature is strong enough to c o p e ../ - with a
proportion indicating they did not think that the earth is able to cope with much
more strain.
An important insight is to be gained from the answer to the question regarding
the ability o f humans to control nature with no clear agree or disagree responses.
This indicates that young people are not necessarily optimistic about the future and
the potential for technological interventions to ‘save' them from ecological disaster.
This response is also echoed in the responses to the question regarding humans'
abuse of the environment and humans still being subject to the laws o f nature. To a
certain extent this may be a form o f ‘fatalism’, but it may also be that young people
are not feeling empowered when it comes to others addressing their environmental
concerns.
160


VALUES, ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES.


Additionally, the question regarding humans beine ‘meant to rule over nature’
is also equivocal in terms o f an indefinite response set - neither agree nor disagree.
Combined with the insight from the control question, it is feasible that this is about
a perceived ‘right’ to rule nature. That is, they may not feel as if humans have the
right to rule nature. This ambivalence misht be a result o f the current flux and
negotiation between

modernization and some deeply held social values in

Vietnamese communities where nature is believed to order things by itself in a
proper and harmonious way that surpasses any human intervention in its course
(Jamieson, 1993). This would be worthy o f exploration in future research.
The final form o f analysis was testing the relationships between values and the
NEP. As Table 1 illustrates, there are significant correlations between the NEP and
all o f the values indicating a ranse o f relationships between environmental attitudes
and values. The highest correlations are between the NEP and Achievement,
Variety and Order. Interestingly, the values o f Conformity and Hedonism, while
statistically significant, are relatively lower. Thus, it is clear that young people in
Vietnam are considerate o f the environmental issues that surround them on a daily
basis but the may not be willing to trade off pleasure (hedonism) or self-expression
by way o f conforming to social expectations (conformity). This, too, requires some
future research attention. The apparent inconsistency between an urgent and present
environment crisis and the correlations between some o f the values runs counter to
extant research in the field (see the literature review).
For social marketers, there are many opportunities that present themselves as a
result o f this data. Firstly, youns people in Vietnam are clearly concerned with the
environment. Thus the first platform o f the M-O-A framework is achieved motivation. This, at least, means that these young people are operating in the YES
side o f the M OA grid. Social advertising and empowerment for behavioural change
is therefore a viable social marketing option. Upstream marketing is also an option,

especially in those locations where there may be no self-perceived ability to act.
The tri-partite model (Brennan and Snitow, 2005) also has potential to make a
contribution in this regard.
However, as Figure 2 suggests, opportunity remains problematic in a rapidly
developing country where youns people feel they may have limited control over
environmental issues. An ability to act must be accompanied by an opportunity.
This is where some impactful public policy initiatives might be useful. A proviso
here is that Rothschilds’ original model recommended law as a platform for change.
161


VIỆT NAM HỌC - KỶ YÉU HỘI THẢO QUÓC TẾ LÀN THÚ T ư

However, as Brennan and Snitow have demonstrated, law in the absence o f a
mechanism for enforcement is actually rather pointless. It is the enforcement that
encourages behaviour change, not the law itself. Therefore, education plus
enforcement will be necessary in order for action to take place.

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