The Challenge of Globalization on the Traditions of Wameru (Varwa)
Society in Tanzania

Habtamu Alessandro Bais

A Thesis Submitted to
The Center for African and Oriental Studies

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Arts in African Studies
(African Intellectual History and Cultural Studies)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
June, 2017


ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
CENTER FOR AFRICAN AND ORIENTAL STUDIES

THE CHALLENGE OF GLOBALIZATION ON THE TRADITIONS OF
WAMERU (VARWA) SOCIETY IN TANZANIA

HABTAMU ALESSANDRO BAIS

A Thesis Submitted to the Center for African and Oriental Studies of Addis
Ababa University
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Masters of Arts in African Studies (Intellectual History and Cultural Studies)

ADVISOR

ZERIHUN BERHANE (PHD)

JUNE 2017


Globalization and Wameru Society

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to express my immeasurable gratitude to every person that I encountered and
shared my idea, because everyone helped and supported me with grateful kindness,
humanity and emphatic comprehension. I did my research putting on my shoulder all the
suggestions and counsels of everyone. It is for me a wonderful wage that I am happy to
carry on. I praise God. I thank my family for economic sustain and encouragement. I am
in credit to all staffs and students of Center for African and Oriental Studies and to my
advisor Assistant Professor Zerihun Berhane (PhD) for his valuable directions and
corrections. I claim the privilege of benefiting from cooperative learning with Tesfaye
Eba (Student of the Center). I express gratitude to Dr. Samuel Tefera for inspiring me to
do this research and to Dr. Getachew Kassa for priceless corrections and encouragement.
I thank also Dr. Solomon Hassen for his precious assistance in the phase of writing the
paper. In Arusha, I am in debt for the providential succor and comfort of ECHO. I give
special attention to all the people of Meru (Wameru); to the Chairman of the Varwa tribe,
to my hosting father Ndelekwa Yesaya Kaaya and my assistant Johova Roy Stephen
Kaaya. This research is approved by Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology
(COSTECH).

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Globalization and Wameru Society


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................. I
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... II
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... V
ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................... VI
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 3
1.3 Objectives of the Study ................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Description of the Study Area ....................................................................................... 6
Map 1.1: Map of Africa and Tanzania Plate 1.1: Mount Meru ...................................... 6
Fig. 1: Map of Arumeru District and Meru Villages ........................................................... 7
1.6 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 9
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1 Operational Definitions ............................................................................................ 10
2.2 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................11
2.2.1 The Concept of Globalization ...................................................................................11
2.2.2 Concept of Culture ................................................................................................... 15
2.2.3 Relation between Cultures ....................................................................................... 20
2.2.4 Relation amid Cultural Globalization and Indigenous Culture................................ 22
Chart 2.1: Conceptual Scheme of interaction amid globalization and local culture ......... 24
2.3 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 24
2.3.1 Hyperglobalizers or Globalist and Cultural Homogenization.................................. 25

2.3.2 Political Sceptics or Traditionalist and Cultural Heterogenization .......................... 26
2.3.3 Transformationalists and Cultural Hybridization..................................................... 30
2.4 Background of Wameru .............................................................................................. 31
2.4.1 Historical Background of Wameru .......................................................................... 31
2.4.2 Social and Economic Organization .......................................................................... 32
2.4.3 Political Organization .............................................................................................. 32
2.4.4 Patterns of Change in the Culture of Wameru ......................................................... 33
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 35
RESEARCH METHODS ................................................................................................. 35
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 35
3.2 Research Design.......................................................................................................... 36
3.2.1 Why Case Study? ..................................................................................................... 36
3.2.2 Description of the Study Area .................................................................................. 37
Map 1.1: Map of Africa and Tanzania Plate 1.1: Mount Meru .................................... 38
3.2.2.1 Wameru Society as a Case .................................................................................... 39
3.2.3 Why Globalization as a Problem?............................................................................ 40
3.3 Qualitative Data Collection......................................................................................... 41
3.3.1 Fieldwork ................................................................................................................. 42
3.3.2 Document Analysis .................................................................................................. 44
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Globalization and Wameru Society

3.3.3 Sampling Techniques ............................................................................................... 45
3.4 Data Analysis Strategy ................................................................................................ 45
3.4.1 Thematic Data Analysis ........................................................................................... 46
3.4.2 Procedure for Interpretation and Discussion of the Data ......................................... 46
Table 3.2: Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 47
3.5 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................ 48

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 49
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................................... 49
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 49
4.1- Effect of Globalization on Tangible Practices of Varwa Culture............................... 51
4.1.1 The Tangible Cultural Practices: Food Consumption, Clothing and Houses........... 51
4.1.2 Historical Pattern of Cultural Change among Varwa ............................................... 53
Plate 4.1: Traditional Varwa mud house with banana leaves roof .................................... 56
4.1.3 Cultural Relation in the Age of Globalization ......................................................... 58
Box 4.1: Case story of a Lecturer on Culture ................................................................... 59
Plate 4.2: Ngararumu (boiled maize and beans)
Plate 4.3: Loshoro (maize, banana
and milk) ........................................................................................................................... 60
Plate 4.4: Tengeru Market (imported shoes)
Plate 4.5: Tengeru Market
(imported clothes) ............................................................................................................. 62
4.2 Interpretation of the Challenges of the Current Globalization on the Traditions ....... 63
4.2.1 Utu in the History of Cultural Change ..................................................................... 64
4.2.2 Relation amid Globalization and Utu ...................................................................... 69
4.2.2.1 Globalization and Traditions in the View of Wameru Youths ............................... 70
4.2.2.2 Globalization and Traditions in the View of Varwa Elders ................................... 71
4.2.2.3 Globalization and Traditions in the View of Mangusha age group ...................... 73
4.3- Mechanisms for Cultural Preservation ...................................................................... 74
4.3.1 The Nature of Wameru Society ................................................................................ 75
Table 4.1: Varwa Leadership (past and present) ............................................................... 75
4.3.2 Mechanisms for Cultural Preservation based on Utu Philosophy ........................... 78
Box 4.3: Case Story of a University Professor ................................................................. 78
4.3.2.1 Age Set System (irika) Nature and Role ............................................................... 79
4.3.2.2 Corporal Punishment (sabini) Nature and Role .................................................... 80
4.3.2.3 Breaking Pot (chungu/ nungu) Nature and Role ................................................... 81
Photo 4.7: Mrinagringa, House of meetings of the Central Committee ........................... 83

CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 86
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................. 86
5.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 86
5.2.2 Traditional Philosophy and Mechanism of Cultural Preservation ........................... 89
5.2.3 Recapitulation of the Findings of the Study ............................................................ 90
5.3 Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 91
5.3.1 For the Next Researchers ......................................................................................... 91
5.3.3 For Tanzanian National and Local Governments .................................................... 91
5.3.4 Lessons for Others ................................................................................................... 92
5.3.5 For African Union .................................................................................................... 92
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 93

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Globalization and Wameru Society

List of Table and Box
Title

Page

Table 3.2: Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 45
Table 4.1: Varwa Leadership (past and present) ............................................................... 66

List of Figures
Map 1.1: Map of Africa and Tanzania

........................................................................ 6


Plate 1.1: Mount Meru ........................................................................................................ 6
Figure 1: Map of Arumeru District and Meru Villages ....................................................... 7
Chart 2.1: Conceptual Scheme of interaction amid globalization and local culture ......... 23
Box 4.1: Case story of a Lecturer in culture ..................................................................... 56
Plate 4.2: Ngararumu (boiled maize and beans)

57

Plate 4.3: Loshoro (maize, banana and milk)

57

Plate 4.4: Tengeru Market (imported shoes)

59

Plate 4.5: Tengeru Market (imported clothes)

59

Box 4.2: Case story from a tribe Leader (Chairman)........................................................ 68
Box 4.3: Case Story of a University Professor ................................................................. 75
Plate 4.6: Mringaringa (cordia abyssinica) Tree under Which all Wameru Assemble….77
Plate 4.7: Mrinagringa, House of meetings of the Central Committee ............................. 80

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Globalization and Wameru Society


ABSTRACT
The Challenge of Globalization on the Traditions of Wameru (Varwa) in Tanzania
Habtamu Alessandro Bais
Addis Ababa University, June 2017

This study is an attempt to explore the challenge of globalization on the indigenous
philosophy of Wameru (Varwa) society of Tanzania, by investigating the change in the
tangible cultural practices in food consumption, clothing and building house.
Globalization, with its forceful individualism, is a challenging phenomenon to the local
traditional societies, which are based on communalism. The objectives of the inquiry
relay on this issue. Firstly, it is to examine the actual effect of globalization on the local
practices and customs. Secondly, it is to explain that this visible outcome of the
globalization process goes farther by replacing the indigenous knowledge, values and
norms system. Finally, it is to analyze the assumption that if the society has not cultural
strategies and instruments to preserve itself then it would cease to be an authentic
historical civilization. The research is a qualitative exploratory case study. This method is
chosen because; the topic of the study is empirical, contemporary and active also in the
socio-cultural context. Within this design, the collected data fulfills and addresses the
objectives of the study. All findings are tied with the fact that Varwa have endogenous
mechanism to safeguard their cultural identity. There are some lessons that are important
for higher education institutions, local communities, national governments and African
continental institutions; therefore, the essence of the study is grounded on the fact that
globalization has a cultural dimension rooted on personal identity and it is dangerous to
the collective identity of the local culture.

Key Words: Globalization, Wameru, (Varwa), Ubuntu (Utu), Case Study, Tanzania

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Globalization and Wameru Society

ACRONYMS
AU

African Union

AMEC

African Mission Evangelical Church

COSTECH

Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology

DPMF

Development Policy Management Forum

ELCT

Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania, it is the English form of KKKT

IO

Instituto Oikos [Oikos Institute]

KKKT

Kanisa la Kiluteri Kristo Tanzania


UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Local Terms
Kiswahili

Kirwa

English

Chungu

Nungu

Breaking pot

Irika (light accent)

Funeral

Irika (strong accent)

Rika

Age set

Loshoro


Nswa

(Maize, banana, milk)

Mangi

Chief

Miseto/miraiye

Cloth
Ngararumu

(Maize and beans)

Numba
Sabini

House
Makumi arindaru

Seventy stroke

Shoonga

Food

Unumba

Marriage


Utandawazi

Globalization/development

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Globalization and Wameru Society

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Early in my study on African history and cultures, I was reading a book titled
'Philosophy from Africa' (Coetzee & Roux, 2002). I came in contact, for the first time,
with the word Ubuntu. It is a Bantu concept and it is expressed in the Zulu's proverb
"Umuntu Ngumuntu Ngabantu", which means that a person is a person through other
persons. It is associated with human dignity, equality, justice and solidarity (Gade, 2011;
Van Niekerk, 2013). The latter characteristic of Ubuntu, reminded me the childhood
experiences. When I was in Wello region, in the Ethiopia's Highlands, my grandfather's
house was old, therefore all adult males came together to destroy the old one and rebuilt a
new one. It was an outcome of communal work and life and expression of mutual aid.
Keeping this in mind, I decided to do research on Ubuntu. Reflecting on it,
sharing with others and by attending the course 'Anthropology in the African perspective',
I finally committed myself for an ethnographic research on a rural society that has the
Ubuntu philosophy. Another factor that encourage me was the concern that African
societies in general and rural communities in particular had only ―two choices:
disappearance –‗either through genocide, cultural erasure or assimilation‘–or adaptation,
through transformation in the form of hybridization and synthesis‖ (Leonhard &
Siphokazi, 2012, p.7). In other words, there is a general protest over the erosion of the

communal identity due to the increasing attention to the individual interest, rights and
freedom. The relation amid globalization idea of individualism and indigenous idea of
communalism is a current issue and concern for Africans.
African relations with the outside world, since Egyptian Empire, were
characterized by mutual exchange of cultural elements within the commercial and
political connections. In fact, as evidenced by Bayart and Ellis (2000) there were ―regular
patterns of trade with China, India, the Persian and the Mediterranean‖ (p.218). In the
same manner, there were a rich interconnection regarding language, usage and even
religious belief between Middle East, Northern and Eastern Africa. In the ancient time,
Africa was regarded even culturally equal to others and it had respect and fascination.
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Globalization and Wameru Society

Notwithstanding, the contemporary Africa is considered poor culturally, economically,
politically and inferior to the other continents.
Historically, there are several tentative of globalization, in a sense of uniforming
and governing the world under the same authority and cultural system. The Roman
Empire and the British Empire are the major historical examples. In the same manner,
globalization as a process had various stages. The current started in 1990s, after the end
of Cold War. It is founded on the capitalist idea of enrichment and liberalist idea of total
freedom or liberty. The combination of these two ideas created an aggressive
phenomenon that is affecting local society all over the world. There is a vivid debate
whereas the influence is positive or negative.
There are globalists, who favor globalization. Among them Wang (2007)
advocated the fact that globalization brought development and mutual enrichment among
cultures. On the other hand, the traditionalists protest the destructive effect of
globalization. They sustain that the local or indigenous culture are losing their means of
survival and it is imminent their extinction. The cultural alienation is something current

and actual, which also brings numerous social, environment and political problems.
The African current cultural reality is dominated and affected by globalization
phenomenon. Africa is pervaded by the individualism and Western supremacy. As stated
by Caracciolo and Mungai (2009) ―the obsessive Western focus on individualism and the
continued colonization of African indigenous peoples through the new forms of global
capitalism have served to diminish the importance of African collectivist humanism and
… communal way of life‖ (p. 10). Despite of that, in the case of Tanzania, the Western
infiltration is not that radical, because of the considerable transformations brought by
Nyerere with his party TANU during the formation of the new State.
The first President of the Country, changed the whole colonial system and
avoided the Western system of development basing the new one, called Ujamaa, on the
traditions as well as on self-reliance and self-organization philosophy (Nyerere, 1968;
Essack, 1971). Although the Ujamaa ideology failed in its implementation (Ibhawoh and
Dibua, 2003), its contribution is still present in the current Tanzanian social, political and
cultural environment. It is guaranteeing better education, peace, stability and hospital
service. This condition strengthens the social and cultural system making it stronger than
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Globalization and Wameru Society

many other African countries. Yet, globalization can affect the traditions of the rural
people, such as Wameru, who can be attracted by the new globalized tendencies.
In Northern Tanzania, in the Southern border of Arusha National Park, there is an
agriculturalist Bantu speaking population, who has the philosophy of Ubuntu. This idea is
near to the Ujamaa ideology. The community calls itself as Varwa1 but the Tanzanians
know it as Wameru, giving the name from the Mount Meru, because they occupied its
fertile slope for more than three hundred years. They reached East Africa, as the result of
Bantu migration (Holden, 2002; Grollemunda, 2015), which took place during the first
millennium C.E. Their departure was from the original homeland of the Bantu people, the

area on the border of modern Nigeria and Cameroon and by the Eighth Century; however,
their recent movement is from Usambara, South East Tanzania toward North to Mount
Meru, around four hundred years ago.
In the history of this society the cultural relation with outsiders such as Maasai,
Arusha, Europeans was characterized by taking new practices and ideas. Varwa replaced
and shaped part of their culture for the adaptation to the new condition and for survival
from a crisis and struggles. Nevertheless, they did not give up any fundamental value,
norm and practice. One of these core elements, which persisted throughout the time is
Utu (Ubuntu2) philosophy, which is currently challenged by the individualistic nature of
globalization.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Globalization is a ―multifaceted‖ phenomenon that influences peoples' day to day
activities (Giddens cited in Ibrahim, 2013, p.3). Africans are acquainted with it through
numerous means, which are connected with projects for economic development and
improvement of the peoples' life. Notwithstanding, globalization has a negative impact on
African indigenous cultures (Maduagwu, 1999; Kasongo, 2010; Ibrahim, 2013; Yankuzo,
2014; Yaboah, 2016), because it is replacing values and traditions (Petković, 2007).

1 In this paper Varwa and Wameru are used intechangeably, referring to the population of the study.
Wameru of Tanzania are not in any way related with the Meru of Kenya, except the fact that both are
Bantu speaking people (Pulitt, 1977).
2 Ubuntu is an Ngoni term meaning humanness or humanity. Utu is a Kiswahili term, with the same
meaning.

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Globalization and Wameru Society

Traditions are fundamental, specially, for peoples who live in the rural area, as they

are involved for identity formation, transmission of practices, values, norms and
knowledge, for preservation of the core philosophy of the culture and providing for
members of a society moral set for accountability (Ugbam, Chukwu & Ogbo, 2014, p.64;
Yaboah, 2016, p.8). Hence, the disappearance of traditions brings identity crisis, social
conflict and carelessness toward the community; moreover, a society risks of losing
principles such as conviviality, solidarity and humanness. These are synthetized by
Ubuntu philosophy, which is present almost in whole African continent, shaping the
livelihood of all Bantu speaking people (Khomba, 2011, p.128). It is also vital for the
whole human being community (Chimuka, 2015). It is essential because, the dominant
current reality is based on the personal identity and individualism; while the Ubuntu is
founded on the collective identity, enhancing sense of communalism, belongingness and
responsibility toward every human community and institution.
Individuals, historically and naturally, replace their tangible cultural practices to
express their personal identity. This phenomenon, per se, is not a concern, because it is
part of the dynamic nature of a culture (Erez & Gati, 2004). Notwithstanding, it has
drastic effect on the core aspects of a local traditional society, which is rooted on
collective identity. By this, the researcher means that when a person decides to substitute
his/her dressing, eating and housing pattern by following the new style brought by
globalization, they are abandoning even their traditional principles, values, norms and
wisdoms. Above all, the intangible cultural elements are transmitted to the next
generation by also tangible practices, therefore when there is a complete replacement of
customs there is also a risk for losing the identity of that culture (Ugbam et al., 2014).
When, a society has not a cultural identity and therefore aspects that differentiate
it among the others, then the society ceases to be an historical authentic civilization
(Wahab, Odunsi, & Ajiboye, 2012). It is well expressed by a popular Tanzanian proverb:
―Kila Mwacha Mila ni Mtumwa‖, meaning literally whoever forsakes his/her culture is a
slave (Mollel, May 2011). It is in a sense of becoming a property of another person or
culture. This study is meant to explore the risk of disappearance of cultural identity of a
particular society such as Wameru in interaction with globalization process.


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Globalization and Wameru Society

Regarding the literature on the issue, despite the fact that, the scholars extensively
wrote about the general effects of globalization on African cultures, there is little about a
specific country like Nigeria (Nwegbu, Eze & Asogw, 2011; Ugbam et al., 2014);
similarly on a particular ethnic group such as Maasai (Mollel, May 2011). Generally,
there is shortage of studies that empirically had probed the effect of globalization on the
traditions of a rural society, like Wameru of Tanzania.
The literature, concerning Varwa, is characterized by ethno-historical studies
(Moore & Puritt, 1977; Spear, 1997) and sociological study based on gender issue and
HIV/AIDS (Haram, 1999). Most of the investigations are primarily related with the
natural setting of Mount meru, therefore with land management and ecosystem
conservation (Carlsson, 2003; Ghiglieri, 2008; Nelson, 2009).
Being aware on the need for genuine understanding of African cultures (Yankuzo,
2014) and based upon the stated problem of absorption of local culture into globalization,
the researcher will explore, in the qualitative case study manner, the challenge of
globalization on the traditions of Wameru society.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
1.3.1 The general objective of the study
To explore the challenge of globalization on the intangible traditional heritage of Varwa
society, such as Ubuntu, by focusing on the change of tangible cultural practices, as well
on their endogenous mechanism of cultural preservation.
1.3.2 The Specific Objectives of the study
The study is in the effort to meet the following specific objectives:

* To examine the effect of globalization on the tangible elements of the Varwa
culture such as food consumption, dressing code and houses form.


* To explain the danger of the process of replacement of the tangible practices on
the intangible core aspects of the local culture, by focusing on Varwa's
interpretation of cultural change.

* To analyze the role of Utu philosophy in formulating a mechanism for
conservation of the Varwa cultural identity from the threat of globalization.
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Globalization and Wameru Society

1.5 Description of the Study Area
The research is a qualitative case study, which inquire into the Wameru society
traditions. Thereby, considering, the geographical setting of this community, it is in
Eastern Africa. Precisely, in Northern Tanzania, Arusha region, Arumeru District, Usa
River and Tengeru area, as respectively the capital town and the market town. On the
slope of Mount Meru there are several villages, but in the concern of the researcher are
Kimundoo, Akeri and Poli, for their centrality and historical importance.
Mount Meru is an active volcano and stand at an imposing height of 4,565 m. The
rainforests on its slopes provide a home to many species of animals and its distinctive
shape was created 8000 years ago, when a huge eruption blasted most of the eastern side
apart (IO3, 2011). The volcano is a fertile zone for agriculture. Indeed the dominant
group, called Varwa or Wameru, which means the people of Meru, practices traditional
agroecosystem based on the small-scale farming.

Map 1.1: Map of Africa and Tanzania

Plate 1.1: Mount Meru


Source: Countries and Their Cultures/Culture of Tanzania (Apr. 2017) Source: Field Research, Feb. 2017

The Mountain is located about 8-10 km from the city of Arusha. The site of the
study was in the center of Arumeru District and its boundaries are: north Arusha National
Park, on the south Arusha-Moshi road, the Nduruma River in the West and the Usa River3 Instituto Oikos [Oikos Institute], it is an Italian NGO research report. In this paper it is used in the
acronym IO.

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Globalization and Wameru Society

Momela road to the East (Carlsson, 2003, p.77). There are four principal rivers. They are
Nduruma, Malala, Tengeru and Makumira Rivers.

Fig. 1: Map of Arumeru District and Meru Villages
Source: (Larsson, 2001)4.

4

Larssson, R. (2001). Between Crisis and Opportunity: Livelihoods, Diversification and Inequality among
the Meru of Tanzania. Lund Dissertations in Sociology 41, p.30.

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Globalization and Wameru Society

1.6 Significance of the Study
This research is, at personal level, an experience of growth and acquaintance with

rural and folk cultures. It is the first of future series of ethnographic research in the
tentative to document the heritage of rural societies, in order to preserve the history of
that particular society. Above all, it is meant as a empirical evidence for the theoretical
debate on the effect of globalization on the indigenous African cultures. It is in the
aspiration of being part of the general movement of African cultural renaissance. The
study is, also, part of general project of conservation of cultural heritage of Wameru,
Waarusha and Maasai. It is in informal collaboration with the University of Tumahini
Makumira, Arusha.
The findings of the research can be useful for generalization on the relationship
between globalization and traditions in the Africa context. In general, the results can be
valuable, in suggestion for academic institutions, policy makers and for continental
institutions such AU Commission, which should deal, also with challenge of
globalization on local cultural heritages.

1.6 Organization of the Study

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Globalization and Wameru Society

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
Globalization is applied in the ordinary everyday conversations. It is used to
describe quite vast spectrum of situations that are connected with the current process of
unification of the world (Reich, 1998). Nonetheless, in the academic level the concept is
not extensively studied and so often it is not object of enquiry. There are several reasons,
but to mention some of them. In the first place, it indicates a multidimensional
phenomenon; therefore it is difficult to have an Omni-comprehensive and common

understanding of it. In the second place, as a consequence of the first, the process is fluid
and ever changing. It is like a snake transmuting itself continuously. In the third place, the
phenomenon does not change only in its form but also in its substance and with such
rapidity that it is difficult to have a perception of it.
Globalization is less enquired in the cultural context and in the relation to rural
and indigenous culture. Even though, it plays a fundamental role in shaping or in the
dramatic situation, also destroying entire societies. In one way or another every person in
this planet deals with global phenomenon in its various forms (Giddens, 2000).
Considering this fact, the purpose of this chapter is twofold: Firstly, it is to discuss the
various arguments on the issue to establish the ground to address the research problem
and objectives of the study, to facilitate the data collection and to assess the findings.
Secondly, it is to sketch the gap in the literature relevant to the study to fill partially, in it.
The chapter will be divided in two parts. In the first place, the section of
conceptual framework will be illustrated as a basis for discussion of the relevant literature
regarding the concept of globalization, culture and cultural change. The concepts such as
globalization, culture and change are all multidimensional; therefore they will be
analyzed only in their anthropological partial form and nature, which are suitable for the
study. Secondly, the theoretical framework will be involved in the form of three positions
on the cultural dimension of globalization. They are cultural convergence, differntialism
and hybridization.
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Globalization and Wameru Society

2.1.1 Operational Definitions
The study engages several concepts that are fundamental for exploration and
examination of the interaction amid globalization and local cultures. These terms, in this
section are shortly defined, in order to indicate the meaning on which the research is
grounded.

- Globalization: a multidimensional phenomenon that stands for progressive
interconnection and interdependence of societies, communities and peoples at the global
level (Grebosz & Hak, 2015).
- Cultural Globalization: is a phenomenon by which experiences of everyday life, as
influenced by the diffusion of commodities, ideas, meanings and values, reflects a
standardization and homogenization of the cultural expressions around the world.
- Change: It might have Celtic origin, but it is associated with the Latin word cambiare
and the Old French change. It means to make or to become different in substance entirely.
The other definition is the act or instance of making or becoming different, be altered or
modified. The meaning that is suitable for this research is the substitution of one practice
or value for another. It is involved in the cultural context.
- Culture: its origin is from Latin cultura 'growing, cultivation', which changed sense in
the early 16th cent. as 'cultivation (of the mind, faculties or manners)'. Generally, it is
defined as the customs, arts, social institutions and other manifestations of human
intellectual that are collectively accepted and shape attitudes, behavior. It represents the
achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group. In anthropology,
culture is a shared set of beliefs, customs, and ideas that held people together in
recognizable, self-identified groups. UNESCO (2009) defines culture as 'a series of
distinct features of a society or social group in terms of spiritual, material, intellectual or
emotional'.
- Local Culture: is commonly used to characterize the experience of everyday life in
specific, identifiable localities. It reflects ordinary people's feelings of appropriateness,
comfort, and correctness.
- Tradition: Etymologically it is from Latin traditio(n-) from tradere 'deliver, betray' or
from trans- 'across' + dare 'give' and old French tradicion. The transmission of long-

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Globalization and Wameru Society


established customs or beliefs from generation to generation by artistic or literary method
established by the society.
- Identity: It has origin in the Latin word identitas, which is associated with idem. It
indicates ‗quality of being identical‘. For the research, it is taken in its sense of being part
of something, associated with the social and cultural definition of the persona.
- Society: Etymologically, it is from Latin societas, socius 'companion'. In modern time,
it indicates the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community,
which is organized in a particular place and has shared customs, laws, and institutions.
- Ubuntu or Utu: It is a Bantu word, which is the combination of U ' I' and tu or buntu
'we, human beings' and it is a concept similar to others in different African societies such
as Rwanda 'Gacaca', Dinka 'Cieng', Somali 'Xeer'). It indicates also, in the Zulu tradition,
a quality that includes the essential human virtues; compassion and humanity (Tutu,
2000)
- Human Dignity: Its origin is from Latin dignitas, from dignus meaning 'worthy'. It is
the natural quality of being honored and respected, just because of being a human. In the
African perspective, it is the status of being a Man. The latter is expressed by the
statement ―the ultimate goal of a person, self, or human in the biological sense should be
to become a full person, a real self, or a genuine human being‖ (Metz, 2010, 83).
2.2 Conceptual Framework
2.2.1 The Concept of Globalization
Globalization is one of the most controversial and elusive term, which makes
complicate to do research on it. It is not a new phenomenon, rather historically, it was
well present but it was known by different names such as Empire, Colonialism,
Mercantilism, Neo-colonialism and Imperialism. Although several scholars tried to give a
definition to this concept, there is not a commonly accepted one. According to
Osterhammel and Petersson (2005) ―We can only speak to a very limited degree about …
globalization. The various processes summarized under the general rubric of
globalization do not always occur concurrently‖ (p.150).
Delineating its boundaries, firstly, in this study, it is not taken in its economic

sense of worldwide interconnection and interdependence (Wolf, 2004); secondly it is not
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considered what is called ―global culture‖ (Berger, 1997), which refers to the ideology of
one universal culture that is the Western one. In contrast to it the researcher put the
multiculturalist philosophy that emphasizes the equality and plurality of cultures. They
are part of the whole mankind community as effort for survival in every environment.
Although this debate is interesting, it is not again the concern of the research. In the third
place, Westernization or Americanization, neither the Mcdonaldization nor the influence
of Hollywood system are not taken in relevance by the researcher.
Overall, to explicit the intentions, globalization is taken as a holistic phenomenon
that is a sum of standardizations in every part of human activities and life experiences. In
fact, in this study, the current global phenomenon is considered in its cultural dimension
(Appadurai, 1996; Grebosz & Hak, 2015), with its transmission known as cultural
globalization. It is facilitated by the diffusion of idea, values and commodities; moreover,
it is examined its tendency for totally substitute the existing culture of a society.
Globalization's tendency seems toward homogenization but, it has the side defect
of heterogeneity, in the sense of fragmentation; therefore the question is not easily
intelligible. Notwithstanding, the study is focused on the interaction amid cultural
globalization and local or indigenous culture, taking Wameru (Varwa) society as a case in
the current reality, where people and culture are less tied to specific places and culture,
identity, and traditions are disrupted and reworked.
2.2.1.1 Globalization in the View of Scholars
Some scholars such as Giddens (cited in Ugbam et al., 2014) stated the fact that
globalization is often used without a clear and substantial definition (p.63); while Ibrahim
(2013) sustained that ―globalization means different things to different people‖ (p.86).
Beyond this affirmation, Scholte (cited in Ugbam et al.) suggested that any research

needs to address the concept itself with attention and having precise understanding (p.63).
Considering the above suggestion, then the suitable definition for this research is
what Ibrahim (2013) traced reporting on Giddens work. According to him, globalization
is ―multifaceted‖ phenomenon, which engages in all aspects of a society (p.87) and
multidimensional (Osterhammel & Petersson, 2005, p. 150; Grebosz and Hak, 2015). As

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well, Ugbam et al. (2014) proposed Fischer's description of globalization evidencing its
holistic nature in covering every aspect of collective and individual life (p.64).
Ritzer (2008) opined that ―Globalization is the spread of worldwide practices,
relations, consciousness, and organization of social life [...] that transforms people around
the world with some transformation being dramatic‖ (p.573). The latter one, is the
element which will be explored in this research, in a sense that globalization has a
dramatic impact on the cultures, further, it is strong in relation to the traditional cultures
which are not attractive as much as globalization.
2.2.1.2 Perspectives on Globalization
2.2.1.2.1 Global Perception
Globally, it is considered as a phenomenon that brings development to the
backward realities. It breaks their expensive and useless traditions. Although, some
suggest for instance that it is a radical process of integration among societies, becoming
interconnected and interdependent each other (Murat, 2009). In contrast, there is the
European localization, which is a tentative to preserve the privileges brought by
exponential economic growth and seeing the cultural and religious interconnection as
threat to their benefits and advantages.
According to right-wings European parties, the globalization process need to be
blocked therefore, they are fighting for localization. In this debate, Africans are not

present. They are still fighting with the collateral factors of globalization which is
presented as a way of development and improvement of peoples' lives, in a sense of
reducing poverty, to bring equality and so on. They understood that the challenges are
more than opportunities, despite that; it became to them a tunnel without exit. In Asians'
case, they see globalization challenging effect on language (Vaish, 2012) and in general
on the sociolinguistics structure of the local culture (Kroon, Blommaert & Jie, 2014).
While considering the phenomenon in interaction with the Latin American cultures it is
the cause of radical change in the traditional cultural system (Kuecker, 2011).
2.2.1.2.2 African Perception of Globalization
There is not such an African univocal perspective. Notwithstanding, considering
the Seventh annual conference of the Development Policy Management Forum (2002)
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definition of globalization: Its root is grounded on ―the compression of space and time, so
that people from distant areas are able and in fact obliged to interact with one another
intensively and in a wide range of areas‖ (p.12). The DPMF was focused on the
globalization challenge on democracy and economy in Africa; however the participants
evidenced the negative impact of globalization also in the cultural aspects. Regarding the
work of a specific scholar such as Nsibambi (2001), he defined globalization as ―a
process of advancement and increase in interaction among the world countries and
peoples facilitated by progressive technological changes … knowledge and skills, as well
as interfacing of Cultural values, systems and practices‖.Although the two interpretations
are similar and not far from what is expressed globally by non-African intellectuals, the
fact is that globalization has negative impact on African societies.
According to Jeremy (2004) (cited in Ugbam et al., 2014) globalization ―is
destructive to African culture‖ (p.65). As well, Ibrahim (2013) affirmed that because
African societies are neglecting their traditions that they have not a mutual exchange with

others in the independent environment (p.88). Going to the specific issue, there are
philosophies that are deeply embedded in the local culture, which are fundamental for
identity formation, therefore as suggested by Adedimeji (cited in Ugbam et al.) ―To be
removed from one‘s culture is to be deprived of one‘s identity‖ (p.64).

2.2.1.2.3 Tanzanian Perception
Though there is several writing in the African perspective and some in the Nigeria
perspective, there not works on the Tanzanian perception of the global phenomenon.
Formulating perception from the ground of observation, because of colonialism, there are
already Western elements in their culture, even in the giving names to the children. They
use both the English and the traditional one. In the music and in the entertainment sphere
is more evident the influence of the Afro-American hip hop style based on money, girls
and cars, sometimes grotesque house.
By observation it is clear that Tanzanian, have not such pride on their culture,
maybe because of their history of mixture and passage for human movement. Even
geographically, it confines with eight countries. It is the second one after Democratic
Republic of Congo, which is literally at the middle of Africa.Also in the case of Wameru,
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there is not literature. The reason for doing this research relays on this fact. There are
studies on the challenges of land conservation and management.
The ethnographic research is focused on their origin and relation with the
neighboring communities such as Waarusha, Chagga of Kilimanjaro and Maasai (Spear,
1997). Again, there is gap in the literature in regard to the interaction between
globalization and the local culture. Arusha it is an international and cosmopolitan city,
where is present the major group of international organization and a station for safaris.
Despite this centrality, the people who live around the city seem to live a discrete and

isolated life. It is curious the scarcity of the studies on this favorable and fertile ground.
This shows the need for an attention on the micro reality and the cultural aspect of it,
because it is an important passage for understanding the macro level of interaction among
globalization and tradition.
2.2.2 Concept of Culture
Culture is one of the terms that are used in ordinary discussions and
conversations, but without a comprehensible and univocal definition. In the popular
context, it has different meanings and can indicate numerous situations. Culture is a
habitude, a widely accepted form of expression such as music, art. It can be connected
with fashion, with social status and so on (Rapport & Overing, 2003, p.93).
In the academic context, there is collection of definitions (Spencer, 2012),
however the list is long to be considered. It takes different and wide aspects of
humankind therefore, it is almost impossible to do a synthesis without leaving some
element of its meanings. Starting from its etymology, it comes from the Latin word
cultura, which means growing, cultivation. Initially, it referred to the agricultural activity
of cultivation, but then after the Humanism and the Great Scientific Revolution of
sixteenth century, the 'act of cultivation' was intended to the mind of mankind.
After this conception, till today it is linked with the intellectual/mental
production, that is music, art or scientific model and mechanical constructions. According
to anthropologist, culture refers to the total way of life of any society, not simply to those
parts of this way which the society regards as higher or more desirable.
Considering various definitions of culture, there is a pattern that make simple to
refer to it. This is the domain, which is the mental production in the ground of social
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relation (Griswold, 2013). This element can be divided in two parts. The first one is the
immaterial production, which is spiritual, philosophical and in general theoretical

composition or elaboration, which can be expressed as ideas, knowledge and beliefs. The
second is the material one that indicates the physical construction, tangible works and in
general practices. In other words, when the ideas are realized and manifested in some
corporeal forms.
In this research culture is taken in its three fundamental features, which are its
domain, transmission and change. In the first place, the domain, as said above, is the
mental production. The presupposition is that any cultural production is the result of
mental activity (Lizardo, 2012). In the second place, the transmission process is called
tradition. In a sense that any cultural element need to be transmitted, for its survival,
from one generation to the other one, by different forms that can be oral or written.
In the third place, the cultural change is considered in the relation with other
civilizations and the environment. The concept is taken in its twofold senses of
amelioration and substitution. The first process is natural, gradual and it is based on the
need for adaptation to the environment or to overcome social challenges. The latter
process is artificial, radical and based on the abandonment of cultural elements because
of the threat for survival, attraction of the new or for the aggressiveness of the other
culture. The dimension of the concept that is applied in this research is the local or
indigenous culture, which is the heritage of a specific society and environment. In this
case is considered the Wameru society.

2.2.2.1 Domain of Culture
Culture is, in its broader sense, the full range of learned behavioral patterns,
knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, skills, and habits that are acquired by people
as members of a society. It is a holistic process and indivisible status.
Looking at this definition and examining the various components the mind is the
central element (Kockelman, 2010). Indeed behaviors, knowledge, belief, art, law,
morals, customs, skills and habits are all product of the mind activities. Therefore, in this
study mind is taken as generator of cultural features and the connector of these all by a
philosophical pattern.
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Concerning the last point, in the case of Bantu speaking people, they have the
philosophy of Ubuntu, better known through Zulu culture. Notwithstanding, it is present
in different forms and terms in other societies. In the context of Wameru (Varwa), they
call it Utu. Even though, the term is well known among Bantu speaking people, there is
not a univocal definition to it (Gade, 2011). Mainly, it has twofold meanings. In the first
place, it indicates the identity of every member as belonging to a community. In other
words, ―We affirm our humanity when we acknowledge that of others‖ (David, 2009).
Any person cannot define him/herself without referring to the community of membership.
In the second place, it expresses the ideal behavior, character or personality of the
member of the society. It indicates his completeness, gentleness, hospitality and
righteousness (Murithi, 2006).
Among scholars, the term is very famous, although academically it has not
importance. It is one of the traditional philosophies that is neglected but, it has
fundamental moral and normative features and values. Above all, it is essential to
develop, among the members of the community, the sense of duties and responsibilities
toward others, family and society. The major facts that it is a shared, learned and
patterned element, which is determine and fuse every mental production in one body, to
be accepted and practiced by all. In other worlds, culture is a set of philosophically
standardized mental fabrications (Shinobu & Ayse, 2011).

2.2.2.2 Transmission of Culture and Traditions
Considering the transmission of a culture, it is facilitated by the process of what is
called tradition. The latter one is not a clear and definite concept; however it is often
associated with the process of transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to
another one. This happens through education and by observation. Tradition has also
another meaning. It is one of the components of a culture (Spear, 1997). It describes

cultural element such as usage and customs.
In the case of change brought by globalization, what concern to this research it the
prospect of extinction of a culture. In a sense that the globalization attract mainly the
youth, who finding better entrainment and hope for better life in the cities and in the new
trends (Petković, 2007).
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