Accounts of the Visual Art Classroom: Catering for
Artistically Talented Students.

Fiona Joy Ballantyne Vicig

Masters of Education (Research)
School of Learning and Professional Studies
Queensland University of Technology
2009


Abstract

Inclusive education practices call for the diverse and individual needs of all students
to be met satisfactorily. The needs and experiences of artistically talented students in
Australian visual art classrooms are currently unknown.

This study addresses this

gap in research through an inquiry into the experiences of artistically talented
students and their teachers in visual art classrooms, by examining the accounts of a
group of students and teachers at one high school in South East Queensland.

This study is significant as it provides teachers, parents and others involved in the
education of artistically talented students with additional means to plan and cater for
the educational needs of artistically talented students.

Teacher and student accounts

of the visual art classroom in this study indicated that identification processes for
artistically talented students are unclear and contradictory. Furthermore, teacher and

student accounts of their experiences presented a wide variety of conceptions of the
visual art classroom and point towards an individualised approach to learning for
artistically talented students.

This study also discovered a mismatch between

assessment practices in the subject visual art and assessment of art in the ‘real
world’.

Specifically, this study proposes a renewal of programs for artistically

talented students, and recommends a revision of current procedures for the
identification of artistically talented students in visual art classrooms.

1


Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature

Date

2



Acknowledgements

It is a pleasure to thank the many people who made this thesis possible. I would like
to thank Dr Felicity McArdle and Professor Suzanne Carrington for their
encouragement, advice, and support throughout this study. You have taught me a lot
and your input has been invaluable to the success of this thesis.

I am very grateful to the people who helped me conduct my fieldwork. Particular
thanks go to those staff and pupils who shared their experiences with me and gave
their time to participate in the study.

I wish to thank my family and friends for all the time spent listening to me talking
about the thesis, for the constant advice, encouragement and patience shown
throughout this process.
Lastly, I would like to thank my husband, David for supporting, loving and
encouraging me throughout the writing of this thesis. I am so grateful for the hours
you spent reading drafts, listening to me talk about the latest development and
encouraging me to continue when times got tough. I dedicate this thesis to you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 7 
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............................................. 13 
2.1 

The arts .................................................................................................................................... 13 


2.1.1  Learning in the arts ............................................................................................................... 15 
2.1.2  The arts in schools ................................................................................................................ 17 
2.1.3  Visual art within the arts ....................................................................................................... 20 
2.2 

Gifted and talented education ................................................................................................ 22 

2.2.1  Inclusive education ............................................................................................................... 23 
2.2.2  Intelligence ........................................................................................................................... 25 
2.2.3  Gifted and talented education in Australia............................................................................ 27 
2.3 

Talent and the arts .................................................................................................................. 28 

2.3.1  Identification of artistic talent ............................................................................................... 29 
2.3.2  Artistically talented students: Teaching and learning ........................................................... 31 
2.4 

Catering for artistically talented students............................................................................. 35 

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ........................................................ 37 
3.1 

Conceptual framework ........................................................................................................... 38 

3.2 

Research design ....................................................................................................................... 42 

3.3 


Fieldwork ................................................................................................................................. 43 

3.3.1  The site ................................................................................................................................. 44 
3.3.2  Stage one – Focus group interviews ..................................................................................... 44 
3.3.3  Stage two: Semi-structured one-on-one interviews .............................................................. 46 
3.4 

Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 49 

3.5 

Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 51 

3.7 

Ethics ........................................................................................................................................ 51 

3.8 

Chapter summary ................................................................................................................... 52 

CHAPTER 4: TEACHER ACCOUNTS .......................................................... 54 

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4.1 

Identification ........................................................................................................................... 54 


4.1.1  Identifying high achievers at Knightsbridge College............................................................ 55 
4.1.2  Characteristics of the artistically talented ............................................................................. 58 
4.1.3  Defining artistic talent .......................................................................................................... 62 
4.2 

Teacher experiences ................................................................................................................ 66 

4.2.1  Teaching artistically talented students .................................................................................. 66 
4.2.2  Programming for artistically talented students ..................................................................... 69 
4.2.3  Assessment ........................................................................................................................... 72 
4.2.4  Freedom and flexibility......................................................................................................... 75 
4.3 

Chapter summary ................................................................................................................... 78 

CHAPTER 5: STUDENT ACCOUNTS ........................................................... 81 
5.1 

Identification ........................................................................................................................... 86 

5.1.1  Being identified .................................................................................................................... 86 
5.1.2  Artistic talent ........................................................................................................................ 92 
5.2 

Student experiences................................................................................................................. 99 

5.2.1  Making art............................................................................................................................. 99 
5.2.2  Influences............................................................................................................................ 104 
5.2.3  Future aspirations................................................................................................................ 108 

5.2.4  The classroom environment ................................................................................................ 113 
5.2.5  Freedom and flexibility....................................................................................................... 117 
5.3 

Chapter summary ................................................................................................................. 122 

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ...................................................................... 125 
6.1 

Summary of research findings in relation to each research question ............................... 126 

6.1.1  How are artistically talented students identified within the visual art classroom?.............. 126 
6.1.2  What accounts do teachers provide of their experiences with artistically talented students in
the visual art classroom? ................................................................................................................. 128 
6.1.3  What accounts do artistically talented students give of their experiences in the visual art
classroom? ....................................................................................................................................... 129 
6.1.4  What new understandings can be brought to the teaching and learning of artistically
talented students in visual art? ......................................................................................................... 131 
6.2 

Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 135 

6.3 

Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 135 

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6.4 


Final concluding comments .................................................................................................. 136 

REFERENCE LIST ...................................................................................... 138 
APPENDIX 1................................................................................................ 146 
APPENDIX 2 ................................................................................................ 147 
APPENDIX 3................................................................................................ 149 

6


Accounts of the Visual Art Classroom: Catering for
Artistically Talented Students
In 2007 students from Knightsbridge College were involved in a
community art exhibition called “Kaleidoscope”.

A community art

representative and the curator of the exhibition chose student work from
the grade 12 cohort to represent the school in the exhibition. Student
artworks were professionally displayed and exhibited in a prominent
community area. The choice of works for this exhibition sparked interest
from teachers and students at Knightsbridge College.

A number of

student artworks that were chosen by the curators of the exhibition were
not awarded high marks when they were assessed by teachers; however
they were chosen to represent the school in a public forum. Similarly,
some works that received high marks when assessed by the teachers were

not chosen for the exhibition. It seems that in this case what constituted
quality art in the school setting was different from what constituted
quality art in the “real world”.

This experience highlights a number of points of interest with regards to
the identification of excellence in student art and student artists and how
excellence in art is catered for in the school setting.

This scenario

served as inspiration for this research and informed the design of this
study.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Inclusive education practices call for the diverse and individual needs of all students
to be met satisfactorily. The needs and experiences of artistically talented students in
Australian visual art classrooms are currently unknown.

This study addresses this

gap in research through the exploration of teaching and learning experiences in one

7


visual art classroom. Students who are talented in visual art are often not catered for
in programs for high achievers (Clark & Zimmerman, 1992; Crocker, 2000;
Zimmerman, 2004). Most schools identify high achieving students through the use
of IQ or standardised tests that are language and logic centric (Gardner, 1993;
Wright, 2003). These identification procedures often fail to identify students who

are talented in visual art (Crocker, 2000; Gardner, 1993).

Visual art is an important component of school curriculum that incorporates unique
and important teaching and learning that is not accessible through any other learning
experience (Emery, 1998). Visual art is distinguished from other disciplines through
its own pedagogical structure and knowledge base (Hurwitz & Day, 2001); it is a
visual language that helps students to perceive, express, communicate, interpret and
understand the world (Barrett, 1998).

The Queensland Government’s framework for gifted education states that students
who excel or have the potential to excel in one or more ability areas require specific
educational provisions to engage in learning and develop their abilities (Department
of Education and the Arts, 2004). While there is a considerable amount of literature
regarding gifted and talented students in general, there is a paucity of research into
the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in regular visual art
classrooms. Many schools conduct programs for students who are identified as high
achievers across a range of subject areas. Research has found that students who are
talented in visual art are commonly left unidentified and, therefore, are not catered
for in specialist programs (Clark & Zimmerman, 1992; Crocker, 2000; Zimmerman,
2004). Most research about artistically talented students has been conducted in

8


America and has explored the characteristics of artistically talented students (Clark &
Zimmerman, 1984, 1988; Zimmerman, 2004), their specific educational needs
(Clark, 1987; Hurwitz & Day, 2001), identification processes (Bachtel-Nash, 1988;
Brown et al., 2005; Clark, 1989, 1995; Clark & Zimmerman, 1992, 2001, 2004) and
the notion of the child prodigy (Golomb, 1995; Winner, 1993; Winner & Martino,
2002).


The majority of literature about artistically talented students has researched students
and teachers from exclusive programs specifically designed for the artistically
talented. This study will investigate the accounts of artistically talented students and
their teachers in the regular visual art classroom setting. It is essential to investigate
the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers within the regular
visual art classroom, as this is the most common learning environment for visual art
students. Furthermore, there is a gap in research addressing artistically talented
students and their teachers in Australia in general.

An investigation into the

experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers is necessary as it is
unknown how high school aged artistically talented students are catered for in visual
art classrooms in Australia.

Students are commonly identified as high achievers in core curriculum areas such as
mathematics and English and schools often provide these students with special
programs suited to their specific learning needs. In the same way, it is crucial that
students who are artistically talented are identified so that their specific educational
needs can be assessed and catered for specifically. One way to find out about
students’ experiences is to include them in an inquiry into the needs and experiences

9


of artistically talented students in visual art classrooms.

In addition, the


identification procedures used by teachers in Australian high school visual art
classrooms require further exploration to determine how artistically talented students
are being identified and provided for. An investigation into student and teacher
experiences will help to inform how best to plan and cater for the educational needs
of artistically talented students.

This research addresses a significant gap in the literature as the procedures used to
identify artistically talented students and the experiences of artistically talented
students and their teachers in the regular visual art classroom have not been
accounted for in the literature so far. Accordingly, the aim of this project is to
investigate procedures used to identify artistically talented students in visual art
classrooms and to explore the experiences of artistically talented students and their
teachers in visual art classrooms by examining the accounts of a group of students
and teachers at one school in South East Queensland.

The specific research

questions are:

1. How are artistically talented students identified within the visual art classroom?
2. What accounts do teachers provide of their experiences with artistically talented
students in the visual art classroom?
3. What accounts do artistically talented students give of their experiences in the
visual art classroom?
4. What new understandings can be brought to the teaching and learning of
artistically talented students in visual art?

10



This research endeavours to provide valuable information for schools as they plan
and design educational experiences that foster excellence in visual art. Findings may
be used to form new understandings about artistically talented students’ needs and
visual art experiences. These understandings hold the potential to provide teachers,
parents and others involved in the education of artistically talented students with
additional means to plan and cater for the educational needs of these students.

Chapter 2 provides a background to the study through a review of the relevant
literature. This chapter places the education of artistically talented students firstly
within the larger context of arts education and secondly within the larger context of
gifted and talented education. Chapter 2 highlights the gaps in the literature and
concludes by making a case for research that investigates the experiences of
artistically talented students and their teachers in one regular visual art classroom in
Australia.

To conduct such an inquiry, it is necessary to design an appropriate methodology for
the study. Chapter 3 outlines the methodological foundation and framework for the
thesis and describes the design of the project. Chapter 3 outlines the procedure for
how the data were generated and analysed, and who the participants were; as well as
limitations and ethical considerations.

Chapter 4 displays the data and analyses teacher accounts of the process used for
identifying artistically talented students and teacher experiences with artistically
talented students within the visual art classroom.

Chapter 4 presents a discussion

of teacher accounts and places them within the literature in this field.

11



Chapter 5 displays the data and analyses student accounts of the process used for
identifying artistically talented students and student experiences within the visual art
classroom. Examples of student work are presented together with student responses.
Chapter 5 also presents a discussion of student accounts and places them within the
literature in this field.

Chapter 6 makes comparisons between teacher accounts and student accounts and
explores their implications for future practices regarding the education of artistically
talented students. The limitations of the research are also discussed.

This study explores the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers
in visual art classrooms by examining the accounts of a group of students and
teachers at one high school in South East Queensland. Findings constitute new
knowledge in a currently under-researched area providing valuable information for
teachers, parents and others involved in the education of artistically talented students
to assist in planning and providing for the educational needs of these students. This
research provides valuable information for schools as they plan and design
educational experiences that foster excellence in visual art.

12


CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In order to conduct an inquiry focussing on student and teacher accounts of their
experiences in the visual art classroom, it is necessary to review several related
bodies of literature within the arts and within the school curriculum. The first section
of this literature review explores issues around the nature of education within the arts
in general and visual art in particular. This is followed by an exploration of gifted

and talented education and its relationship with the arts generally and visual art
specifically. Finally, the literature review explores the teaching and learning issues
surrounding artistically talented students’ experiences in the visual art classroom is
discussed.

2.1

The arts

The value of the arts is well documented by many researchers. As humans we are
confronted with the arts on a day-by-day basis through real-life experiences and the
media. It is essential for school students to access the arts through the school
curriculum so that they can decipher meaning from the world around them (Aland,
1998). The arts are understood to provide unique opportunities for “aesthetic and
sensory learning, cognitive, physical and social learning” (Queensland School
Curriculum Council, 2001, p. 12). The benefit of study in the arts extends, therefore
beyond the arts classroom.

Engagement in arts education has been found to benefit students as it has the
potential to facilitate enhanced learning and outcomes (1999; Gelineau, 2004; Hess,
1991; Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000). In addition, a young person’s motivation to learn

13


and their capacity to achieve at higher levels is increased through participation in the
arts (Catterall et al., 1999). Clark and Zimmerman (1994; 2004) recognise that the
arts have the power to engage students and develop superior creative thinking, self
concept, problem solving, self expression, risk taking and co-operation in students.
Due to the expressive nature of arts experiences, students can also be seen to benefit

emotionally, culturally and socially through involvement with the arts (Aland, 1998;
Barrett, 1998; Boyd, 1998; Emery, 1998).

Gelineau (2004) makes a strong argument that engagement in an arts-rich curriculum
leads to enhanced abilities in all subject and intelligence areas. At the same time,
Eisner (1998) warns that attempts to justify the arts on the basis of their non-art
outcomes may fail to recognise the real benefits and outcomes of arts experiences.
Aesthetic experiences provided through the arts distinguish them from other learning
experiences (Ballantyne, 2001; Emery, 1998). While the arts are often justified by
their potential to facilitate success in other subject areas, it is important to focus on
the significance of arts experiences for aesthetic reasons (Aland, 1998; Barrett,
1998).

While the arts can be seen to benefit students cognitively, socially and culturally, “it
is the aesthetic domain of the arts that makes them unique and vital to the human
experience” (Ballantyne, 2001, p. 1). Aesthetic experiences are intrinsic to arts
experiences where enjoyment and fulfilment is achieved (Emery, 1998). Music,
dance, drama, visual art and media each embody unique aesthetic experiences that
can’t be obtained in any other way (Emery, 1998). When describing the nature of
the arts, the syllabus highlights the aesthetic domain that students value in “the
enjoyment and satisfaction they get from their involvement in these expressions of

14


the human spirit” (Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001, p. 5).

The

fulfilment of the aesthetic experiences provided through the arts is what

distinguishes them from other learning experiences.

2.1.1 Learning in the arts
Whilst there are many facets of teaching and learning that are generic to all subject
areas, each subject area requires teaching and learning expertise that is subject
specific. Due to the unique characteristics of arts experiences, teaching and learning
in the arts requires specific teacher training and expertise (Ballantyne, 2001; Emery,
1998). As a result, student and teacher experiences in the visual art classroom are
likely to be different from other subject areas.

The arts are also significant as they allow students to discover nonverbal modes of

communication (Smith, 1999). These significant functions that are achieved through
the arts are not accessible through any other means or subjects at school and
therefore it is imperative that the arts play an important and meaningful part in the
school curriculum (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Smith, 1999).

Abbs’ (1989) comments on arts education highlight the abstract nature of arts
pedagogy, while also emphasising some of the distinct characteristics of learning and
teaching that are unique to the arts:
The grammar of the arts therefore cannot be introduced through a
series of prescribed schematic exercises divorced from the
animating energies of feeling, sense, perception and imagination.
They must be introduced as a necessary part of expressive activity
seeking formal articulation…The art teacher’s task is to promote
15


that reciprocal play between the repertoire of artistic conventions
inherited through the culture and that innate proclivity in the

individual and group for symbolic expression. (Abbs, 1989, p. 3839)

According to The Arts: Years 1-10 syllabus document, published by Queensland
Schools Authority, arts pedagogy should be learner-centred (Queensland School
Curriculum Council, 2001). In this approach the teacher adopts the role of the
facilitator who guides and scaffolds learning and students learn through the active
construction of meaning. It is recognised through this approach that knowledge is
viewed as continually changing and constructed on prior experiences. Students are
encouraged to practise critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision
making through the learner-centred approach to pedagogy (Queensland School
Curriculum Council, 2001). Similarly, Burton (2000) offers an approach to arts
pedagogy where students draw on their experiences to engage in the arts as makers
and appraisers. Burton emphasises the opportunities for complex and real-world
meaning making through engagement in the arts when a learner-centred approach to
arts pedagogy is used.

Teaching and learning in the arts emphasises the value of process as well as product.
While many subject areas focus on assessing the end product of a student’s work, it
is common for subjects in the arts to use authentic assessment, where the artistic
process, exploration of ideas and discovery are seen as integral components of
learning (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Eisner, 2004). Authentic assessment in visual
art involves the active engagement of students in learning and instruction, where
students play an important part in determining their achievements (Clark &

16


Zimmerman, 2004). Consequently, authentic assessment in visual art is worthwhile,
meaningful and significant for students (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Eisner, 1999).


In maths and science, student achievement is primarily assessed through tests,
assignments and exams that occur at the end of the learning period.

Practical

assessments in visual art, for example, may require students to keep a visual diary
throughout the making experience that details their thoughts, reflections, decisions,
research, and artistic processes. While the end product (the artwork) is considered in
assessing arts outcomes, much of the learning can be seen through the artistic
processes (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004). The unique value that the arts give to
processes as well as product place the arts in a precarious situation within the school
curriculum. This is particularly concerning in the current climate of educational
accountability through the justification of student outcomes.

2.1.2 The arts in schools
In the last 40 years visual art, drama, music, dance, and media have been commonly
grouped under the umbrella term The Arts. When exploring the experiences of
Queensland students and teachers in the art classroom, it is important to investigate
the context of the arts within the Queensland school curriculum.

The arts are

identified as one of the eight Key Learning Areas (KLAs) by the Queensland Studies
Authority in the The Arts: Years 1-10 syllabus. Visual art, dance, drama, media and
music are recognised as specific disciplines or strands within the arts KLA. The arts
are commonly taught by generalist teachers in primary schools across Queensland,
with the exception of music which is often taught by a specialist teacher. The arts

17



are generally taught as elective studies in high schools by specialist teachers in each
discipline.

Education in visual art, dance, drama, media and music is usually termed arts
education.

The individual arts disciplines are united by the common goal of

expression - whether emotions, stories, discourses or ideas (Emery, 1998). Many
researchers have identified expressive experiences in the arts as unique to the human
condition. Barnes (2002) acknowledges that ignoring the arts would be similar to
ignoring what makes us human. If artistic experiences are fundamental to being
human, it is essential that the arts are incorporated into every student’s experience at
school (Barnes, 2002). Emery makes the point that the arts “have become vehicles
of expression so intrinsic to our culture that it would be unthinkable to offer a school
program without them” (Emery, 1998, p. 1). Furthermore, Smith (1999) clearly
states that the arts provide insight into significant human ideas and values,
worthwhile qualities of experience.

There is a current trend in primary and middle schools in Australia towards
integration within the arts. Teachers are often responsible for teaching all of the arts
in the generalist primary or middle school classroom. Integration can be seen as a
superficial way for one teacher to achieve the goal of teaching five very unique and
challenging disciplines. A different understanding of integration is when the arts are
integrated across KLAs such as English and maths. Sometimes this integration is
seen as a solution to a crowded curriculum and heavy emphasis on literacy and
numeracy. Aland (1998), Barrett (1998), Boyd (1998) and Emery (1998) warn that
authentic integration in the arts is very difficult to achieve satisfactorily. Emery


18


argues that inadequate integration has the potential for reducing the arts to
“meaningless, busying activities” (Emery, 1998, p. 8). Barrett (1998) emphasises the
importance of a discipline-specific arts curriculum in primary and middle education
settings, where each discipline is taught as a discrete and specialised subject area that
requires distinct experiences and knowledge.

One factor impacting on the position of the arts within schools, and reflected in
Australian education systems, is the notion that the arts are not as important as other
subject areas. Despite the arts recognition as a KLA in the Queensland education
curriculum, more weight (as measured by time) is commonly given to subjects such
as English and mathematics. Barnes (2002) argues that this lack of value in arts
education is due in some regards to the immeasurable qualities that are unique to arts
experiences. While traditional mathematical/linguistic subjects produce clear results
that are easily quantifiable and justifiable, arts subjects rely a great deal on
interpretation, reflection and creative expression (Gardner, 1993).

Boyd (1998) highlights some of the community attitudes towards the notion of the
artist:
From the point of view of the community the word 'artist' conjures a
vision of a temperamental romantic leading a carefree life- a
bohemian unencumbered by the mundane constraints that beset the
ordinary wage-earner. (Boyd, 1998, p. 2)
Wright (2003) suggests that the community frequently misunderstands what the arts
are and what value they have. Boyd (1998) agrees that communities often fail to
recognise the worthwhile outcomes that the arts produce and the benefit of the arts to
society. This ambivalent community attitude towards the arts often flows through to


19


schools, affecting the way the arts are taught and placed within the school curriculum
(Boyd, 1998; Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000; Wright, 2003). In an attempt to dispel
community attitudes towards the arts, secondary arts departments find themselves
continuously defending the value and position of their subjects within the school
curriculum. Currently, according to Saatchi and Saatchi (2000) the lack of value
placed on arts education by parents, students, and administrators impedes students’
subject choices and participation in the arts in Australia.

The arts are often appreciated by parents, students and administrators for their
entertainment value and put on show regularly to promote the school in the public
eye (Boyd, 1998). However, frequently they are marginalised through allocation of
time and resources (Boyd, 1998; McArdle & Piscitelli, 2002). In particular, visual
art is often sidelined in primary schools, used as a busying activity and called on for
decoration in public forums such as fetes or festivals (Boyd, 1998; McArdle &
Piscitelli, 2002).

It appears that the under-representation of students talented in visual art in programs
for high achievers may be due in some respects to the lack of value placed on arts
education in schools (Clark & Zimmerman, 2002; Crocker, 2000; Saatchi & Saatchi,
2000). This issue requires further investigation to determine whether the needs of
artistically talented students are being met in Australian schools.

2.1.3 Visual art within the arts
While the arts strands are grouped together and positioned equally within The Arts:
Years 1-10 syllabus in Queensland, it is important to recognise the distinctive nature
20



of each arts discipline. In order to explore the experiences of artistically talented
students and visual art teachers, it is necessary to recognise the nature of visual art
within the arts.

Visual art has its own special pedagogical structure and knowledge base which
distinguishes it from the other arts disciplines (Barrett, 1998; Emery, 1998). The
justification for including visual art in the school curriculum should be based on the
essential contributions that come from studying visual art (Hurwitz & Day, 2001).
Visual art provides students with “a fundamental lens of understanding through
which they can view and interpret the world in which they live” (Hurwitz & Day,
2001, p. 26). Walker (2007) affirms that visual art provides opportunities for unique
and important teaching and learning that is not accessible through any other learning
experience.

Art is often described as a visual language, a way of perceiving,

expressing, communicating, interpreting and understanding our world (Emery, 1998;
Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001). Visual art provides opportunities for
students to become visually literate in past, present and future cultures and societies
(Aland, 1998; Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001). Students make and
display images and objects in visual art that give them satisfaction and enjoyment
that cannot be achieved through other means (Barrett, 1998; Boyd, 1998; Queensland
School Curriculum Council, 2001).

Through the above review of the literature, a case has been made for the arts and
visual art within the school curriculum and society in general. Arts education offers
unique and valuable learning experiences that are essential for all human beings and
therefore should play a significant and essential role in the school curriculum (Boyd,


21


1998; Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Wright, 2003).

Yet the arts are often

marginalised and viewed as optional extras in the school curriculum (Saatchi &
Saatchi, 2000). The marginalisation of the arts in school programs and curriculum is
a current and concerning issue and requires further attention in educational research
and practice (Barnes, 2002; Wright, 2003). This marginalisation of the arts extends
to gifted and talented education, where the arts are often not considered in programs
for gifted and talented students in schools. In particular, those students talented in
visual art are often left unidentified and therefore are not catered for in programs for
high achievers (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004). Consequently, the failure of many
school programs for high achievers to recognise talents in visual arts requires further
investigation (Winner & Martino, 2002; Zimmerman, 2004).

2.2

Gifted and talented education

In order to explore the views of artistically talented students in visual art classrooms
it is necessary to investigate the current literature surrounding gifted and talented
education. Scholars offer various definitions, identification processes and teaching
philosophies concerning the education of high achieving and exceptional students.
An exploration of the literature in this area exposes a variety of differing approaches
to and conceptions of gifted and talented education.

There are numerous terms that are used today and have been used in the past to label

very high achieving students.

The term gifted and talented is currently the most

commonly used in most literature, policy and practice when describing very high
achieving students. Recently, the term best and brightest has been used in some

22


Education Queensland schools with programs aimed at high achieving students
(Department of Education and the Arts, 2006). The debate over the terms used to
label high achieving students is particularly relevant when considering the labelling
of high achievers in the arts. For the purpose of this study, it is necessary for a
common understanding of terms and concepts in gifted and talented education to be
established so that students can be identified and catered for appropriately.

Gagne (2002) proposes a differentiated model of giftedness and talent in an attempt
to clarify the use of the terms gifted and talented. Gagne argues that a gift is a
student’s innate potential whereas talents are skills that can be learnt. Winner and
Martino (2002) suggest that this distinction leads to those who have a high IQ or are
exceptional academically being labelled as gifted, whilst those who demonstrate
exceptional ability in the arts are labelled as talented. This distinction between talent
and giftedness is disputed by Winner and Martino who argue that students who are
talented in art can also be defined as gifted. This study will use the terms artistically
talented or students talented in visual art to describe students who are capable of
excelling in the visual art discipline. When discussing students who are very high
achievers in general, this study will use the term gifted and talented as this is the
most commonly used term in the literature.


2.2.1 Inclusive education
Inclusive practices are particularly relevant when considering the education of gifted
and talented students. Inclusive practices in schools aim to provide experiences
where diversity and success for all are valued and celebrated (Department of
Education and the Arts, 2005). It is important that gifted and talented students are
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identified so that the barriers to their learning can be reduced and their educational
and social outcomes can be maximised (Department of Education and the Arts,
2005). It is also necessary that all students understand and value diversity “so that
they have the knowledge and skills for positive participation in a just, equitable and
democratic global society” (Department of Education and the Arts, 2005, p. 1).

Gifted and talented education has developed out of the need to provide for all
students in diverse student populations. Gifted and talented students require specific
educational provisions to enable them to engage in learning and develop their
abilities (Department of Education and the Arts, 2004). Class tasks and goals are
often geared towards the average student, with teachers spending the majority of
their time helping those students who struggle (Gross, 2004). Often it is the high
achievers who are left to their own devices or asked to instruct and help other
students. Many people expect that gifted and talented students will achieve on their
own regardless of their experiences in the classroom (Gross, 2004). As a result, it is
common for gifted and talented students to become disengaged at school, even
adopting behaviour problems to account for their boredom (Csikszentmihalyi,
Rathunde, & Whalen, 1996). This disengagement becomes particularly evident in
the middle years of schooling (ages 10-15) (Chaffey, 2005; Csikszentmihalyi et al.,
1996).

Schools play a vital role in the promotion of inclusive practices when it comes to the

education of gifted and talented students.

It is important that schools actively

nurture individual students’ gifts and talents, providing a supportive environment

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