APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT IN VIETNAMESE HIGHER
EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY

Thach Ngoc Phan
B.A. (DTHU) Dip.Ed. (HCMUP) M.L.I (QUT)

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
Centre for Learning Innovation
Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology
June 2015
i


Keywords
Curriculum approaches, curriculum, curriculum development, EFL curriculum,
higher education curriculum, higher education in Vietnam, model of curriculum
development, case study

ii


Abstract
Vietnam has a long tradition of education: its first university, Văn Miếu, was
established nearly a thousand years ago. Since that time, the education system has
been shaped and reshaped by numerous influences related to history, culture, politics,
and management. Until recently, the management of university education in Vietnam
has been highly centralised. The Ministry of Education and Training has been
responsible, not only, for managing Vietnam's system of education and training, but

also, for developing curriculum and producing materials for teaching. Though
autonomy has recently been granted to universities, they have had very little
preparation for developing their own curriculum. A top-down management approach
of higher education curriculum has resulted in the reduction of academic freedom at
universities and colleges, limited participation and contribution by staff, and
exclusion of other stakeholders, for example, students and employers from the
process of curriculum development. Stakeholders' limited understandings of
curriculum development and a highly centralised management approach are
challenging higher education innovation in Vietnam.
While curriculum and curriculum development are well-researched topics in
Western literature, few studies have considered how curriculum is understood, how
higher education curriculum development has been shaped over time, and what
processes of curriculum development are employed in the Vietnamese context. This
research project examined approaches to curriculum development at a Vietnamese
university. For ethical reasons the name of the university has been withheld. It is
referred to throughout the thesis as the University. The study includes understandings
of curriculum held by the University's senior administrators, English as a Foreign
iii


Language (EFL) academics and EFL students, and the processes of curriculum
development at the University.
The research used a qualitative case study design to reveal the previously
unheard voices of senior administrators, EFL teachers and EFL students of the
University, to show a complete picture of how a curriculum is developed in that
particular context. Face-to face interviews were used for senior administrators, and
teaching staff, and focus group interviews for students. Thematic analysis was
employed to identify emerging themes from data.
The findings revealed participants’ understandings of higher education
curriculum and its development in the Vietnamese context, the processes of

curriculum development, and the dilemma the University is facing as a result of new
directives. Accordingly, understandings of curriculum are diverse and sometimes
conflicting among stakeholders interviewed, and the curriculum is developed in a
top-down hierarchical manner. Furthermore, more than one approach to curriculum
development was identified. The findings indicate some problems the University is
facing, for example, a mismatch between the traditional view of knowledge versus
the contemporary purposes of curriculum, recently-approved institutional autonomy
versus stakeholders' competencies, and innovative ideas versus traditional values.
To ensure all voices are raised and heard, and stakeholders of all levels have a
part in the process, this study proposes a participatory model for curriculum
development. Recommendations are made for effective practices of curriculum
development at different levels in the Vietnamese context.

iv


Table of Contents
Keywords ............................................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. iii
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................v
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................ix
List of Tables .........................................................................................................................................xi
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ xii
Statement of Original Authorship ....................................................................................................... xiii
Dedication ............................................................................................................................................xiv
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... xv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1

Specifying the Terms ...................................................................................................................2

1.1.1 Approaches to Curriculum Development .........................................................................2
1.1.2 Varied Understandings of Curriculum and Curriculum Development .............................3

1.2

Background ..................................................................................................................................5
1.2.1 Historical Features ............................................................................................................6
1.2.2 Higher Education in Vietnam ...........................................................................................7
1.2.3 Higher Education Curriculum Development in Vietnam..................................................8
1.2.4 From My Own Experience ............................................................................................. 11

1.3

Rationale .................................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.1 Issues and recent changes ............................................................................................... 12
1.3.2 Aims ............................................................................................................................... 13
1.3.3 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 13

1.4

Research Design......................................................................................................................... 14

1.5

Significance ............................................................................................................................... 14

1.6

Thesis Outline ............................................................................................................................ 15


CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 19
2.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 19

2.2

School Curriculum Theories ...................................................................................................... 20
2.2.1 Curriculum Theories and Their Propositions .................................................................. 20
2.2.2 Curriculum Theories Reviewed ...................................................................................... 22

2.3

Approaches to Curriculum Development ................................................................................... 28
2.3.1 What Is an Approach to Curriculum Development? ....................................................... 28
2.3.2 Approaches to Curriculum Development ....................................................................... 30
2.3.3 Curriculum Understandings ............................................................................................ 48
2.3.4 Dimensions of Curriculum ............................................................................................. 55
2.3.5 Curriculum Development ............................................................................................... 56

2.4

Empirically-based Curriculum Understandings in Higher Education ........................................ 64

2.5

Curriculum Development in Language Teaching ...................................................................... 71

2.6


Curriculum Development in the Non-Western Context ............................................................. 76

2.7

Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................................. 77

CHAPTER 3: THE VIETNAMESE CONTEXT............................................................................. 81
3.1

Historical Influences .................................................................................................................. 81
v


3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6

Feudalism and Chinese Domination ............................................................................... 82
French Colonialism ........................................................................................................ 83
Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the Indochina War .............................................. 85
The Vietnam - American War ........................................................................................ 86
Post War ......................................................................................................................... 88
The Doi Moi Period ........................................................................................................ 89

3.2

Cultural Influences ..................................................................................................................... 93

3.2.1 Buddhism........................................................................................................................ 93
3.2.2 Confucianism .................................................................................................................. 96

3.3

Managerial Issues .................................................................................................................... 100
3.3.1 Political Influences ....................................................................................................... 101
3.3.2 Higher Education Management .................................................................................... 102
3.3.3 Institutional Autonomy ................................................................................................. 104
3.3.4 The Purposes of Higher Education ............................................................................... 106
3.3.5 Curriculum and Curriculum Development ................................................................... 108

3.4

Summary .................................................................................................................................. 112

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................. 115
4.1

Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 115

4.2

Qualitative Paradigm ............................................................................................................... 116

4.3

Case Study ............................................................................................................................... 117
4.3.1 The Rationale for a Single Case Study ......................................................................... 118
4.3.2 Defining the Case and Selecting the Research Site ...................................................... 119

4.3.3 Participants ................................................................................................................... 121

4.4

Methods ................................................................................................................................... 123
4.4.1 Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 124
4.4.2 Validation of Interview Data ........................................................................................ 124
4.4.3 The Pilot Study ............................................................................................................. 125
4.4.4 Conducting the Interviews ............................................................................................ 127
4.4.5 Follow-up Interviews .................................................................................................... 131
4.4.6 Documents .................................................................................................................... 132
4.4.7 Data Analysis................................................................................................................ 133

4.5

Ensuring Rigour ....................................................................................................................... 147

4.6

Ethics ....................................................................................................................................... 151

4.7

Summary .................................................................................................................................. 153

CHAPTER 5: VIEWS ABOUT CURRICULUM .......................................................................... 155
5.1

Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 155


5.2

Group 1: Teachers.................................................................................................................... 155
5.2.1 Understandings of Curriculum ..................................................................................... 155
5.2.2 Purposes of Curriculum ................................................................................................ 168

5.3

Group 2: Administrators .......................................................................................................... 178
5.3.1 Understandings of Curriculum ..................................................................................... 178
5.3.2 Purposes of Curriculum ................................................................................................ 182

5.4

Group 3: Students .................................................................................................................... 187
5.4.1 Understandings of Curriculum ..................................................................................... 187
5.4.2 Purposes of Curriculum ................................................................................................ 192

5.5

Summary .................................................................................................................................. 197

CHAPTER 6: PROCESSES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ........................................ 199
6.1

Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 199

6.2

Group 1: Teachers.................................................................................................................... 199

6.2.1 Understandings of Curriculum Development ............................................................... 200

vi


6.2.2 The Process of Curriculum Development ..................................................................... 211
6.3

Group 2: Administrators .......................................................................................................... 226
6.3.1 Understandings of Curriculum Development ............................................................... 226
6.3.2 The Process of Curriculum Development ..................................................................... 229

6.4

Summary .................................................................................................................................. 237

CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................... 239
7.1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 239

7.2

Comparing and Contrasting among Three Groups .................................................................. 240
7.2.1 Diversity of Understandings of Curriculum ................................................................. 240
7.2.2 Diverse Purposes for Curriculum ................................................................................. 247
7.2.3 Roles of Curriculum Development ............................................................................... 249

7.3


Through the Lens of the Vietnamese Context .......................................................................... 252
7.3.1 Curriculum as Cultural Permeation .............................................................................. 252
7.3.2 Curriculum as a Social Manifestation ........................................................................... 257
7.3.3 Curriculum as a Reflection of History and Politics ...................................................... 259

7.4

Through the Lens of the Western Literature ............................................................................ 261
7.4.1 Understandings of Curriculum...................................................................................... 261
7.4.2 Curriculum Development ............................................................................................. 265
7.4.3 Approaches to Curriculum Development ..................................................................... 266

7.5

On the Horns of a Dilemma ..................................................................................................... 272
7.5.1 View of Knowledge and the Purposes of Curriculum .................................................. 272
7.5.2 Institutional Autonomy and Competencies ................................................................... 273
7.5.3 Innovation and Traditional Values................................................................................ 275

7.6

Summary .................................................................................................................................. 276

CHAPTER 8: TOWARD A PARTICIPATORY MODEL........................................................... 279
8.1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 279

8.2


Principles of the Recommended Participatory Model .............................................................. 280

8.3

Stages of the Participatory Model ............................................................................................ 282
8.3.1 Preliminary Stage.......................................................................................................... 284
8.3.2 Stage 1: Getting Information ........................................................................................ 285
8.3.3 Stage 2: Specifying Objectives/Learning Outcomes .................................................... 292
8.3.4 Stage 3: Planning and Piloting ...................................................................................... 293
8.3.5 Stage 4: Implementing and Adapting ........................................................................... 294
8.3.6 Stage 5: Re-evaluating .................................................................................................. 295
8.3.7 Stage 6: Replanning ...................................................................................................... 295

8.4

Challenges in Implementing the participatory model .............................................................. 296

8.5

Summary .................................................................................................................................. 297

CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 299
9.1

Overview.................................................................................................................................. 299

9.2

Addressing the Research Question .......................................................................................... 301


9.3

Theoretical Contribution .......................................................................................................... 303
9.3.1 Significance of This Research Study ............................................................................ 303
9.3.2 Significance of the Conceptual Framework Used ......................................................... 307

9.4

Practical Implications ............................................................................................................... 307
9.4.1 Suggestions for Policy .................................................................................................. 308
9.4.2 Recommendations for Higher Education Institutions ................................................... 309
9.4.3 Recommendations for Teaching Staff .......................................................................... 310
9.4.4 Recommendations for Students .................................................................................... 311

9.5

Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 312

vii


9.6

Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................................................. 313

9.7

Final Reflection: Lessons Learnt and Experiences Drawn by the Researcher ......................... 315

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 319

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................... 337
APPENDIX A - DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION & SUB-GROUPS .................................... 337
APPENDIX B - MILESTONES FOR THE STUDY...................................................................... 338
APPENDIX C - LETTER OF PERMISSION ................................................................................ 339
APPENDIX D - MEMBER CHECK & FOLLOW-UP INTERVIEWS ...................................... 340
APPENDIX E - BACK TRANSLATION ....................................................................................... 346
APPENDIX F - OVERVIEW OF DATA COLLECTION DESIGN ............................................ 349
APPENDIX G - A REPORT/ PROFILE ........................................................................................ 350
APPENDIX H - INITIAL CODES .................................................................................................. 352
APPENDIX I - ETHICAL CLEARANCE DOCUMENTS ........................................................... 353
APPENDIX J - LISTS OF PSEUDONYMS ................................................................................... 364
APPENDIX K - LISTS OF DOCUMENTS AS SECONDARY DATA........................................ 365

viii


List of Figures
Figure 1.1. The procedures of developing higher education curriculum in Vietnam .............................. 9
Figure 1.2. Concept map outlining the thesis ........................................................................................ 17
Figure 2.1. The chart outlining the structure of the literature review ................................................... 20
Figure 2.2. A logical approach to curriculum development .................................................................. 29
Figure 2.3. The product model for curriculum development adapted from Tyler's work. .................... 58
Figure 2.4. Principles of the process model of curriculum development (adapted from
Stenhouse's work) ................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 2.5. Cowan and colleagues' logical model for curriculum development (Cowan et al.,
2004) .................................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 2.6. Conceptual framework ....................................................................................................... 79
Figure 3.1. Flowchart guiding the analysis of management issues ..................................................... 101
Figure 3.2. Levels of curriculum......................................................................................................... 109
Figure 4.1. Management at the University (adapted from the University Students' Handbook,

2012) .................................................................................................................................. 120
Figure 4.2. Participant pool and actual interviewees .......................................................................... 122
Figure 4.3. A streamlined codes-to-themes model.............................................................................. 137
Figure 4.4. Nvivo coding summary .................................................................................................... 141
Figure 4.5. Convergence of evidence ................................................................................................. 149
Figure 5.1. Teachers' understandings of curriculum ........................................................................... 156
Figure 5.2. Purposes of curriculum identified by teachers .................................................................. 169
Figure 5.3. Social needs identified by teachers ................................................................................... 173
Figure 5.4. Administrators' understandings of curriculum.................................................................. 178
Figure 5.5. Purposes of curriculum by identified administrators ........................................................ 182
Figure 5.6. Students' understandings of curriculum ............................................................................ 187
Figure 5.7. Purposes of curriculum identified by students .................................................................. 193
Figure 6.1. Teachers' understandings of curriculum development...................................................... 200
Figure 6.2. The process of curriculum development at the University described by teachers ............ 212
Figure 6.3. Teachers' ideal model of curriculum development ........................................................... 220
Figure 6.4. Understandings of curriculum development by administrators ........................................ 226
Figure 6.5. The process of curriculum development at the University by administrators .................. 230
Figure 6.6. Administrators' ideal model of curriculum development ................................................. 235
Figure 7.1. Links among curriculum understandings.......................................................................... 242
Figure 7.2. Variations among understandings of curriculum .............................................................. 244
Figure 7.3. Relationship between experience and the understandings of curriculum
development ....................................................................................................................... 250
Figure 8.1. Participatory model for curriculum development ............................................................. 283
Figure 8.2. Getting information .......................................................................................................... 285
Figure 8.3. Components of needs analysis .......................................................................................... 287
ix


Figure 8.4. Context analysis. .............................................................................................................. 289


x


List of Tables
Table 2.1 Major Contributions Made by Different Theorists ................................................................ 23
Table 2.2 Comparison of Curriculum Classification Schemes .............................................................. 32
Table 2.3 Comparing the Approaches to Curriculum Development ..................................................... 35
Table 2.4 Summary of the Links among Approaches to Curriculum, Curriculum
Understandings and Models of Curriculum Development ................................................... 75
Table 4.1. Actual Participants ............................................................................................................. 123
Table 4.3 Research Questions and Interview Questions ..................................................................... 129
Table 4.4 Details of Focus Group Interview ....................................................................................... 131
Table 4.4 Document Analysing Questions .......................................................................................... 147
Table 4.5 Case Study Tactics for Ensuring Rigour ............................................................................. 148
Table 7.1 Different Purposes of Curriculum ....................................................................................... 248

xi


List of Abbreviations
CPV

Communist Party of Vietnam

EFL

English as a Foreign Language

HE


Higher Education

HERA

Higher Education Reform Agenda

MoET

Ministry of Education and Training

MoLISA

Ministry of Labour, War Invalids and Social Affairs

TESOL

Teaching English to Speaker of Other Languages

USSR

Soviet Union

xii


Statement of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.


QUT Verified Signature

Signature:

Date:

17/ 06/ 2015

xiii


Dedication
Cái cò lặn lội bờ sông,
Gánh gạo đưa chồng tiếng khóc nỉ non.
(Ca dao Việt Nam)
For my wife, who quit her job and devoted herself to her husband's study.

xiv


Acknowledgements
I was born in the chaos of the Vietnam War, and my childhood was filled with
poverty, hunger, and flood. Most of my friends dropped out of school, and so did my
brothers and sisters. I used to walk to school which was about 10 km away. I witnessed
my mother selling her favourite clothing items to support me when I was in college.
Going to school was a dream for children of my age, but I am now about to complete
my EdD thesis at QUT, Australia. It has been a long and hard journey, and I have
always struggled to overcome the challenges and achieve my goals myself. However,
this dream would have never been realised without support and help.

I would like to take this opportunity to thank the Vietnamese Ministry of
Education and Training and Queensland University of Technology for sponsoring me
financially to complete my project. Without this financial support, I would never
have afforded to study abroad for three years. My special thanks go to my Rector, for
offering me a favourable condition to study abroad, allowing me to conduct the
research in the University, and kindly agreeing to be a participant in my thesis.
I would like to convey my deepest thanks to my supervisors: Dr. Mandy
Lupton and Associate Professor Jim Watters for sharing professional knowledge, and
expertise. Mandy, you have been a guiding light during my dark days and provided
me with timely assistance in many ways in which I will always be grateful. Jim,
thank you very much for being the source of my initial and ongoing motivation: The
Unit EDN630 - Higher education: Curriculum Design, Assessment and Evaluation - I
studied with you in 2006 was a source of inspiration for this project. I will always
miss the coffee meetings we had, and wish we would have some more elsewhere
around the world.
xv


My warmest thanks go to Professor Yoni Ryan for being such a great language
advisor: helping me clarify ideas, improve my writing, my pronunciation, and my
public speaking skills. I would also like to express my gratitude to Professional
Editor, Dr. Karleen Gwinner, for providing copyediting and proofreading services,
according to the guidelines laid out in the university-endorsed guidelines and the
Australian Standards for editing research theses. I would like to extend special thanks
to Mrs Eliette Webb, Ms. Sarah Romig, and Mrs Melissa Tate for administrative help
and practical advice; Mrs Gillian Harrison for supporting me with academic and
information retrieval skills, resolving my EndNotes headaches.
A big thank you to the senior administrators, academics, and students at my
University who kindly agreed to be parts of my project: You were very generous to
participate in the interviews although you were often at a busy moment. My sincerely

thanks go to Ms. Thi Hien Tran and Mr. Van Tac Pham for supporting me the with
back translation of the interview questions, and the direct quotes. Your contributions
are highly appreciated. A warm thank you goes to my fellow research students,
Vietnamese friends, and QUT staff who have silently helped and supported. A big
thank you goes to my roommate, Dr. Agustian Nugroho Sutrisno, for sage advice and
suggestions at important moments.
Last but not least, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family
members: my Dad and Mum, for their constant support; Bà Sáu for taking care of all
home-related matters; Duy Linh Nguyen for sharing all my difficulties and
happiness, standing by me during my hard times; for my lovely daughter and my
considerate wife for being a source of strength I rely on when facing difficulties, and
being close friends to whom I could confide all my personal and professional
matters.
xvi


Chapter 1: Introduction

The aim of this study is to examine the approaches to curriculum development in
Vietnamese higher education. English as a Foreign Language (EFL) at a university in
Vietnam1 was used as the context for the study, and EFL curriculum as a vehicle to achieve
this aim.
The study explores three issues. First, it investigates the understandings of senior
administrators, EFL academics and EFL students about curriculum. Second, it analyses the
processes adopted for the development of curriculum at the University. Third, it scrutinises
any advantages and difficulties that senior administrators, teaching staff, and students
might be having in relation to curriculum and curriculum development. The intention of
this study is to develop a participatory model for curriculum development, and provide
recommendations for implementing effective curriculum development practices.
This chapter specifies the terms used in the study, outlines the background, the

purposes and the significance of the study. The first section (Section 1.1) specifies the
major terms used in the study, including approaches to curriculum development,
understandings of curriculum, and the processes of curriculum development. Section 1.2
introduces the background of curriculum development in higher education in Vietnam
drawing on the researcher's experiences. This includes describing the historical and cultural
context of the study, and discussing different ways of understanding curriculum and
curriculum development within the University environment. Section 1.3 describes the
rationale of the study, specifies the purposes, the aims, and details the research questions.
The research design is briefly presented in Section 1.4, including data collection methods

1

In line with the study's ethical clearance, "the University" has been used to indicate the research site.

1


and data analysis methods. Section 1.5 discusses the significance of this research. Finally,
an outline of the remaining chapters of the thesis is included in section 1.6.
1.1

SPECIFYING THE TERMS

Since the proposed topic is about approaches to curriculum development in higher
education, and the understandings of staff and students about curriculum in the University,
Vietnam, this section focuses on specifying the terms relating to this study: the approaches
to curriculum development, the understandings of curriculum, and the processes of
curriculum development. The first part discusses approaches to curriculum development,
the second part analyses understandings of curriculum and the processes of curriculum
development, including those in a higher education context, and in language teaching. The

ideas introduced here will be expanded upon in following chapters.
1.1.1 Approaches to Curriculum Development
An approach to curriculum includes an "understanding of curriculum and the process of
curriculum development, a value system sufficiently explicit to make clear the basis for
specific decisions, ... (and) basic assumptions about the world, society, and morality on
which understandings and value system rest" (Marsh & Willis, 2007, p. 70). In this study, I
am using the term approach to curriculum development, referring to a very broad
generalised depiction to the way curricula are developed. The term processes will address
the specific strategies used to develop curriculum.
A review of the literature suggests four main approaches to curriculum development:
the academic or discipline-based approach; the social efficiency approach; the experiential
or learner-centred approach, and the critical approach. Each reflects the different ways of
thinking about how knowledge is viewed and learnt, and the purposes of curricula. Each,

2


also, indicates the ways content is selected and organised, and the roles of teachers and
those of learners. Thus, a certain approach shows a particular perspective on education.
1.1.2 Varied Understandings of Curriculum and Curriculum Development
As presented above, an approach to curriculum development consists of understandings of
curriculum and the process of curriculum development. In this section, I briefly address
perceptions of curriculum and curriculum development that relate to this study. The long
history and varied meanings of curriculum signal the complexity embedded in this term.
Curriculum has Latin roots, and is derived from currere meaning a course, racing
chariot to run (Oxford Dictionary, 2012), to run or to run the course (Wiles & Bondi,
2007, p. 2). Armstrong (2007) interpreted the Latin word as "a lap around a race track" (p.
16), while Marsh (2008) explained it as a racecourse. Marsh also used a metaphor to
describe the school curriculum as a race to be run, a series of obstacles or hurdles
(subjects) to be passed. The term dates back to the fourth century BC in the philosophies of

Plato and Aristotle, and was used to describe subjects taught during the classical period in
Greek civilization (Marsh, 2008).
Meanings associated with curriculum in Vietnamese hold different understandings.
In Vietnamese, curriculum is translated as chương trình. The online Vietnamese dictionary
explains that the word chương trình (curriculum) can be divided into two words, each with
their own meaning. Accordingly, chương means a part or a chapter of a book, and trình
means journey or pathway [chương: từng phần, chương; trình: đường đi] (Vdict,
Vietnamese online dictionary). As such, in the Vietnamese language, curriculum can be
literally interpreted as a pathway or journey to a part or a chapter of a book (Vdict,
Vietnamese online dictionary) in the context of a subject and a course. Another dictionary
notes curriculum as all the learning and teaching content officially approved for each unit/subject, each class, or grade which is presented in brief [chương trình: toàn bộ nội dung
3


học tập, giảng dạy được quy định chính thức cho từng môn, từng lớp hoặc từng cấp học,
bậc học, nêu vắn tắt] (Tratu, online dictionary).
Theories related to curriculum in the twenty-first century are "highly contested and in
a state of flux" (Marsh, 2004, p. 199), reflecting different viewpoints, and relationships
between schools and society (Breault & Marshall, 2010). Understandings of curriculum
have varied a great deal from curriculum study as a science, where curriculum is
understood as "the entire range of experience" (Bobbitt, 1918, p. 43), through to a
"postscript for the next generation" (Pinar, Reynolds, Slattery, & Taubman, 1995, p. 847),
where curriculum is viewed from a critical theorist perspective. A synthesis of various
perspectives and definitions by Smith (2000) established four main ways of understanding
curriculum: curriculum as a syllabus to be transmitted, curriculum as a product, curriculum
as a process, and curriculum as praxis.
Three models of curriculum development are specified in recent literature. These are
the product model, the process model, and the logical model. The product model is based
on the notion of behaviourist theory (McKernan, 2008). In this model, learning experiences
are selected and organised in a particular sequence to achieve pre-specified objectives.

Moreover, those objectives are used to evaluate student learning achievements. The
process model of curriculum development, emphasises the interaction of teachers, students
and knowledge, and what actually takes place in the classroom (Smith, 2000). The logical
model (Cowan, George, & Pinheiro-Torres, 2004) adopts Biggs' concept of alignment
(Biggs, 2002, 2006). The logical model was developed in response to the challenges that
higher education institutions face, and aims to align the three relevant aspects of
institutional change: staff, curriculum and institutional development.
Based on an empirical study in the higher education context, Fraser and Bosanquet
(2006) proposed three main ways of understanding curriculum: (a) curriculum as a
4


product; (b) curriculum as a process and structure; and (c) curriculum as an dynamic and
interactive process. Marsh and Willis (2007) divided curriculum into three dimensions: (a)
the planned curriculum (b) the enacted curriculum and (c) the experienced curriculum,
sometimes called lived curriculum.
In relation to language teaching, curriculum development reflects varied
understandings of curriculum and models of curriculum development. Curriculum
development in language teaching starts with a syllabus design which specifies "the
content of a course of instructions and lists what will be taught and tested" (Richards,
2001, p. 2). The ends-means model introduced by Nicholls and Nicholls (1972) considers
the language skills learners need as the starting point. Richards (2001) introduced a more
comprehensive definition of language curriculum development compared with the syllabus
design, with different processes focused more on learners, he stated:
Curriculum development refers to the range of planning and implementation
processes involved in developing or renewing a curriculum. These processes focus
on needs analysis, situational analysis, planning learning outcomes, course
organization, selecting and preparing teaching materials, providing for effective
teaching, and evaluation. (p. 41)


Approaches to curriculum development in Vietnamese higher education have been
largely unexplored. Thus, this study adds to the limited knowledge in Vietnam by
investigating the approaches to curriculum development adopted at the University.
1.2

BACKGROUND

The study was conducted at the University, and focuses on the development of higher
education (HE) curriculum at the University. This section, therefore, provides insight into
how the Vietnamese higher education system was formed and developed. It highlights the
major impact of colonialism from China, France, the USA, and the Soviet Union. It also

5


reviews the history of higher education curriculum in Vietnam, and clarifies the reasons for
doing this research. Also, some personal background of the researcher is shared to give a
full interpretation.
1.2.1 Historical Features
The Vietnamese higher education system was developed in different stages under several
foreign influences. Feudalism and Chinese domination lasted for more than 1,000 years
from 111BC to 1858. The Chinese philosophies of Confucianism and Buddhism had a
significant impact during that period on education (Doan, 2005; Ellis, 1995). Education
was organised in a top-down mechanism, in which senior teachers played a decisive role in
choosing what to teach and how to teach. As part of this, students were required to rely
upon memory to respond to specific items in examinations. In 1076, the first higher
education institution was formed in Vietnam using similar ways of teaching, learning and
assessment as those in China (Fry, 2009).
French colonialism lasted for nearly 100 years, from 1858 to 1954. Education was
reformed dramatically, due to the policies of assimilation and direct rule, (Doan, 2005; Ellis,

1995; Wright, 2001). Classes were taught in either French or Quoc Ngu, the Vietnamese
Romanised language. The curriculum mirrored exactly that of the "mother country", France
(Wright, 2001, p. 231). Education was elitist and was strongly centralised. Strict guidelines
controlled what to teach and how to teach it (Cooper, 2004).
From 1954 to 1975, American influences significantly affected the Vietnamese
educational system. This impetus was to make education more egalitarian (Fry, 2009).
Vocational education was strongly developed, and higher education was both academic
and practical (World Bank, 2006). Meanwhile, the impact of the former Soviet Union
(USSR) (in the 1950s) was to impose highly-centralised education management (Johnson,

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2008). Communist ideology, and political and moral subjects were often integrated into the
higher education curriculum (World Bank, 2006).
As well as these foreign influences, the post-colonial Doi Moi policy was a
remarkable milestone for Vietnamese education. The Doi Moi policy, which means making
a change, began in 1986 causing dramatic reforms in education especially the higher
education system (Doan, 2005). Under the Doi Moi policy institutional autonomy,
including freedom of curriculum development, was ratified (World Bank, 2006).
As a consequence, higher education in Vietnam was shaped and reshaped under the
various influences of China, France, the USSR and the USA. A typical ongoing
characteristic of the system is that it is highly centralised and controlled mainly by the
Ministry of Education and Training (MoET). Higher education curriculum development
has been, therefore, strictly controlled within prescribed frameworks. Under current
educational reforms institutional autonomy, including curriculum development, is called
for. This study aims to examine how senior administrators, EFL teaching staff and EFL
students understand curriculum at the University.
1.2.2 Higher Education in Vietnam
The higher education system is characterised by state control. The Ministry of Education

and Training controls a range of areas from academic affairs to financial matters. For
example, quotas for access to higher education, the annual entrance examination to
university, the maximum level of tuition fees that higher education institutions may charge,
and curriculum frameworks for different disciplines (Fry, 2009; Hayden & Lam, 2010).
These controls are typical of educational management in socialist countries (Dao &
Hayden, 2010; Hayden & Lam, 2010).

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In that situation, decentralisation is considered as a solution to encourage innovation
processes and management of higher education in Vietnam (Dao & Hayden, 2010; Hayden
& Lam, 2007; Hayden & Lam, 2010). Autonomy is an important aspect of a decentralised
system. Although the right to autonomy for higher education institutions has been ratified
by the government, the practice of self-governance is a complicated matter (Hayden &
Lam, 2010). A matter of public concern is the interpretation of just what institutional
autonomy is.
Institutional autonomy should enable institutions to decide on both their own
academic goals and programs, and how they should make use of their resources (Berdahl,
1990). Legislated autonomy should mean that universities and colleges can make their own
decisions on their curriculum, research plans, facilities, recruitment of staff, and finances
and resources (Dao & Hayden, 2010). However, in practice the autonomy of HE
institutions in Vietnam is limited. This is seen particularly in curriculum development.
1.2.3 Higher Education Curriculum Development in Vietnam
In practice, the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) is not only responsible for
managing Vietnam's system of education and training, but also for developing curriculum
and producing materials (Hoat, Viet, Van Der Wilt, Broerse, Ruitenberg, & Wright, 2009).
All courses2 and course structures delivered by HE institutions have to follow the
curriculum frameworks prescribed by MoET (Dao & Hayden, 2010). These frameworks
are prescribed for all programs of study across the system. Educational institutions,

including the University, have very little control over what they wish to offer to their
students.

2

8

A course is termed the same as a program consisting of a sequence of different units or subjects.


In terms of designing the frameworks, MoET is responsible for choosing committees
for the development of curricula in different disciplines. These committees consist of
scholars and experts in the relevant fields. Each curricular framework necessarily
comprises objectives, the knowledge required, the duration, and the portion of different
subjects in a course. Higher education institutions then develop a detailed version based on
these frameworks, their own missions, and their competence (Hayden & Lam, 2010) (as
presented in Figure 1.1). By prescribing the same frameworks, MoET aims to ensure
consistency in the training3 quality in different institutions of the same degree programmes
(Tran, Nguyen, & Nguyen, 2011).

Figure 1.1. The procedures of developing higher education curriculum in Vietnam
There are a number of problems regarding the procedures of developing curriculum
in Vietnam. A major problem comes from the prescribed frameworks. The frameworks,
designed by groups of committees, can sketch useful guidelines, such as what to teach, and
how to teach for each discipline. However, they can create constraints for institutions as
well. Tran et al. (2011) undertook a critical analysis of the standard of quality for higher

3

"Training" is officially used in Vietnamese legal document to refer to "educating" in higher education

institutions
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