ADOLESCENT PEER COUNSELLING

Kathryn Geldard
Thesis submitted in
fulfilment of the requirements
for the award of the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy.
July 2005

School of Learning and Professional Studies
Faculty of Education
Queensland University of Technology


ii


iii

KEYWORDS
Adolescents, Communication, Conversation, Coping, Coping resources, Coping
strategies, Counselling microskills, Counsellor training, Developmental stage
differences,

Emotional

Intervention research,

competence,

Help

Peer counselling,

seeking,

Helping

conversations,

Peer counsellor training, Prosocial

behaviour, Resilience, Role attribution, School climate, Self-concept, Skill
implementation, Social support, Status differences, Stress.


iv

ABSTRACT
Adolescent peer counselling as a social support strategy to assist adolescents
to cope with stress in their peer group provides the focus for the present thesis. The
prosocial behaviour of providing emotional and psychological support through the use
of helping conversations by young people is examined. Current programs for training
adolescent peer counsellors have failed to discover what skills adolescents bring to the
helping conversation. They ignore, actively discourage, and censor, some typical
adolescent conversational helping behaviours and idiosyncratic communication
processes. Current programs for training adolescent peer counsellors rely on teaching
microcounselling skills from adult counselling models. When using this approach, the
adolescent peer helper training literature reports skill implementation, role attribution
and status differences as being problematic for trained adolescent peer counsellors
(Carr, 1984; de Rosenroll, 1988; Morey & Miller, 1993). For example Carr (1984)

recognised that once core counselling skills have been reasonably mastered that young
people “may feel awkward, mechanical or phoney” (p. 11) when trying to implement
the new skills. Problematic issues with regard to role attribution and status differences
appear to relate to the term ‘peer counsellor’ and its professional expectations,
including training and duties (Anderson, 1976; Jacobs, Masson & Vass, 1976;
Myrick, 1976). A particular concern of Peavy (1977) was that for too many people
counselling was an acceptable label for advice giving and that the role of counsellor
could imply professional status. De Rosenroll (1988) cautioned against creating
miniature mirror images of counselling and therapeutic professionals in young people.
However, he described a process whereby status difference is implied when a group
of adolescent peer counsellors is trained and invited to participate in activities that


v
require appropriate ethical guidelines including competencies, training, confidentiality
and supervision. While Carr and Saunders (1981) suggest, “student resentment of the
peer counsellor is not a problem” they go on to say, “this is not to say that the problem
does not exist” (p. 21). The authors suggest that as a concern the problem can be
minimised by making sure the peer counsellors are not ‘forced’ on the student body
and by providing opportunities for peer counsellors to develop ways of managing
resentment. De Rosenroll (1988) acknowledges that the adolescent peer counsellor
relationship may fall within a paraprofessional framework in that a difference in status
may be inferred from the differing life experiences of the peer counsellor when
compared with their student peers.
The current project aimed to discover whether the issues of skill
implementation, role attribution and status differences could be addressed so that
adolescent peer counselling, a valuable social support resource, could be made more
attractive to, and useful for adolescents.
The researcher’s goal was to discover what young people typically do when
they help each other conversationally, what they want to learn that would enhance

their conversational helping behaviour, and how they experience and respond to their
role as peer counsellor, and then to use the information obtained in the development
of an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program.

By doing this, the

expectation was that the problematic issues cited in the literature could be addressed.
Guided by an ethnographic framework the project also examined the influence of an
adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program on the non-peer counsellor
students in the wider adolescent community of the high school.
Three sequential studies were undertaken. In Study 1, the typical adolescent
conversational and communications skills that young people use when helping each


vi
other were identified. In addition, those microcounselling skills that young people
found useful and compatible with their typical communication processes were
identified. In Study 2, an intervention research process was used to develop, deliver,
and evaluate an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program which combined
typical adolescent helping behaviours with preferred counselling microskills selected
by participants in Study 1. The intervention research paradigm was selected as the
most appropriate methodology for this study because it is designed to provide an
integrated perspective for understanding, developing, and examining the feasibility
and effectiveness of innovative human services interventions (Bailey-Dempsey &
Reid, 1996; Rothman & Thomas, 1994). Intervention research is typically conducted
in a field setting in which researchers and practitioners work together to design and
assess interventions. When applying intervention research methodology researchers
and practitioners begin by selecting the problem they want to remedy, reviewing the
literature, identifying criteria for appropriate and effective intervention, integrating the
information into plans for the intervention and then testing the intervention to reveal

the intervention’s strengths and flaws. Researchers then suggest modifications to
make the intervention more effective, and satisfying for participants. In the final stage
of intervention research, researchers disseminate information about the intervention
and make available manuals and other training materials developed along the way
(Comer, Meier, & Galinsky, 2004). In Study 2 an adolescent-friendly peer counsellor
training manual was developed. Study 3 evaluated the impact of the peer counsellor
training longitudinally on the wider school community. In particular, the project was
interested in whether exposure to trained peer counsellors influenced students who
were not peer counsellors with regard to their perceptions of self-concept, the degree
of use of specific coping strategies and on their perceptions of the school climate.


vii
Study three included the development of A School Climate Survey which focused on
the psychosocial aspects of school climate from the student’s perspective. Two factors
which were significantly correlated (p<.01) were identified. Factor 1 measured
students’ perceptions of student relationships, and Factor 2 measured students’
perceptions of teachers’ relationships with students.
The present project provides confirmation of a number of findings that other
studies

have

identified

regarding

the

idiosyncratic


nature

of

adolescent

communication, and the conversational and relational behaviours of young people
(Chan, 2001; Noller, Feeney, & Peterson, 2001; Papini & Farmer, 1990; Rafaelli &
Duckett, 1989; Readdick & Mullis, 1997; Rotenberg, 1995; Turkstra, 2001; Worcel et
al., 1999; Young et al., 1999). It extends this research by identifying the specific
conversational characteristics that young people use in helping conversations.
The project confirmed the researcher’s expectation that some counselling
microskills currently used in training adolescent peer counsellors are not easy to use
by adolescents and are considered by adolescents to be unhelpful. It also confirmed
that some typical adolescent conversational helping behaviours which have been
proscribed for use in other adolescent peer counsellor training programs are useful in
adolescent peer counselling. The project conclusively demonstrated that the
adolescent-friendly peer counsellor training program developed in the project
overcame the difficulties of skill implementation identified in the adolescent peer
counselling literature (Carr, 1984). The project identified for the first time the process
used by adolescent peer counsellors to deal with issues related to role attribution and
status difference.
The current project contributes new information to the peer counselling
literature through the discovery of important differences between early adolescent and


viii
late adolescent peer counsellors with regard to acquiring and mastering counselling
skills, and their response to role attribution and status difference issues among their

peers following counsellor training. As a result of the substantive findings the current
project makes a significant contribution to social support theory and prosocial theory
and to the adolescent peer counselling literature. It extends the range of prosocial
behaviours addressed in published research by specifically examining the
conversational helping behaviour of adolescents from a relational perspective. The
current project provides new information that contributes to knowledge of social
support in the form of conversational behaviour among adolescents identifying the
interactive, collaborative, reciprocal and idiosyncratic nature of helping conversations
in adolescents. Tindall (1989) suggests that peer counsellor trainers explore a variety
of ways to approach a single training model that can augment and supplement the
training process to meet specific group needs. The current project responded to this
suggestion by investigating which counselling skills and behaviours adolescent peer
counsellor trainees preferred, were easy to use by them, and were familiar to them,
and then by using an intervention research process, devised a training program which
incorporated these skills and behaviours into a typical adolescent helping
conversation.
A mixed method longitudinal design was used in an ecologically valid setting.
The longitudinal nature of the design enabled statements about the process of the peer
counsellors’ experience to be made.

The project combined qualitative and

quantitative methods of data gathering. Qualitative data reflects the phenomenological
experience of the adolescent peer counsellor and the researcher and quantitative data
provides an additional platform from which to view the findings. The intervention
research paradigm provided a developmental research method that is appropriate for


ix
practice research. The intervention research model is more flexible than conventional

experimental designs, capitalises on the availability of small samples, accommodates
the dynamism and variation in practice conditions and diverse populations, and
explicitly values the insights of the researcher as a practitioner. The project combines
intervention research with involvement of the researcher in the project thus enabling
the researcher to view and report the findings through her own professional and
practice lens.


x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1

Adolescence, Stress and Coping

1

Research into Prosocial Behaviour in Adolescents

5

Adolescent Peer Counsellor Training and Evaluation

8

Research Project Outline

16


Structure of Doctoral Thesis

17

CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND EMPIRICAL SUPPORT
RELATED TO THE STUDY OF ADOLESCENT PEER COUNSELLING

19

Theories on Stress and Coping

19

Theories of Social Support

25

Theories of Prosocial Behaviour

28

Adolescent Communication Processes and Patterns

32

The Contribution of the Current Project to the Literature

36

Pro social behaviour


36

Methodological design

37

Social support

37

CHAPTER 3: REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH ON PEER COUNSELLING
AND PEER HELPER TRAINING

39

Counsellor Education Models

42

Peer Helper Training

45

Evaluating Peer Helper Training Programs

52

Summary


55

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY

59

Theoretical Framework

59

Intervention Research

61

Project Design

63

Mixed Method Design

63

Longitudinal Design

65

School-Researcher Relationship

67


Participant recruitment

70

The Current Project

70

Study 1

73


xi
Study 2

74

Study 3

75

Measures

78

Qualitative Measures

78


Focus Groups

78

Analysis of Focus Groups

81

Researcher Reflections

83

Analysis of Researcher Reflections

84

Open-ended surveys

85

Analysis of Open-ended surveys

85

Quantitative measures

86

Questionnaires


86

Analysis of Questionnaires

86

The self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire

87

Analysis of The self-report Emotional Competence Questionnaire

90

Piers Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale

90

Analysis of Piers Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale

93

Adolescent Coping Scale

93

Analysis of Adolescent Coping Scale.

98


School Climate Survey

98

CHAPTER 5: DEVELOPMENT AND PSYCHOMETRIC ANALYSIS
OF THE SCHOOL CLIMATE SURVEY

103

School Climate

103

Standardised School Climate Surveys

103

Individualised School Climate Surveys

104

Constructing a school climate survey to identify change

106

Operational definition of the topic

107

Survey themes and categories


108

Developing survey items

109

Statistical analysis of the survey’s psychometric properties

112

Participants

112

Procedure

112

Analysis

113

Results

113


xii
Conclusion

CHAPTER 6: STUDY 1

118
121

Research Questions

121

Participants

121

Procedure and Materials

122

Analysis

125

Analysis of Focus Groups

125

Analysis of Questionnaires

127

Analysis of researchers field notes


127

Results

129

Research Question 1

129

Conversational responses

129

Listening

130

Reassurance

130

Emotional regulation

131

Involvement

132


Understanding

132

Giving advice

133

Confidentiality

133

Trust

134

Helping others to talk

134

Personal disclosure

134

Respect

135

Another point of view


135

Mediation

136

Making contact

136

Endorsements

136

Collaborative problem solving

137

Safe relationship

137

Distracting

138

Evaluative responses

138


Research Question 2

139

Results from Subgroup A (Client Centred Counselling)

142

Results from subgroup B (Reality Therapy)

143


xiii
Results from subgroup C (Solution Focused Counselling)

143

Results from subgroup D (Validation and enhancement of
typical adolescent helping behaviours)
Discussion

145
145

Research Question 1

146


Goals of counselling

146

The helping relationship

146

Personal disclosure

147

Adolescent conversational characteristics and behaviours

148

Peer counsellor training

151

Research question 2

152

Active listening skills

152

Instilling hope and optimism


154

Problem solving

156

Conclusion
CHAPTER 7: STUDY 2 QUALITATIVE DATA RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

160
163

Research Questions

163

Research Question 3

164

Participants

164

Description of the Intervention

164

Procedure and measures


167

Time 1

168

Time 2

168

Time 3

169

Time 4

169

Results of Qualitative Data

171

Skill Implementation

172

Time 2 –Immediately post-intervention

172


Most useful skills

173

Using the counselling skills and processes

174

The training experience

174

Time 3 - Three months post-intervention

175

Training components most valued and preferred

176

Skill use

176


xiv
Time 4 -six months post-intervention

177


Skill awareness

178

Skill use

178

Role Attribution
Time 2 –Immediately post-intervention

179
179

Enhancers of the conversation when in the role of peer counsellor

180

Emotional experience of the conversation

181

Perception of success

182

Constraints of the conversation when in the role of peer counsellor

183


Time 3 - three months post-intervention

184

Rewarding aspects of helping

184

Unrewarding aspects of helping

185

Time 4 - six months post-intervention

186

Role limitations

187

Role involvement

188

Adjustment to role

188

Status


189

Time 2 – Immediately post-intervention

189

Personal Characteristics contributing to peer counsellor status

190

Status with regard to relationships with others

191

Status with regard to training

191

Time 3 - three months post-intervention

191

Behaviours that indicate Status difference

193

Status as perceived by peer counsellors

194


Status as perceived by others

195

Status enhancers

196

Time 4 - six months post-intervention

196

Overall relationship with others

197

Relationship with others with regards to skill acquisition

197

Status with regard to role

198

Summary of qualitative results

198

Overall summary of qualitative results


198

Summary of qualitative results over time

199

Summary of qualitative results for early & late adolescent peer counsellors

200


xv
Summary for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time
Discussion

201
202

Research question 3

202

Skill implementation

202

Role Attribution

209


Status

217

CHAPTER 8: QUANTITATIVE DATA RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Research Questions
Participants

227
227
228

Description of the Intervention

228

Research Question 4

228

Procedure and measures

229

Analysis

229

Results


230

The Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire

230

Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale

233

The Adolescent Coping Scale

241

Research Question 5
Procedure and measures
Results

247
248
248

The School Climate Survey
Discussion of Quantitave Data

248
255

The Self-Report Emotional Competence Questionnaire


255

The Piers Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale

259

Adolescent Coping Scale

262

School Climate Survey

265

Conclusion

270

CHAPTER 9: STUDY 3 IMPACT OF THE INTERVENTION
ON NON-PEER COUNSELLOR STUDENTS
Research Questions
Participants
Description of the Intervention
Procedure and measures
Quantitative Data Results

273
273
273
275

275
277


xvi
Research question 6
Piers Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale
Research question 7
The Adolescent Coping Scale
Research Question 8
The School Climate Survey
Discussion

277
277
279
279
281
281
282

Piers-Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale

283

Adolescent Coping Scale

284

The School Climate Survey


288

Summary

289

CHAPTER 10: DISCUSSION, LIMITATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE
CURRENT PROJECT
Contribution of Qualitative Findings
Adolescent Conversational Helping Behaviour

293
295
295

Adolescent Peer Counsellors’ Experience with regard
to their Training and Role as Peer Counsellors

298

Developmental Age Differences

302

Contribution of quantitative findings

303

Theoretical Contribution


308

Prosocial behaviour among adolescents

308

Social support

309

Peer counsellor training

310

Methodological contributions

310

Longitudinal design

311

Evaluation of the wider school environment

312

Intervention Research

312


Development of the School Climate Survey

314

Contribution of the researcher as part of the intervention and evaluation

316


xvii
Limitations of the current study

317

Implications and recommendations of the current study

321

Implications with regards to developmental stage differences

321

Recommendations with regard to methodology

322

Recommendations with regard to adolescent peer counsellor training

323


REFERENCES

329


xviii

LIST OF TABLES
4.1

Outline of Mixed Method Design

71

4.2

Timeline identifying Project Milestones

77

5.1

Description of categories in the school climate survey and their classification
according to Moos’ dimensions

111

5.2


Pattern matrix for orthogonal factors of the School Climate Survey

114

5.3

Correlations between the school climate factors

117

6.1 Categories of conversational helping skills and behaviours and the number and
frequency of times mentioned
6.2

Percentages of responses summarising the ease of use for each of the counselling
microskills within each subgroup

6.3

129

140

Percentages of responses summarising the usefulness of each of the counselling
microskills within each subgroup

141

7.1


Data gathering procedures, times used and subjects included

170

7.2

Skill implementation themes, categories and percentage of responses at T2

173

7.3

Skill Implementation themes, categories and percentage of responses at T3

176

7.4

Skill Implementation themes, categories and percentage of responses at T4

178

7.5

Role Attribution themes, categories and percentage of responses at T2

180

7.6 Role Attribution themes, categories and percentage of responses at T3


184

7.7 Role Attribution themes, categories and percentage of responses at T4

187

7.8 Status themes, categories and percentage of responses at T2

190

7.9 Status themes, categories and percentage of responses at T3

192

7.10 Status themes, categories and percentage of responses at T4

197

7.11 Peer counsellor responses

199

7.12 Peer counsellor responses over time

199

7.13 Early and late adolescent peer counsellors’ responses

200


7.14 Early and late adolescent peer counsellor responses over time

201

8.1

230

Means scores for emotional competence for peer counsellors over time

8.2 Emotional competence total mean scores for early and late adolescent peer
counsellors over time

232

8.3 Mean scores and standard deviations for peer counsellors on the Piers Harris
Children’s Self-concept subscales over time

234


xix
8.4

Status subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors
over time

236

8.5 Appearance subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over

time

238

8.6 Freedom from anxiety subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer
counsellors over time

239

8.7 Popularity subscale mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over
time

240

8.8 Problem solving style mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors 243
8.9

Reference to Others style mean scores for early and late adolescent peer
counsellors

8.10 Non-Productive style mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors

243
243

8.11 Mean scores and standard deviations for peer counsellors on factor scores
and total school climate score of the School Climate Survey over time

250


8.12 Mean scores for School Climate Total for early adolescent peer counsellors
and late adolescent peer counsellors over time

252

8.13 Mean scores for student Perceptions of Student Relationships for early
and late adolescent peer counsellors over time

253

8.14 Mean scores for student perceptions of Teachers Relationships with Students
and Other Staff for early and late adolescent peer counsellors over time

254

9.1

Number and gender of subjects in each group

274

9.2

Number of subjects in each group

277

9.3

Differences over time for Total Sample of Non-Peer counsellors for

Piers-Harris Subscales

278

9.4

Piers Harris subscales for early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors

279

9.5

Differences over time for Total Sample of Non-Peer counsellors for
Adolescent Coping Styles

280

9.6

Adolescent Coping Subscales for Non-Peer Counsellors

280

9.7

Differences over time for non-peer counsellors for school climate total

9.8

and subscales


281

School climate mean scores for early and late adolescent non-peer counsellors

282


xx

LIST OF FIGURES
4.1

The conceptual areas of coping

8.1

Emotional Competence mean scores for all peer counsellors

8.2

Mean scores for early and late adolescent peer counsellors on
Emotional competence

96
231

232

8.3


Difference between subscale scores of Piers Harris Children’s Self-concept Scale 234

8.4

Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Status subscale 237

8.5 Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Appearance
Subscale
8.6

238

Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Freedom from
Anxiety subscale

239

8.7. Difference between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on
Popularity subscale

240

8.8. Difference between the degree of use of coping styles over time for early
adolescent peer counsellors

244

8.9. Difference between the degree of use of coping styles over time for late
adolescent peer counsellors


244

8.10 Differences between the degree to which early and late adolescent
peer counsellors use the Problem Solving style

245

8.11 Differences between the degree to which early and late adolescent
peer counsellors use the Reference to Others style

246

8.12 Differences between the degree to which early and late adolescent
peer counsellors use the Non-productive style
8.13 Total school climate score for all peer counsellors over time

247
250

8.14 Differences between factor scores on school climate for all peer counsellors
over time

251

8.15 Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on
Student perceptions of student relationships

252


8.16 Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on
Student perceptions of Teachers Relationships with Students and Other Staff

253

8.17 Differences between early and late adolescent peer counsellors on Student
Perceptions of Teachers’ Relationships with Students and other Staff

254


xxi

LIST OF APPENDICES ON CD
APPENDIX A

Advertising Brochure

APPENDIX B

Information Package

APPENDIX C

Study 1 Focus group Questions

APPENDIX D

Study 1 Sub group training outline


APPENDIX E

Study 1 Subgroup Questionnaire

APPENDIX F

Study 1 Subgroup, discussion session Questions

APPENDIX G

Transcribed statements from Study 1 subgroup discussion sessions
with regard to the ease of use and usefulness of micro-counselling
skills and peer counsellors experience of using skills

APPENDIX H

Transcribed statements relevant for each category identified in Study 1
focus groups

APPENDIX I

Adolescent Peer Helper Training Program

APPENDIX J

Study 2 Open-ended survey questions

APPENDIX K

School Climate Survey



xxii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or
diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and
belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another
person except where due reference is made.

Signed...........................................................................................
Date...............................................................................................


xxiii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deep appreciation to Professor Wendy Patton for the
encouragement I received through her continual belief that I was capable of
executing this project, for her guidance, sound advice and untiring interest in the
topic.
I would like to thank my second supervisor Dr Kym Irving for her skilled and
experienced feedback and her confidence in my ability to contribute, through this
project, to the field of education and counselling.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Dr Marilyn Campbell for her help
and advice with regard to the preparation of this thesis. Her meticulous attention to
detail has been of considerable value and was greatly appreciated.
My sincere thanks goes to Immanuel Lutheran College for their willingness to

participate as a partner in this project and most of all to the young people who
participated with unwavering sincerity and commitment.
Finally, I wish to thank my husband David Geldard whose encouragement and
love enabled me to embark on, and complete this project.


xxiv


1

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Adolescence, Stress and Coping
Everyday it is common to read of the demands and stresses increasingly faced by
individuals. Finding employment in competitive conditions and developing relationships
with others, coupled with the increased demands of self-organisation and adaptation to
technology, can contribute to life being experienced as stressful. Additionally, many
individuals experience anxiety and stress related to personal safety and security in an age
of national and international events which are often alarmingly disturbing. Stress cannot
be avoided and it should not be assumed that stress is necessarily bad. Indeed, a certain
amount of stress is necessary for providing energy required to adapt and accomplish
goals. Additionally, it needs to be recognised that whether an event is perceived to be
significantly stressful depends on an individual's ability to cope with stress and
interpretation of the event as stressful.
Because adolescence is a stage of human development during which a young
person must move from dependency to independence and develop autonomy and
maturity, young people, in particular, are faced with many challenges (Dacey & Kenny,
1997; Maybe & Sorensen, 1995; White, 1996; Winefield & Tiggeman, 1990). Some
young people are more successful than others when confronting and dealing with the

stress associated with the challenges of adolescent life; they are more resilient and have
better coping strategies (Baumrind, 1991a, 1991b; Borrine, Handal, Brown & Seawright,
1991; Chassin & Barrera, 1993; Frydenberg & Lewis, 2002; Patton & Noller, 1990;
Schoon & Bynner, 2003). However, some adolescents are unable to confront and deal
with these challenges successfully.