30 Years on from Kangan: An Analysis of the Current
Policy Position of TAFE Queensland

GREG MCMILLAN
A/Dip. Bus (Retail), B. Bus. (Acc), Grad Dip (FET), MPET

Being a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Education within the
School of Learning and Professional Studies, Faculty of Education,
Queensland University of Technology

August 2007


KEY WORDS FOR CATALOGUING
Australia, policy, vocational education and training, TAFE, social service and
economic utility roles, globalisation, economic rationalism, managerialism, human
capital theory, case study, content analysis, constant comparative method.

i


ii


30 Years on From Kangan: An analysis of the
current policy position of TAFE Queensland.
ABSTRACT
Within Australia, Vocational Education and Training (VET) encompasses the
Technical and Further Education (TAFE) sector, private providers, community
education and training, and work-based training. Additionally, some VET activities
are embedded within the secondary school and university sectors. As the major

provider of Government-funded vocational education and training, TAFE has
undergone significant change since its establishment in the 1970’s. Historically,
TAFE has provided broader education and social opportunities for individuals
beyond a narrower focus on the achievement of training outcomes for economic
benefits. However, shifts in policy direction in 1980’s and 1990’s have seen the
delineation between broader education and economic outcomes becoming less
distinct.

While this is perhaps true of all education sectors, it has potentially

impacted more on TAFE than any other sector.

This thesis investigated these

impacts within the context of TAFE’s social service and economic utility roles. This
was undertaken by analysing seven seminal Commonwealth and Queensland
documents and by analysing the findings of interviews with six senior executives
within Queensland’s Department of Employment and Training and TAFE. The key
findings of this thesis indicate that TAFE Queensland continues to perform a number
of functions or activities that can be associated with a social service role. However,
the findings also indicate that, for TAFE Queensland, there has been a shift towards
an economic utility role. Since the Kangan Report (1974), TAFE’s role has become
more focussed on meeting Queensland’s economic and industry needs within a broad
view that Australia needs a flexible workforce, qualified to industry standards of
competence and able to compete in a globalised world.

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iv



TABLE OF CONTENTS:
KEY WORDS FOR CATALOGUING.............................................................. i
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS: ............................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................... ix
LIST OF APPENDICES................................................................................ ix
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................... x
STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP ............................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE: CONTEXT OF THE STUDY .............................................. 1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH ....................................................... 1
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................. 3
1.3 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE RESEARCH: ................................................. 6
1.3.1 Importance of the area ............................................................................. 6
1.3.2 Practitioner Research ............................................................................... 7
1.3.3 Significant Research and Study Relevant to this Thesis ....................... 8
1.3.4 Gaps within Existing Research .............................................................. 10
1.4 POLICY: DEFINITION................................................................................ 11
1.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY ..................... 12
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS........................................................................ 12
1.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................ 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................. 15
2.1 EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT FOR UNDERSTANDING TAFE IN
AUSTRALIA ........................................................................................................ 15
2.1.1 An Overview of the Australian Education System .............................. 15
2.1.2 The General Role and Purpose of Education ....................................... 17
2.1.3 The Role and Purpose of Technical and Further Education .............. 18
2.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IMPACTING ON EDUCATION

POLICY IN AUSTRALIA .................................................................................. 21
2.2.1 Globalisation and the influences of Liberalism.................................... 21
2.2.2 Economic Rationalism and Education Policy....................................... 22
2.2.3 Human Capital Theory........................................................................... 25
2.2.4 Corporate Managerialism ...................................................................... 27
2.2.5 Summary.................................................................................................. 28
2.3 THE VET MARKET AND THE MARKETISATION OF TAFE............ 29
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2.3.1 The Development of a VET market....................................................... 29
2.3.2 TAFE and VET ....................................................................................... 33
2.3.3 VET and TAFE’s Role from a Policy Perspective ............................... 34
2.3.4 VET and TAFE’s Role from a Research Perspective .......................... 35
2.3.5 Funding of VET and TAFE.................................................................... 37
2.3.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 37
2.4 KEY REPORTS AND MILESTONESS IMPACTING ON TAFE IN
AUSTRALIA ........................................................................................................ 38
2.4.1 The Kangan Era ...................................................................................... 38
2.4.2 TAFE in the 1980’s and 1990’s .............................................................. 41
2.4.3 TAFE in the Early 21st Century............................................................ 44
2.4.4 TAFE Queensland ................................................................................... 45
2.4.5 Summary .................................................................................................. 48
2.5 A SOCIAL SERVICE AND ECONOMIC UTILITY ROLE OF TAFE .. 49
2.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 49
2.5.2 TAFE’s Role from a Social Service Perspective................................... 51
2.5.3 TAFE’s Role from an Economic Utility Perspective............................ 53
2.5.4 Tensions between a Social Service and Economic Utility Perspective55
2.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER THREE: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK................................61

3.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK................. 61
3.2 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK........................................................ 63
3.2.1 Key Influences that Impact on the Conceptual Framework ............... 63
3.2.2 A Continuum View of a Social Service and Economic Utility Role.... 65
3.2.3 The Conceptual Framework .................................................................. 66
3.3 PRESENTING A POLICY POSITION: A MODEL.................................. 69
3.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................................................................................ 72
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................73
4.1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE FOR THE STUDY.............................. 73
4.2 THE RESEARCH STRATEGY – A CASE STUDY .................................. 75
4.3 DATA COLLECTION .................................................................................. 76
4.3.1 Policy Documents .................................................................................... 76
4.3.2 Interview Participants............................................................................. 78
4.4 DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 83
4.4.1 Policy Documents .................................................................................... 83

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4.4.2 Interviews................................................................................................. 86
4.4.3 Relationship of Data to the Research Questions .................................. 88
4.5 TRUSTWORTHINESS AND CREDIBILITY............................................ 90
4.6 THE RESEARCHER AND RESEARCHER BIAS.................................... 92
4.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS.................................................................. 93
4.8 LIMITATIONS .............................................................................................. 94
4.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................ 94
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS - A Policy Position ............................................. 95
5.1 INTRODUCTION: ........................................................................................ 95
5.2 POLICY DOCUMENT ANALYSIS: DETERMINING A POLICY
POSITION ............................................................................................................ 96

5.2.1 National Policy Documents .................................................................... 97
5.2.2 State Policy Documents ........................................................................ 107
5.2.3 Summary and Discussion on all Policy Documents ........................... 119
5.3 INTERVIEW ANALYSIS: DETERMINING A POLICY POSITION.. 123
5.3.1 Introduction........................................................................................... 123
5.3.2 Interview Findings ................................................................................ 125
5.3.3 Summary and Discussion of Interviews .............................................. 135
5.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY.............................................................................. 137
CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS - A Policy Emphasis ........................................ 139
6.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 139
6.2 A LACK OF CLARITY OF TAFE QUEENSLAND POLICY............... 139
6.2.1 Policy: A Framework or an Explicit Position: ................................... 139
6.2.2 Policy Gaps ............................................................................................ 141
6.2.3 TAFE as a Public Provider .................................................................. 142
6.2.4 Individual Institutes or a TAFE Sector............................................... 144
6.2.5 TAFE as a Policy Arm of Government ............................................... 146
6.2.6 Summary................................................................................................ 148
6.3 ROLE OF TAFE QUEENSLAND INSTITUTE DIRECTORS.............. 148
6.3.1 Policy Developers, Influencers or Implementers ............................... 149
6.3.2 Institute Director or Senior Bureaucrats............................................ 150
6.3.3 Political Influences ................................................................................ 151
6.3.4 Summary................................................................................................ 152
6.4 FOCUS ON KEY PERFORMANCE MEASURES (KPIs) ..................... 153
6.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY.............................................................................. 155

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CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND ISSUES CHAPTER..............................157
7.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 157

7.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES INFLUENCING POLICY:............ 158
7.2.1 A Social Service Emphasis.................................................................... 158
7.2.2 An Economic Utility Emphasis ............................................................ 161
7.2.3 Balancing Two Apparently Dichotomous views................................. 165
7.3 INFLUENCES ON A SOCIAL OR ECONOMIC EMPHASIS .............. 170
7.3.1 A Lack of Clarity of TAFE Queensland Policy .................................. 171
7.3.2 The Role of TAFE Queensland Institute Directors: .......................... 174
7.3.3 Focus on Key Performance Measure................................................... 176
7.3.4 Summary:............................................................................................... 178
7.4 RELATED ISSUES...................................................................................... 178
7.4.1 The Politicising of the Australian VET System .................................. 179
7.4.2 VET-TAFE Reforms: integrating or disengaging social and economic
goals? ............................................................................................................... 182
7.4.3 Is there a Role for a Public Provider TAFE Sector in the Future? .. 186
7.4.4 The Limitations of VET research ........................................................ 190
7.5 SUMMARY................................................................................................... 192
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................195
8.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 195
8.2 THE STUDY................................................................................................. 195
8.2.1 The Purpose and Significance of the Study ........................................ 195
8.2.2 The Literature Review .......................................................................... 196
8.2.3 The Conceptual Framework and Methodology ................................. 196
8.2.4 Findings .................................................................................................. 197
8.2.4 Emerging Issues..................................................................................... 198
8.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY.............................................................. 199
8.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY................................................................ 202
8.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE .......................................................... 203
8.6 LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................ 204
8.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH........................ 204
8.8 CONCLUSION............................................................................................. 205

REFERENCES ...........................................................................................224

viii


LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Features and Access Implications of Two Views of TAFE......................... 50
Table 2: Social Service and Economic Utility Conceptual Framework .................... 68
Table 3: Example of the alignment of ‘intent’ in the Data Collection Table............. 85

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Key Influences on a Social Service and Economic Utility Role ................ 64
Figure 2: Continuum View of Social Service and Economic Utility......................... 65
Figure 3: A Model for Visually Presenting a Policy Position.................................... 71
Figure 4: Relationship between Research Questions, Data Collection and Analysis 89
Figure 5: Data Collection Steps ................................................................................. 95
Figure 6: Policy Position - National Policy Documents .......................................... 105
Figure 7: Policy Position – State Policy Documents ............................................... 116
Figure 8: Policy Position – Combined Policy Documents....................................... 119
Figure 9: Policy Position – Interviews ..................................................................... 135
Figure 10: Policy Position - Documents and Interviews.......................................... 137
Figure 11: Policy Position - Documents and Interviews.......................................... 157
Figure 12: A TAFE System Model .......................................................................... 199

LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: DET Structure ..................................................................................... 207
Appendix 2: Research Information Pack ................................................................. 208
Appendix 3: Interview Pre-Reading......................................................................... 212
Appendix 4: Data Collection Table.......................................................................... 215
Appendix 5: Data Collection Table – Kangan Report (1974).................................. 216

Appendix 6: Data Collection Table – A Bridge to the Future (1998 – 2003).......... 217
Appendix 7: Data Collection Table – Shaping our Future (2004 – 2010) ............... 218
Appendix 8: Data Collection Table – Skilling Queensland (2001 - 2004) .............. 219
Appendix 9: Data Collection Table – Education and Training Reforms (2002) ..... 220
Appendix 10: Data Collection Table – DET Strategic Plan (2003 – 2007)............. 221
Appendix 11: Data Collection Table – TAFE Queensland Strategic Plan (2003 2006) ............................................................................................ 222
Appendix 12: Policy Emphasis Table ...................................................................... 223

ix


LIST OF ACRONYMS
ACE

Adult and Community Education

ACOTAFE

Australian Committee on Technical and Further Education

ANTA

Australian National Training Authority

AQF

Australian Qualification Framework

AVTS


Australian Vocational Training System

CAE’s

Colleges of Advanced Education

CBT

Competency Based Training

CEET

Centre for the Economics of Education and Training

DET

Department of Employment and Training

DETA

Department of Education, Training and the Arts

DEET

Department of Employment, Education and Training

DETIR

Department of Employment Training and Industrial Relations


DEVET

Department of Employment

DEVETIR

Department of Employment, Vocational Education and Training and
Industrial Relations

ETRF

Education and Training Reforms for the Future

ITAB’s

Industry Training Advisory Boards

MCEETYA

Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth
Affairs

MINCO

ANTA Ministerial Council

NAS

New Apprenticeship Schemes


NTF

National Training Framework

NTP’s

National Training Packages

QEVET

Queensland Employment, Vocational Education and Training Board

RTO

Registered Training Organisation

TAFE

Technical and Further Education

TAFE*TEQ

TAFE, Training and Employment Queensland

TDQ

TAFE Directors Queensland

VET


Vocational Education and Training

VOCED

Vocational Education and Training Research Database

x


STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To best
of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or
written by another person except where due reference is made.

Greg McMillan

xi


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Morgan (1997) cites the allegory of the cave presented in Plato’s The Republic. In
this allegory, people are chained inside a cave so they cannot move and the cave
dwellers can only see themselves and their shadows. The cave dwellers equate the
shadows with reality, naming them, talking about them and linking the outside
sounds with their movements on the wall. As Socrates relates, if one of the
inhabitants were allowed to leave, they would realise the shadows are of a more
complex reality and the knowledge and perceptions of their fellow dwellers are
distorted and flawed. If they were to leave and return to the cave, they would never
be able to live in the old ways since for them the world would be a different place.

I express my sincere appreciation to the following people who have encouraged and
supported me in my journey that has allowed me to move outside my cave so I now
view vocational education and training in Australia, and the TAFE sector, in a much
more informed way than before.
My supervisors have been appropriately demanding, yet incredibly supportive. Most
significant has been Dr Lisa Ehrich (QUT) who has been with me throughout the
entire journey. Mere words are inadequate to express my appreciation to Lisa for her
support and guidance. Dr Neil Cranston (UQ) for his early contributions,
particularly on the development of key diagrams and candid discussions; and more
recently to Dr. Mary O’Keeffe (USQ), for her thoughtful and constructive
contributions.
To the elite interviewees, who remain unnamed, I express my appreciation for
without their willingness to contribute, there is no thesis.
Critical friends provided useful and insightful contributions to the development of
this thesis. My thanks go to Andrew Walker for his support in the early days of
researching the key issues and Pat Roche for her guidance and critical thinking.
My thanks also go to many work colleagues across several institutes. In particular, I
thank Nik Babovic, Mary Campbell, Andrea Harris and Kerrie Boyce who were
often used to share ideas and concepts. I also express sincere appreciation to Bob
McAulay as one who supported my endeavours and constantly encouraged me to
think beyond the obvious.
Personal friends are also important and, whether they realised it or not, they have
played a vital role in helping me throughout this journey. I give my sincere
appreciation to Steve and Ann Murray, Pam and Fred Bol, Mike and Beris Ludwig
and Trish and Jes Kirk.
A part-time study program of some 26 years can only be achieved with tremendous
support from those closest to you. To my wife Gillian, I simply say ‘Thank you;
with you by my side, anything is possible and everything is achievable’. To our
daughters, Georgie, Cass and Alex, I say: “It is an honour and privilege to be your
Dad and I wish you all the best for the future. Constantly step outside ‘your cave’;

always with a desire to learn more so you can enrich your life and the lives of others
with whom you come in contact”.
xii


CHAPTER ONE: CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
The Australian education system is a tiered system comprising primary, secondary
and post-secondary education.

Within post-secondary education, there exists a

variety of public and private universities and colleges and a system broadly defined
as Vocational Education and Training (VET) that permeates through both the
secondary and post-secondary environs, and within the public and private provider
domains. The Technical and Further Education (TAFE) sector resides within this
broader VET system with TAFE Institutes undertaking the role of the major public
provider within each State.

TAFE had a monopoly on technical and further

education and training until the early 1990’s, when the concept of a VET market was
created to open up this emerging market to greater competition as part of Federal
Government policy (Goozee, 2001). In line with greater competition and other
economic and corporate shifts, the Australian TAFE sector underwent significant
reform in the decades following its inception in 1974 under the auspices of the
Kangan Report (1974). Major reform was triggered during the late 1980’s and early
1990’s by the influence of reports such as those by Dawkins and Holding (1987),
Dawkins (1988, 1989), Deveson (1990) and the development of the Australian
National Training Authority (ANTA) through the ANTA Act 1992.


Political, economic and education policy influences have created an environment
whereby the role and purpose of TAFE is less clear than ever before. As a result, a
number of key questions become important. Should the role of TAFE be to provide
a broader social service and education focus, or should it be an economic tool of
government established to achieve economic gains? Is it the role of government to
invest in education and training on behalf of individuals or should the individual
beneficiaries of education and training pay for themselves?

Being the public

provider, does TAFE have a social service role to play beyond other providers within
the VET market? Has the policy influence of economic rationalism swung TAFE’s
policy emphasis toward an economic agenda? What combination of social and
economic imperatives should be a focus for the public provision of technical and
further education?

1


From a social service perspective, TAFE’s role can be described as one in which ‘the
individual is TAFE’s primary focus and equity of access within a broad framework
of social concern is the guiding principle’ (Powles & Anderson, 1996, p.98). This
implies that, in addition to teaching specific vocational skills, the additional
acquiring of such knowledge and skills as the development of adaptability, social
responsibility and the personal development of a student should be supported.
Further, a social service view advocates the subsidising of the public provision of
education and training to support those who need additional assistance to overcome,
for example, affordability and accessibility barriers. The notion of social service
does not negate the focus on assisting a person to gain a job (Ferrier & Anderson,

1998; Kangan, 1974; Lloyd, 1976); rather, a social service view reflects positively on
the concepts of recurrent education and lifelong learning.

From an economic-utility perspective, TAFE is one channel through which to
promote economic development.

The rationale is that the economy drives

enrolments, determines their social distribution and influences the nature of student
demand. In this way government can minimise ‘frivolous consumption’ through the
management of education and training as a commercial transaction rather than as a
process of social and cultural formation (Powles & Anderson, 1996). From a human
capital paradigm, education becomes skill formation, with the objective of boosting
industry productivity and competitiveness rather than contributing to social and
personal development (Marginson, 1993; Powles & Anderson, 1996).

The tensions that lie between the social service and economic functions of TAFE
have evolved in a globalised world where economic, political and associated
influences have developed in an education policy framework since the 1980’s
(Anderson, Brown, & Rushbrook, 2004; Marshall & Peters, 1999). These tensions
have influenced a paradigm shift expanding the concept of investment in education
to a broader concept of investment in human capital (Gough, 1994; Johnston, 1997;
Kenway, 1999; Marginson, 1993, 2000) that more directly relates the development of
human capital into an economic benefit.

These influences also reflect broader

tensions between two notions of investment in human capital: a neo-liberal
perspective that seeks private investment in education by the education consumer
(Korton, 1995; Mander, 1996), and a liberal progressive view which mandates

2


government intervention as a means of maximising the benefit of investment into
human capital (Giddens, 1994; Thurrow, 1996). In the Australian context, reflective
of neo-liberal influences on national education agendas, there has been a
proliferation of private provider activities throughout all education sectors.

Adding further tension to education policy has been the phenomenon of globalisation
(Wells, Carnochan, Slayton, Allen, & Vasudeva, 1998) that, when associated with a
pervading international economic rationalist environment, has increasingly linked
with economic policy (Anderson et al., 2004; Kenway, 1999; Pusey, 1994; Taylor,
1996). Within this economic rationalist environment, corporate managerialism, that
is the influence of private sector management ideologies and practices on public
sector organisations, has impacted particularly on public sector management
practices throughout the western world. This has moved public sector management
toward corporate efficiencies and effectiveness more associated with broader
economic agendas than the core public, or social service functions that had arguably
been their primary charter (Poulson, 1996; Seddon & Lawrence, 1995; Self, 2000)

These issues become particularly important when identifying the current position of
TAFE within the broader global economy. Thus, it is timely for a review of current
TAFE policy to be undertaken as a basis for developing a future policy position
about the renewal, revitalisation and re-conceptualisation of TAFE’s role (Veenker &
Cummins 2001).
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The thesis uses the report that spearheaded the establishment of TAFE, the Kangan
Report (1974), and six other seminal Commonwealth and Queensland State
documents, to determine the current policy position of TAFE Queensland. The
following research questions are addressed:


•

What is the current policy position of TAFE Queensland with respect to the
emphasis placed on a social service and economic utility role as evidenced by:
o

strategic policy documents that impact on TAFE Queensland, and

o

the views of senior executives who influence the development and
implementation of TAFE Queensland policy?
3


•

What influences are shaping a TAFE Queensland policy emphasis towards
either a social service or economic utility role, as evidenced by the views of
these senior officers?

The complexity of issues that impact on a social service or economic utility role for
TAFE can be understood by considering the trends that have emerged over recent
years that have influenced the Vocational Education and Training agenda, and
specifically TAFE as a key provider in this market. Marginson (1993) has indicated
that some of these trends included:

•


The linking of education to economic development;

•

The introduction of the view that a key priority for the vocationalist/training
agenda is that workers need to be multi-skilled, flexible and responsive to labour
market changes;

•

The implementation of centralised policy making and a decentralisation of
administration of policy (devolution);

•

A shift to corporate managerialism in education reflecting commercial business
practices that focus on outcomes and outputs;

•

An introduction of economic rationalism into education that has led to a
marginalisation of social justice/equity; and

•

The implementation of privatisation and competition policy and practices across
government activities including traditional social services domains such as
education.

These trends can be seen in the way that an economic rationalist and a human capital

perspective have influenced Government policy on education (generally) and TAFE
(specifically) through the linking of educational activities directly to economic
performance measures. With these trends, there is the perception that education is
now seen as either an investment in the future or consumption of expenditure rather
than a social good; and a belief higher qualifications equate to greater economic
productivity (Gough, 1994; Johnson, 1997; Kenway, 1999; Marginson, 1993).
Furthermore, economic rationalism and corporate managerialism in the public sector
have influenced policy and management practices. These influences are evident

4


through the use of cost-efficiency justifications to meet democratically determined
ends, emphasising a focus on the ends, not the means; and a focus on outputs not
inputs by tying social justice to economic imperatives. A consequence of these
trends is the growth of the user pays concept, resulting from limited government
funding (Seddon & Lawrence, 1995; Self, 2000; Smith, Ferrier, & Burke, 1999).
Arguably, both for the VET system and TAFE, the focus now appears to be more on
the production of graduates to meet economic needs than on the social and cultural
development of individuals who can contribute more broadly to society. Other
important trends or policy shifts include the acknowledgement that lifelong learning
is an economic as well as a social imperative. There is also the issue of globalisation
and its impact on individuals, organisations and society, in general, as Australia’s
labour, financial and other markets become more influenced by global markets.
Further, there is a general movement away from the welfare state, shifting social
justice responsibilities back to organisations, individuals, families and the
community generally (Callaghy, 1993; Carl, 1994; Wells et al., 1998).

There is evidence of intent by Commonwealth and State governments to support a
public provider of VET (ANTA, 1998, 2004; Queensland Government, 2001a,

2003a).

While there is a TAFE sector, there will be government, industry,

community, teacher, management and individual expectations of what TAFE is and
should be. In addressing the research questions identified earlier in this section, this
thesis aims to add to a body of knowledge that informs key stakeholders of the
implications of current education and economic policy by understanding:

•

The contemporary social service and economic utility influences and issues
facing TAFE Queensland;

•

The current position of TAFE Queensland in relation to these influences and
issues; and

•

The gaining of insight into policy directions that could lead the way towards a
desired position in the future.

5


1.3 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE RESEARCH:
1.3.1 Importance of the area
While TAFE, in itself, may not be able to directly affect government policy, or the

size of public expenditure on the VET system, it does have a significant role to play
in delivering Australia’s broader knowledge requirements.

TAFE is the major

provider of public funding of VET training within Australia (NCVER, 2005) and has
been recognised by ANTA as an ongoing participant in the VET market (ANTA,
1998, 2004; Queensland Government, 2001, 2003a). Paradoxically, while ANTA
vigorously pursued an open training market to encourage private provider
participation, it maintained a commitment to TAFE as an instrument for pursuing
government policy, particularly noting that TAFE has a role in providing a safeguard
against market failure.

Small wonder, then, that Goozee (2001) sardonically

depicted TAFE as:

Education’s version of the Flying Dutchman instructed to go forth and
compete but forever destined to beat against the wings of regulation and
directions from which all competitors are exempt. (p.9)

The implication of this claim is that, for TAFE, there is not a level playing field.
TAFE, as the government provider, cannot be as free to compete in the market place
as a private provider. However, it seems reasonable to conclude that, unless TAFE is
privatised, it has a role to play as the public provider and therefore should not be
simplistically treated in the same way as a private provider competing in the same
market.
There are concerns that the reforms in VET in the 1990’s occurred with incredible
swiftness, limiting the opportunities of those actually within the VET system to
participate in the current policy debates (Broadbent, 1998).


It is against this

background that Veenker and Cummins (2001) argue that significant change has
occurred in TAFE on two previously identifiable occasions. It first occurred when
the Kangan Report (1974) gave TAFE its identity, providing a vision for TAFE in
which educational and social objectives, and the rights and needs of individuals had
precedence over the needs of industry.

The second occurrence was during the
6


1980’s, when political and economic thinking diverged from the Kangan philosophy
and the national training agenda evolved. This second period has been characterised
by increasing dominance of economic policy in the education sector, a shift to
demand-driven provision, greater industry ownership and involvement, the creation
of the training market and the implementation of competency based training.

Veenker and Cummins (2001) argue that there are compelling, social and educational
signs that thinking about the role and purpose of TAFE is needed. For example,
Seddon (1999) argues for the need to review the balance between the economic
drivers that have influenced education policy since the 1970’s and the need to
maintain the core social responsibilities of education. TAFE is a significant sector of
education that supports not only the economic agenda but also broader education
issues such as learning for adults, not just children and youth, and lifelong learning
not just front-end learning. Therefore, a study that focuses on the current policy
position of TAFE Queensland, and the key influences that have impacted on that
position, is deemed timely.
1.3.2 Practitioner Research

A Doctor of Education degree provides an opportunity for the enhancement of
professional practice at a higher degree level. Research is designed to focus on
applied investigation and problem solving in response to the changing patterns in
research activity (Pearson, 1999). Further, this degree provides opportunities for
practitioners, who seek to engage more deeply within their own fields of learning, to
enhance their contribution to policy, management and professional practice in an
education setting (McWilliam, 2002).
The researcher undertook a number of management roles in the private sector before
commencing a teaching role at TAFE.

Over recent years, he has performed a

number of senior management roles within Queensland’s Department of
Employment and Training and within TAFE Institutes.

As is the nature of

practitioner based doctorates, this study emerged from the researcher’s work context
and developed in response to his desire to be more informed about TAFE’s role in
the Australian education system. This desire also stemmed from a view that there are
other practitioners who share a similar interest and concern regarding the uncertainty
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of the role and purpose of TAFE as the major public provider of vocational education
and training in Australia.
1.3.3 Significant Research and Study Relevant to this Thesis
This research is premised on the notion that the TAFE sector has a social and an
economic role to play and that these roles are an historical characteristic of
Australia’s vocational education and training system. This research also recognises

that there is a relationship between a social and economic role for TAFE and that
they are not distinct and irreconcilable. The issue of duality and dualism is addressed
in Chapter Three and underpins much of the discussions in Chapters Five, Six and
Seven.

Ryan’s (2002) research on Australia’s vocational education and training system
found that vocational education has oscillated between two poles. One pole sees
vocational education as primarily an instrument of economic development with a
primary concern to meet the labour needs of industry, while the other pole views
vocational education as primarily student centred, more aligned to a general
education philosophy that encompasses goals of individual self-development and the
creation of a more equitable society (Ryan, 2002). Ryan (2002) argues that at one
time or another, either one of these views on the role of vocational education will
tend to dominate and there will be a cyclical nature to the emphasis of either view.
Additionally, Ryan’s (2002) research identifies that the value systems that underpin
policy and policy administration are also subject to cyclical change. Of interest to
this study is the extent to which an economic and a social emphasis on vocational
education and training are evident in policy. The mapping of TAFE Queensland’s
current policy position is discussed within a conceptual framework (Chapter Three)
that draws on the bi-polar concepts identified by Ryan (2002).

The main findings from a Review of Research: Factors influencing the demand for
vocational education and training courses by Kilpatrick and Allen (2001) were:

•

Policy has focussed largely on VET and the world of work neglecting notions of
learning to improve quality of life and knowledge;

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•

Industry receives the primary consideration under national policy although it is
(usually) individuals or enterprises who demand training;

•

Individuals, communities, industries and the nation have a longer-term view of
their training needs and are increasingly looking for life-skills;

•

Motivation for participating in VET can stem from labour market and/or social or
personal development reasons;

•

Learning for life requires skills such as literacy, numeracy, personal skills and
positive attitudes. These skills are transferable into non-work situations; and

•

The social rate of return, or the benefits of training have been understated
including benefits such as increased social capital and cohesion, improving sense
of personal worth, lower crime rates, increased community service, improved
quality of civic life, greater appreciation of diversity and improved ability to use
technology and reactive positively to economic shocks.


The key findings of Kilpatrick and Allen’s (2001) study suggest the VET system,
including TAFE, needs to consider encompassing education outcomes rather than
limiting itself to vocational and work related outcomes. Their study supports an
argument that there is a need for TAFE to fulfil both a social service role and to meet
the economic utility function that it performs as the major public provider of
vocational education and training.

In Blurring the Boundaries, Anderson (1994) undertook a detailed comparative
examination of three commercial enterprises and three TAFE Institutes, focussing on
their structure, operation and approach to training. This research identified a key
difference between private providers and TAFE: TAFE’s greater capacity for
promoting long-term social and economic development. In part, this capacity stems
from existing infrastructure and commitment to TAFE by governments.
Additionally, Anderson (1994) argues that the pursuit of access and equity cannot be
left to market forces, and intervention by government is necessary to meet the needs
of ‘disadvantaged’ consumers. Without ongoing intervention a two-tiered system
may develop whereby those identified as ‘in need’ would be marginalised and left for
TAFE, while private providers would be free to focus on the rest of the community.

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In a Review of Fees Issues and Revenue Options in TAFE: a Discussion Paper by
Ryan and Schofield (1990), a number of models for TAFE are discussed. They fit
broadly within a social service and/or economic utility framework.

Ryan and

Schofield’s (1990) discussion paper recognises that it is “impossible to subdivide
perceptions of the role of TAFE into rigidly separate models, however, there are

sufficient differences in underlying values to justify setting out a series of approaches
which constitute a variety of emphasis” (p10). Ryan and Schofield’s (1990) work is
congruent with Ryan’s (2002) bi-polar perspective, and is used in the development of
support for the conceptual framework and the model established in Chapter Three.

These studies highlight some of the issues around the tensions between the
appropriate role and purpose of TAFE. The current study aims to contribute to this
body of knowledge by exploring TAFE’s policy position within the contemporary
education market.
1.3.4 Gaps within Existing Research
There have been a number of key reports undertaken on both the VET system and/or
TAFE sector. They include Bannikoff (1998), Dawkins (1988, 1989), Deveson
(1990), Finn, (1991), Fooks, Ryan and Schofield (1997), Hilmer (1993), Kangan
(1974) and Schofield, (1999). Reports such as these have focussed primarily on the
efficiency and/or effectiveness of the TAFE sector or VET system.

The

implementation of their recommendations has resulted in significant reform to both
the VET system and to TAFE, and influenced the emphasis of TAFE toward either a
social service and/or economic utility position.

A number of authors have expressed concern about the quantity and quality of
research in VET when compared to other sectors, and more particularly on the lack
of influence research seems to have had on policy making (Butterworth, 1994, 1996;
Hall, 1993; McDonald, Hayton, Gonczi, & Hagar, 1993; McDonald & Hawke, 1996;
Ramsey, 1993; Seddon, 1997; Wiltshire, 1994). Yet, the 1990’s have seen the
development of a number of research centres that have increasingly contributed to
the development and publication of research on VET and TAFE policy and practice.
Examples of these centres are the:


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National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER): a jointly owned
commonwealth, state and territory government funded research, evaluation and
information centre;
Vocational Education and Training Research Database (VOCED): that provides
access to information on VET research, policy and practice in Australia; and
Centre for the Economics of Education and Training (CEET).
(Knight & Nestor, 2000)

In seeking to analyse a policy position within a social service and economic utility
framework, then, this thesis contributes to a growing, but relatively small, body of
knowledge in the VET research field of TAFE Queensland.
1.4 POLICY: DEFINITION
Policy can be defined in many ways. For example, it can be seen as a label for a
field of activity, an expression of general purpose, a desired state of affairs, a specific
proposal and/or decision of government, a formal authorisation for action, a theory,
model, and programme or desired output or outcome (Hogwood & Gunn, 1984). A
commonly encountered usage is in the context of broad government statements about
economic or social policy. At its most simple level, public policy is viewed as a
choice made by government to undertake some course of action, or a statement by a
government about its intentions that then provides ‘authority’ to commit resources in
support of these actions or intentions (Howlett & Ramesh, 1995). In this study,
policy is viewed as a range of government statements (i.e. objectives, strategies,
recommendations) regarding certain directions for VET and TAFE at both a national
and State (i.e. Queensland) level.

For the purposes of this thesis, seven seminal policy documents were selected that

represent past, present and future activities of vocational education and training in
Australia.

Three of these documents are commonwealth government generated

policy documents representing a national view of vocational education and training.
The other four are Queensland Government generated policy documents representing
a state view of vocational education and training. This research did not seek to
investigate to what extent, or how effectively, these policies have been implemented.
However, it did seek to understand a number of theoretical perspectives that
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influenced the development and implementation of such policy documents in
Australia. These perspectives have a basis in ideology and are addressed initially in
Chapter Two: Literature Review and further discussed in the Findings and
Discussions Chapters.
1.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY
To address the first research question a conceptual framework and a model to
visually present a policy position are presented and explained that assists in
identifying:

•

The current policy position of TAFE Queensland in a social service and
economic framework;

•

Whether there is consistency between the documents analysed and the views

and/or perceptions of senior executive in DET and TAFE Queensland; and

•

The relationship between the current position and that exemplified in Kangan
(1974).

The methodology governing this study is a case study approach which draws upon
policy documents and interviews with a small group of senior executives of
Queensland Department of Employment and Training (DET) and TAFE Queensland.
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS
Chapter Two reviews the relevant literature in five main sections. Section one
examines the educational context for understanding TAFE in Australia. Section two
reviews the key theoretical influences of globalisation, economic rationalism,
corporate managerialism and human capital theory as they have impacted on
education policy in Australia. Section three provides insight into the VET market
and the marketisation of TAFE. Section four presents the key policy initiatives and
milestones that have impacted on TAFE in Australia and culminates in a
contemporary overview of TAFE Queensland. Section five introduces the social
service and economic utility paradigm. This paradigm contains the foundational
attributes of the conceptual framework presented in Chapter Three.

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