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Culture and Leadership Across the World:
The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25
Societies

Edited by
Jagdeep S. Chhokar
Felix C. Brodbeck
Robert J. House


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Lea’s Organization and Management Series
Series Editors
Arthur P. Brief
University of Utah

James P. Walsh
University of Michigan
Associate Series Editor
Sara L. Rynes
University of Iowa
Ashforth (Au.) • Role Transitions in Organizational Life: An Identity-Based Perspective.
Bartel/Blader/Wrzesniewski (Ed.) • Identity and the Modern Organization.
Bartunek (Au) • Organizational and Educational Change: The Life and Role of a Change
Agent Group.
Beach (Ed.) • Image Theory: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations.
Brett/Drasgow (Eds.) • The Psychology of Work: Theoretically Based Empirical Research.
Chhokar/Brodbeck/House (Eds.) • Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE
Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies.
Darley/Messick/Tyler (Eds.) • Social Influences on Ethical Behavior in Organizations.
Denison (Ed.) • Managing Organizational Change in Transition Economies.
Dutton/Ragins (Ed.) • Exploring Positive Relationships at Work: Building a Theoretical and
Research Foundation
Elsbach (Au) • Organizational Perception Management.
Earley/Gibson (Aus.) • Multinational Work Teams: A New Perspective.
Garud/Karnoe (Eds.) • Path Dependence and Creation.
Jacoby (Au.) • Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation
of Work in the 20th Century, Revised Edition.
Kossek/Lambert (Eds.) • Work and Life Integration: Organizational, Cultural and
Individual Perspectives.
Lampel/Shamsie/Lant (Eds.) • The Business of Culture: Strategic Perspectives on
Entertainment and Media.
Lant/Shapira (Eds.) • Organizational Cognition: Computation and Interpretation.
Lord/Brown (Aus.) • Leadership Processes and Follower Self-Identity.



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Margolis/Walsh (Aus.) • People and Profits? The Search Between a Company’s Social and
Financial Performance.
Messick/Kramer (Eds.) • The Psychology of Leadership: Some New Approaches.
Pearce (Au.) • Organization and Management in the Embrace of the Government.
Peterson/Mannix (Eds.) • Leading and Managing People in the Dynamic Organization.
Rafaeli/Pratt (Eds.) • Artifacts and Organizations: Beyond Mere Symbolism.
Riggio/Murphy/Pirozzolo (Eds.) • Multiple Intelligences and Leadership.
Schneider/Smith (Eds.) • Personality and Organizations.
Thompson/Choi (Eds.) • Creativity and Innovation in Organizational Teams.
Thompson/Levine/Messick (Eds.) • Shared Cognition in Organizations: The Management of
Knowledge.


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Culture and Leadership Across the World:
The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25
Societies

Edited by
Jagdeep S. Chhokar
Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
Felix C. Brodbeck
Aston Business School, Aston University
Robert J. House
Wharton School of Management, University of Pennsylvania

2007

LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS
Mahwah, New Jersey
London


Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Taylor & Francis Group
270 Madison Avenue

New York, NY 10016

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Taylor & Francis Group
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Milton Park, Abingdon
Oxon OX14 4RN

© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8058-5997-3 (Hardcover)
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the LEA and Routledge Web site at



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Contents

Series Foreword
Foreword
Kwok Leung
About the Authors
Preface
Robert J. House

xi
xiii
xvii
xxxi

1 Introduction
Jagdeep S. Chhokar, Felix C. Brodbeck, and Robert J. House

1

2 Methodology
Jagdeep S. Chhokar, Felix C. Brodbeck, and Robert J. House

17

I Nordic Europe Cluster

31

3 “Primus Inter Pares”: Leadership and Culture in Sweden

Ingalill Holmberg and Staffan Åkerblom

33

4 Culture and Leadership in Finland
Martin Lindell and Camilla Sigfrids

75

II

Germanic Europe Cluster

107

5 Culture and Leadership in Austria
Erna Szabo and Gerhard Reber

109

6 Societal Culture and Leadership in Germany
Felix C. Brodbeck and Michael Frese

147

7 Culture and Leadership in a Flat Country: The Case of the Netherlands
Henk Thierry, Deanne N. den Hartog, Paul L. Koopman,
and Celeste P. M. Wilderom

215


8 Leadership and Culture in Switzerland—Theoretical and Empirical Findings
Jürgen Weibler and Rolf Wunderer

251

vii


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CONTENTS

Anglo Cluster

297

The Australian Enigma
Neal M. Ashkanasy

299


10

Inspirational Variations? Culture and Leadership in England
Simon Booth

335

11

Leadership and Culture in the Republic of Ireland
Mary A. Keating and Gillian S. Martin

361

12

Leadership and Culture in New Zealand
Jeffrey C. Kennedy

397

13

Culture and Leadership in South Africa
Lize A. E. Booysen and Marius W. van Wyk

433

14


Leadership in the United States of America: The Leader as Cultural Hero
Michael H. Hoppe and Rabi S. Bhagat

475

IV

Latin Europe Cluster

545

15

Universalism and Exceptionalism: French Business leadership
Philippe Castel, Marc Deneire, Alexandre Kurc, Marie-Françoise
Lacassagne, and Christopher A. Leeds

547

16

Leadership and Culture in Portugal
Jorge Correia Jesuino

583

17

Managerial Culture and Leadership in Spain

Jeremiah J. O’Connell, José M. Prieto, and Celia Gutierrez

623

9

V Latin America Cluster

655

18

Argentina: A Crisis of Guidance
Carlos Altschul, Marina Altschul, Mercedes López, Maria Marta Preziosa,
and Flavio Ruffolo

657

19

Colombia: The Human Relations Side of Enterprise
Enrique Ogliastri

689

20

Societal Culture and Leadership in Mexico—A Portrait of Change
Jon P. Howell, Jose DelaCerda, Sandra M. Martínez, J. Arnoldo Bautista,
Juan Ortiz, Leonel Prieto, and Peter Dorfman


723

VI

Eastern Europe Cluster

765

21

Greece: From Ancient Myths to Modern Realities
Nancy Papalexandris

767


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CONTENTS

ix

22 Leadership and Culture in Russia: The Case of Transitional Economy

Mikhail V. Grachev, Nikolai G. Rogovsky, and Boris V. Rakitski

803

VII

833

Middle East Cluster

23 Leadership and Culture in Turkey: A Multifaceted Phenomenon
Hayat Kabasakal and Muzaffer Bodur

835

VIII

875

Confucian Asia Cluster

24 Chinese Culture and Leadership
Ping Ping Fu, Rongxian Wu, Yongkang Yang, and Jun Ye

877

25 Culture and Leadership in Hong Kong
Irene Hau-siu Chow

909


26 Culture and Leadership in Singapore: Combination of the East and the West
Ji Li, Phyllisis M. Ngin, and Albert C. Y. Teo

947

IX

969

Southern Asia Cluster

27 India: Diversity and Complexity in Action
Jagdeep S. Chhokar

971

X Sub-Saharan Africa Cluster

1021

28 Culture and Leadership in 25 Societies: Integration, Conclusions,
and Future Directions
Felix C. Brodbeck, Jagdeep S. Chhokar, and Robert J. House

1023

Appendix A: Societal Culture “As Is” and “Should Be”
in 25/61 Globe Countries
Appendix B: Culturally Endorsed Leadership Theories (CLTs)

in 25/61 Globe Countries

1085
1094

Authors Index

1101

Subject Index

1121


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Series Foreword
Our series is intended to be very much about theoretical and methodological innovations in
the study of management and organizations. In terms of such innovations, the Global
Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) Research Project is a monumental winner. GLOBE’s hundred plus investigators studied, across 61 countries, the interplay between culture and organizational form to address the conditions under which leaders
matter in terms of both economic and social outcomes. We are pleased to become affiliated
with the GLOBE enterprise by including this volume: Culture and Leadership Across the
World: The GLOBE Book of 25 Societies in our series. The volume contains in-depth analyses of culture and leadership in 25 countries. Readers, for example, will travel from Finland
to Austria, from Australia to France, from Argentina to Greece, and from Turkey to China,
learning all the way about these countries—their cultures and leadership climates. We hope
you enjoy it.
—Arthur P. Brief, University of Utah
—James P. Walsh, University of Michigan

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To my parents, Ma and Bhaiji,
and my wife, Kiran
—Jagdeep S. Chhokar
To my partner Mechthild,
and our sons Moritz and Noah

—Felix C. Brodbeck
To Daniel Ken House, Timothy Martin House
and Mary Kathleen Goldman
—Robert J. House


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Foreword
It is obvious that globalization is the name of the game in business, and no large firms can afford
to ignore their overseas markets. Toyota has 39 overseas production centers in 24 countries,
Microsoft has offices in over 60 countries, and Nestlé operates in over 80 countries. Even firms
from emerging economies are keen to globalize. Haier, a Chinese firm that sells household
appliances, conducts business in over 160 nations and operates manufacturing facilities in many
countries, including the United States, Italy, Iran, Jordan, Malaysia, and Vietnam.
Our research enterprise lags embarrassingly behind the multinationals in its international
reach. A business executive who takes a cursory look at the leading journals in management
would no doubt notice that management research is conducted mostly in one place, the United
States, and occasionally in a Western European country. One exception is the surge in the
number of papers on China, perhaps because China has recently led the world in terms of
direct foreign investments (Leung & White, 2004). In any event, our current literature probably reminds this executive of a bygone era some 40 years ago, when most large organizations
were based in the West and their primary focus was the Western markets. The international
department in these firms was small and peripheral, and typically people on the way down or
out were sent overseas.

GLOBALIZING OUR RESEARCH EFFORTS
The GLOBE project is a rare exception to the parochialism of the management literature. With
the participation of approximately 17,300 middle managers from 950 organizations in 62 countries, the scale of this project rivals a large multinational corporation. Aside from its theoretical
contributions, this project is ground-breaking in demonstrating how management research can
be globalized on a scale that is comparable to the best multinationals. The GLOBE project is
perhaps the most large-scale international management research project that has ever been
undertaken, involving some 170 coinvestigators from 62 participating countries.
Although how the GLOBE team has been operating may be worth the while of a scientific
exploration, we know for sure that the complexity of this enterprise has not jeopardized its
effectiveness. Peterson (2001) has provided an astute analysis of international research collaborations and a framework for classifying such collaborations based on a taxonomy of
multinational corporations. The GLOBE project is classified into the global category, with the
logic for collaboration being “collaborative, common research design,” and its utility being
“design globally comprehensive theory learning from prior work plus experiences of
colleagues” (p. 70). More important to my analysis is that the potential risks and stresses of
this type of collaborations include “easy to romanticize. Hard, perhaps sometimes impractical to manage. Easily devolves into international due to varying resource control and available time” (p. 70). “International” in this quote refers to the research goal of evaluating the
generalizability of some domestic research in other cultural settings, which lacks originality
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FOREWARD


as compared to global research. In addition, Peterson has provided some examples of
dysfunctional dynamics that may threaten a global project, including horse trading (nonsynergistic exchanges), manipulating (uncooperative behaviors that range from passive to aggressive), and expropriating (dominance by those who are resourceful). To overcome such
negative dynamics, Peterson has proposed four strategies: a social contract, fostering trust,
self-development of collaborators, and an influential leadership and a clear hierarchy.
Peterson used the GLOBE project to illustrate the last strategy, and regarded Bob House, the
founder and key driver of the project, as an influential, resourceful leader, which is
pivotal to the success of the project.
I would add that the GLOBE project also scores high on the first three strategies. The
project team assumes a network structure, with Bob House and his key team playing the leading
and organizing role. Participants are clear about their roles and obligations as a result of intense
face- to-face and written communications. The successful completion of such a colossal project
and the consistency displayed by the 25 country-specific chapters in this volume testify to the
effectiveness of the social contract that has guided this geographically dispersed, loosely
connected team of coinvestigators. Trust among the coinvestigators is evident as they freely
exchange ideas and receive credit for their contributions in terms of publications and conference
presentations. I was in the audience of a couple of GLOBE symposia, and I was struck by the
sincere effort to put all the presenters in the limelight, regardless of whether they were part of
the core team or just coinvestigators. I also participated in a couple of informal meetings of the
project team to share some ideas on methodological issues, and I witnessed firsthand the free
and open exchange among the coinvestigators. Finally, with regard to self-development opportunities, the chapters in this volume make it clear that there is a structured mechanism for individual team members to contribute their local and general knowledge to the project through
a variety of physical as well as cyber means. In fact, local knowledge was given a critical role
in the planning stage of this project, and the publication of this volume on culture-specific
results is a continuous echo of this emphasis. I am sure that the coinvestigators of this project
benefit not only from the publications and conference presentations arising from the project, but
also from the formal and informal exchange of ideas and expertise.
In summary, the GLOBE project provides a compelling demonstration that with passion,
dedication, trust, and ample research funds, an enormous project spanning across many
national borders is not only possible, but fruitful. The logistics problems are harsh and trying,
but they can be overcome by zeal and curiosity.


CULTURAL DECENTERING AS A STRATEGY FOR GLOBAL RESEARCH
Van de Vijver and Leung (1997) have proposed that an effective way to design a culturally
balanced study is to adopt the decentered approach, which involves input from diverse
cultural backgrounds to the development of conceptual frameworks and the design of empirical work. The GLOBE project exemplifies this approach. The definition and content of
culture and leadership dimensions were the result of collective wisdom gleaned from the first
GLOBE research conference in 1994, with the participation of 54 researchers from 38 countries. Furthermore, coinvestigators contributed items to the instruments used, sharpened and
reworded items to render them culturally appropriate, assisted in the translation of the instruments, and aided in the interpretation of the results based on indigenous research and unique
cultural knowledge. The chapters in this volume document the extensive effort to avoid the
dominance of American notions of leadership, and how diverse cultural inputs shaped the
final constructs, dimensions, and frameworks emerged from the project.


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FOREWARD

xv

In globalizing our research effort, diversity in our theorizing is crucial, and I may even go
so far as to say that this is a primary reason why we want to go global. Darwin has shown us
the supreme value of diversity to the survival and adaptation of species. In the business world,
although some people have argued for an inevitable consequence of globalization, isomorphism, the evidence for diversity is mounting (for a recent study documenting divergence in
a very global industry, the computer industry, see Duysters & Hagedoorn, 2001). Firms have

not become more alike as a result of operating and competing in a global market. Diversity in
ideas, constructs, and instruments sprung from global research will ultimately lead to richer,
more complete, and more general management theories.

GENERALITY VERSUS RICHNESS
A major strength of the GLOBE project is the deployment of diverse methodologies, both
quantitative and qualitative, to enhance the robustness and richness of the findings. The catch
from this odyssey is impressive. Nine culture dimensions were identified: Assertiveness,
Future Orientation, Gender Egalitarianism, Humane Orientation, Institutional Collectivism,
In-Group Collectivism, Performance Orientation, Power Distance, and Uncertainty Avoidance.
Six of them correspond to the well-known culture dimensions of Hofstede (1980, 1997), and the
remaining three dimensions are also grounded in previous literature. Future Orientation is
related to the Past, Present, Future Orientation dimension of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961);
Performance Orientation corresponds to need for achievement (McClelland, 1961); and
Humane Orientation is related to the Human Nature Is Good vs. Human Nature Is Bad dimension of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, Putnam’s (1993) work on the Civic Society, and
McClelland’s (1985) conceptualization of the affiliative motive.
With regard to leadership behaviors, a total of 21 leadership dimensions were identified,
which were found to constitute six factors: Team-Oriented Leadership, Charismatic/ValueBased Leadership, Autonomous Leadership, Humane Leadership, Participative leadership,
and Self- Protective Leadership.
A major criticism of this type of etic (culture-general) research for identifying pan-cultural
constructs and dimensions is their high level of abstraction and its neglect of subtle, but
important local variations and nuances (Morris, Leung, Ames, & Lickel, 1999). An obvious,
but hard-to-do, remedy is to augment these etic constructs and frameworks with the richness
of emic (culture-specific) concepts and findings (Yang, 2000). This volume, with its richness
of culture-specific findings and insights, constitutes an important step of the GLOBE project
in giving the etic skeleton flesh and blood. Combining qualitative and quantitative results, and
drawing on the extant cultural knowledge and indigenous research on leadership, each of the
25 country-specific chapters describes how leadership is conceptualized and enacted in its
cultural milieu, and explores how emic dynamics are related to the etic constructs and frameworks derived from the GLOBE project. It is exactly this type of synergistic integration of
culture-general and culture-specific knowledge that is able to address the respective deficiencies of pan-cultural and indigenous research.


IS THE EFFORT WORTH IT?
I would like to end by addressing the bottom-line question. Firms go global not because they
love the global village, but because global business is good business. So one may raise the
issue of return on investment: Is the new knowledge garnered worth the resources that have


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gone into the GLOBE project? Only time will tell whether a project actually pays off, and it
will perhaps be 10 years from now before we will know for sure. However, all the earlier signals are good, and the pan-cultural dimensions identified and the culture-specific findings
obtained will definitely become a major driving force of leadership research in the coming
decade.
Although the substantive findings of the GLOBE project are important and valuable in their
own right, I want to point out three very important side products that I alluded to earlier. First,
this project has leapfrogged management research into the global era by demonstrating how a
truly global effort can be sustained and achieved successfully. I hope that the GLOBE project
will inspire many others to undertake similarly ambitious global research projects.
Second, the GLOBE project has highlighted many of the theoretical and methodological
pitfalls that we encounter in our endeavor to develop universal management theories. I hope

this project will bring such conceptual and methodological problems that plague global
research to the forefront. It is regrettable that there has not been much progress in solving
these problems in the last decade, and more intense research effort into these barriers will
hopefully make global research less perplexing and more enlightening and gratifying.
Finally, the GLOBE project has demonstrated a balance of generality and richness as well
as a laudable attempt to address cross-level issues. The call for multimethod, multilevel
research has been around for decades, but genuine responses to this call are rare. The GLOBE
project reminds us of the different limitations of different conceptual and methodological orientations, and of the need to be integrative and pluralistic in our research enterprises. The
GLOBE project will go down in the history of management research as a hallmark for diversity, inclusiveness, richness, and multilateralism.
—Kwok Leung
City University of Hong Kong
REFERENCES
Duysters, G., & Hagedoorn, J. (2001). Do company strategies and structures converge in global markets? Evidence
from the computer industry. Journal of International Business Studies, 32, 347–356.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA:
Sage.
Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and organizations: The software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Kluckhohn, F., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). Variations in value orientations. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
Leung, K., & White, S. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of Asian Management. New York: Kluwer.
McClelland, D. C. (1961). The achieving society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
McClelland, D. C. (1985). Human motivation. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Morris, M. W., Leung, K., Ames, D., & Lickel, B. (1999). Incorporating perspectives from inside and outside:
Synergy between emic and etic research on culture and justice. Academy of Management Review, 24, 781–796.
Peterson, M. F. (2001). International collaboration in organizational behavior research. Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 22, 59–81.
Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making democracy work. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Van de Vijver, F., & Leung, K. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Yang, K. S. (2000). Monocultural and cross-cultural indigenous approaches: The royal road to the development of
a balanced global psychology. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 4, 241–263.



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About the Authors
Staffan Åkerblom is a program director and head of the International Management Program
at the Swedish Institute of Management. He is also a doctoral candidate (Ph.Lic) at the
Stockholm School of Economics. His research interests and previous publications are focused
around conceptions of managerial leadership in various industrial and social contexts.
Carlos Altschul teaches international negotiation at FLACSO/Universidad de San Andrés;
negotiation in School of Economics at Buenos Aires University; and organization change at
Buenos Aires University and Universidad Siglo XXI, Córdoba. He has directed major consulting
projects for AngloGold, DaimlerChrysler, EXXON, Scotiabank, Goodyear, and directed training
for Novartis, American Express, Cargill, Bayer, Shell, and Scania. He studied chemical engineering at Buenos Aires University and was awarded MS and PhD degrees from Iowa State
University. He recently published Estar de Paso: Consultant roles and Responsibilities
(Granica) and Transformando: Prácticas de Cambio en Empresas Argentinas (University of
Buenos Aires Press). Address: Urquiza 1835, (1602) Florida, PBA, Argentina. Telephone: 54
011 4 797 8737. Fax: 54 011 4 797 8745. E-mail:
Marina Altschul is assistant professor in organization development at the Universidad de
Buenos Aires, and is a consultant on group dynamics, coaching, and leadership issues. She
designs and coordinates multiyear training projects for leading national and international
corporations, such as American Express, Bayer, BankBoston, Banco de Galicia, Cerro
Vanguardia, OSDE, Telecom Personal, and Unilever. She graduated from the School of
Agronomics, University of Buenos Aires. Address: General Lavalle 2035, (1602) Florida,

PBA, Argentina. Telephone: 54 011 4 718 0595. E-mail:
Neal Ashkanasy is professor of management in the UQ Business School, University of
Queensland. He came into academic life after an 18-year career in professional engineering
and management, and has since worked in the schools of psychology, commerce, engineering,
management, and business. He has a PhD (1989) in social and organizational psychology
from the University of Queensland, and has research interests in leadership, organizational
culture, and business ethics. In recent years, however, his research has focused on the role of
emotions in organizational life. He has published his work in journals such as the Academy
of Management Review, the Academy of Management Executive, Accounting, Organizations
and Society, the Journal of Management, the Journal of Organizational Behavior, the Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology and Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes. He is coeditor of three books: The Handbook of Organizational Culture
and Climate (Sage), Emotions in the Workplace; Theory, Research, and Practice (Quorum),
and Managing Emotions in the Workplace (M. E. Sharpe), with a fourth under contract with
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. In addition, he administers two e-mail discussion lists:
Orgcult, the Organizational Culture Caucus list; and Emonet, the Emotions in the Workplace
list. He has organized three gatherings of the International Conference on Emotions in
Organizational Life and planned the fourth conference that was held in England in July 2004.
xvii


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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Professor Ashkanasy is also on the editorial boards of the Academy of Management Journal,
the Journal of Organizational Behavior, Applied Psychology: An International Review, and
the Journal of Management. He is a past chair of the Managerial and Organizational
Cognition Division of the Academy of Management.
J. Arnoldo Bautista has an Engineering Interdisciplinary PhD (civil engineering, industrial engineering, crop and soil sciences) from New Mexico State University and a Master of Science,
Industrial Engineering from New Mexico State University. His work experience includes director, Research and Technology Development National Center (CENIDET), 2000–present; academic dean, Research and Technology Development National Center (CENIDET), 1998–2000;
executive director, Solar Energy National Association (ANES), 1998–2000; vice-minister,
Ministry of Agriculture Development, Chihuahua state government, 1996–1998; office head,
Office of Agriculture Marketing, Ministry of Agriculture Development, Chihuahua state government, 1993–1996; general coordinator, Campus Nuevo Casas Grandes of Ciudad Juarez Institute
of Technology, 1990–1993, strategic planning, financial and computer systems advisor,
1990–2002; associate professor, New Mexico State University, 1989–1990; assistant professor,
New Mexico State University, 1987–1989; manufacturing superintendent, Automatic Insertion
Department, R.C.A., 1978–1980; industrial engineer, Time and Standards Department, R.C.A.,
1977–1978; and manufacturing supervisor, Manufacturing and Testing Department, R.C.A.,
1975–1977. He is the author of several international and local publications. Contact information:
J. Arnoldo Bautista, Director, Centro Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico,
Interior Internado Palmira S/N–Complejo CENIDET, Col. Palmira, Cuernavaca, Morelos CP
62490 México. Phones: 011 52 777 318 7741 & 011 52 777 326 3842. Fax: 011 52 73 12 2434.
E-mail: abautista@cenidet. edu.mx or
Muzaffer Bodur is a professor of marketing at Management Department of Bogaziçi
University in Istanbul, Turkey. She received her DBA from Indiana University in 1977 and
acted as a visiting assistant professor at George Mason University upon graduation. In 1979,
she joined Bogaziçi University faculty where she teaches global marketing management
course to MBA students and research methods courses to doctoral students. She has organized
training programs and seminars for executives and had served as the department head.
She is a member of Academy of International Business (AIB) and Consortium for
International Marketing Research (CIMAR). Currently, she is the editor of the Bogaziçi

Journal: Review of Social, Economic and Administrative Studies and serves on the editorial
board of the Journal of International Marketing. She has visited Uppsala University of Sweden
and Odense University of Denmark to teach international marketing courses and conducted crosscultural research on the implications of business culture for internationalization of firms. Her
publications focus on marketing strategies of multinational firms in emerging markets, export
marketing management, expatriate managers, and consumer satisfaction, dissatisfaction, and
complaining behavior with services and intangible product.
Simon Booth is a senior lecturer in the Department of Management, University of Reading
Business School. He is the author of Crisis Management Strategy, and coauthor of Managing
Competition and more than 30 research articles on strategy. His main research interests currently concern business sustainability, leadership behavior, and organizational change. Full
address: Department of Management, University of Reading Business School, PO Box 218,
Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AA, Berkshire, UK.
Lize Booysen is a professor of Leadership at the Graduate School of Business Leadership,
University of South Africa. She holds a masters degree in clinical psychology cum laude
(Rand Afrikaans University), a masters degree in research psychology cum laude, and a


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masters degree in criminology cum laude (University of Pretoria). She completed her doctorate
in business leadership at UNISA in 1999 on the influence of race and gender in leadership in

South Africa.
She participated in the GLOBE study, and is involved in the Leadership Across
Differences (LAD) study steered by the Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, North
Carolina.
Felix C. Brodbeck (born 1960) is professor of organizational and social psychology and director
of the Aston Centre for Leadership Excellence (ACLE) at Aston Business School, Aston
University, UK, and a member of the GLOBE Coordination Team. He conducted applied
research in more than 50 organizations in several countries. He has published eight books and
more than 100 scholarly articles in national and international journals, such as Academy of
Management Review, Academy of Management Executive/Perspectives, Applied Psychology: An
Introduction Review, European Journal of Social Psychology, European Journal of Work and
Organizational Psychology, Journal of World Business, Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology,
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology, Leadership Quarterly, in areas such as leadership, cross-cultural psychology, diversity, HRM, team effectiveness, human–computer interaction, innovation, decision making, and
applied research methods. His repertoire of experience and practice comprises experimental,
applied, and field research, development of theory and practical tools, as well as training, coaching, and consulting in the aforementioned domains.
Philippe Castel is a full professor at the University of Burgundy where he teaches and coordinates courses in social psychology, and recently launched a master’s degree in work psychology. He is the codirector of a Clinic and Social Psychology Laboratory (LPCS), whose work
focuses on social categorization, social representations, and their linguistic markers. His main
publications concern discrimination in the workplace in intercultural situations.
Jagdeep S. Chhokar is a professor at the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, where
he has also been Dean and Director In-charge. He earned his PhD in management and organizational behavior from Louisiana State University. He is also a graduate in mechanical engineering and in law. He is also a citizen-activist for improving democracy and governance in
the country; a bird watcher and conservationist. Before becoming an academic, he worked
actively with the Indian Railways for 13 years.
He has taught in several countries including Australia, France, Japan, and the United States.
His professional interests are eclectic, covering all aspects of organizational functioning such as
behavior, structure, design, and effectiveness of organizations, and of people in organizations.
The main thrust of his work in the last few years has been cross-cultural management.
His research has appeared in several international journals such as the Journal of Applied
Psychology, Columbia Journal of World Business (now called the Journal of World Business),

International Labor Review, Industrial Relations, Journal of Safety Research, International
Journal of Psychology, Applied Psychology: An International Review, International Journal
of Management, Management International Review, Educational and Psychological
Measurement, American Business Review, and American Journal of Small Business. He has
also contributed chapters to edited books and has written several teaching cases. He is on the
editorial boards of The Journal of Management and of Insight, a publication of the Academy
of International Business. His writings have also appeared in the Indian business and popular
press such as The Economic Times, The Times of India, The Hindu, The Indian Express, The
Financial Express, and The Tribune. His writings on political and electoral issues have


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appeared in journals in India such as the Economic and Political Weekly and Seminar. As
conservationist, he has published in the National Geographic Birdwatcher, among other journals. He has been a member of the GLOBE Coordination Team.
Irene Hau-Siu Chow (MBA and PhD, Georgia State University) is a professor in the
Department of Management, The Chinese University of Hong-Kong. Her academic experience includes appointments in Hong Kong, Singapore, and the United States. She published
widely in international journals. Her current research interests include gender and cultural
issues in Chinese societies, Chinese networks, and comparative human resources management
practices.

Jose DelaCerda is a consultant and researcher of business and public organizations. He is
currently the chief administrator of Zapopan county, Mexico. He has held executive positions
related to organizational development and human resources in government, education, and
consulting firms in Mexico. Mr. DelaCerda has an MA in industrial relations and labor
sciences (Michigan State University) and a diploma in economics and business (The
Economics Institute, University of Colorado, 1980). He has taught in several MBA programs,
mainly at ITESO University. His professional projects have dealt with business process
reengineering, work redesign and organizational downsizing, ISO 9000 quality management
systems, managerial development, human resources management systems, and, more recently,
whole-systems change interventions for strategic planning, participative work and organization
redesign, and supply chain integration. His work as consultant has included firms in construction and urban development, public services, logistics and warehousing, manufacturing, and
universities. As a researcher he has published several books and articles. Contact information:
Jose DelaCerda, Compositores 4667, Fraccionamiento Los Pinos, Zapopan, Jalisco 45120,
MEXICO. Phone: (33) 3684-2278 (33) 3944-2459. E-mail:
Deanne N. den Hartog is full professor of Organizational Behavior at the University of
Amsterdam Business School in the Netherlands. She is director of the Business Studies bachelor and master’s programs at the Business School and teaches OB and leadership. Her
research interests focus on cross-cultural and inspirational leadership and also include team
processes and human resource management issues. Among other things, she studies leadership among cultures, leader personality, and the impact of leadership on employees’ learning,
affect, cooperation, and innovative work behaviors.
Marc Deneire holds a PhD in second-language acquisition from the University of Illinois—
Urbana-Champaign. He’s been an associate professor of English linguistics at the University
of Nancy 2 since 1998 where he teaches linguistics, discourse analysis, and intercultural communication. His research focuses on sociolinguistics and intercultural relations.
Peter W. Dorfman is a full professor and the department head of the Department of
Management, New Mexico State University. His master’s and PhD degrees are from the
University of Maryland. His articles on leadership, cross-cultural management, and employee
discrimination have appeared in the Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management
Journal, Academy of Management Review, Journal of Management, Advances in International Comparative Management, and Advances in Global Leadership, among others.
Dr. Dorfman’s current research involves investigating the impact of cultural influences on
managerial behavior and leadership styles. He has been a coprincipal investigator of the
decade-long Global Leadership and Organizational Behavioral Effectiveness (GLOBE)

Research Project. As part of GLOBE, he has been a cocountry investigator for Mexico,
a member of the GLOBE coordinating team for overall coordination of the project, and is now


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an executive committee member. Contact information: Peter W. Dorfman, Department of
Management, College of Business Administration and Economics, PO Box 30001, MSC 3DJ,
New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003-8001. Voice: 505.646.1201. Fax:
505.646.1372. E-mail:
Michael Frese (born 1949) is professor at the University of Giessen and Visiting Professor at
London Business School. He also lectured in the United States, the Netherlands, Finland, Sweden,
Zimbabwe, China, and elsewhere. He was editor of Applied Psychology: An International Review
and is on the editorial board of several journals. He is the author of approximately 200 articles and
editor/author of more than 20 books and special issues. His research has been on the effects of
unemployment, impact of stress at work, shiftwork, training, errors and mistakes, predictors of
personal initiative in East and West Germany, psychological success factors in small-scale entrepreneurs (particularly in developing countries), and cross- cultural factors.
Ping Ping Fu, associate professor of management in the School of Business of the Chinese
University of Hong Kong, has been a member of the Global Leadership research
project team since 1997. Her current research includes studies of top-management teams,

Chinese CEOs, citizenship behaviors, as well as cross-cultural influence tactics. Her work has
been published in the Journal of Organizational Behavior, Leadership Quarterly, Organizational Dynamics, Journal of International Business Studies, Advances in Global Leadership,
Journal of Asian Businesses, International Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, European
Review of Applied Psychology, International Journal of Human Resources Management, and
Asian Pacific Journal of Management.
Mikhail V. Grachev (PhD) is associate professor of management at Western Illinois
University.
He served as university faculty in the United States, France, Japan, Hungary, the Czech
Republic, and Russia. His research is focused on strategy and international human resource
management.
Mikhail V. Gratchev served as International Leadership Association (ILA) board member.
Contact information: Mikhail V. Grachev, Associate Professor of Management, Western Illinois
University, 3561 60th Street, Moline, Il 61265. Tel: (309) 762-9481. Fax: (309) 762-6989.
E-mail:
Dr. Celia Gutierrez has a varied background and training experience. Currently she is
corporate manager of a Spanish business group dedicated to the formation of professionals in
many sectors, including computer technology, chemical laboratories, food processing, and the
development of leisure-time activities.
As an applied psychologist, she has coordinated the activities for extended culture programs
and counseled students at the University of Alcala, Alcala de Henares. As a corporate psychologist, she has created an internship program for students from Syracuse for practicums in the
fields of international finance, applied psychology, corporate strategy, organization behavior,
and cross-cultural administration and management. As a business administrator, Dr. Gutierrez
has coordinated the housing department for exchange programs for American universities and
for the Bilbao-Viscaya Bank in Madrid. She has also been visiting professor in various
Madrid universities, business schools, and corporations for courses on organizational behavior,
global leadership, and cross-cultural management.
Specifically Dr. Gutierrez has published and coauthored in the fields of applied psychology
and organization behavior. Also, she has created the first CD-ROM in Spain with the GLOBE
(Phases 1 and 2) data.



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Ingalill Holmberg is associate professor in organization and management and director of the
Centre for Advanced Studies in Leadership at the Stockholm School of Economics. She
received her PhD on a study of managerial succession in large corporations. Her current
research focuses on managerial leadership in different organizational contexts, the ideology
of leadership in the network society, and brands, identity, and leadership. She has published
various books and articles on these subjects. She is an adviser to the Swedish Foundation for
Strategic Research and the chief editor of the Swedish leadership journal Ledmotiv. She has
also been an adviser to the Swedish Ministry of Industry.
Michael H. Hoppe, PhD, is a senior program and research associate at the Center for Creative
Leadership in Greensboro, North Carolina. He conducts leadership development programs
worldwide and researches and designs modules on effective leadership in a “global” world.
Dr. Hoppe, born and raised in Germany, also lived and worked in Austria, Greece, Italy,
and the Netherlands. He holds an MS in clinical psychology from the University of Munich,
Germany, an MS in educational psychology and statistics from State University of New
York–Albany, and a PhD in adult education and institutional studies from University of North
Carolina—Chapel Hill.
Robert J. House received his PhD degree in management from the Ohio State University,

June 1960. He was appointed the Joseph Frank Bernstein Professor Endowed Chair of
Organization Studies at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 1988. He
has published 130 journal articles. In total, his articles have been reprinted in approximately
50 anthologies of reading in management and organizational behavior.
He recevied the Award for Distinguished Scholarly Contribution to Management, and four
awards for outstanding publications. The awards were conferred by the Academy of
Management and the Canadian Association of Administrative Sciences. He has also authored
two papers that are Scientific Citations Classics.
He is a Fellow of the Academy of Management, American Psychological Association, and
Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychology. He has served as chairperson of the
Academy of Management Division of Organizational Behavior (1972-1973) and President of
the Administrative Science Association of Canada (1985-1986).
He was the Principal Investigator of the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior
Effectiveness Research Program (GLOBE) from 1993 through 2003. In this capacity he visited universities in 38 countries. He has also been a visiting scholar or visiting professor at 14
universities, most of which are in Europe or Asia. He is the senior editor of the following book
Culture, Leadership and Organizations, edited by Robert J. House, Paul J. Hanges, Mansour
Javidan, Peter W. Dorman and Vipin Gupta, Sage Publications, 2004. This book reports the
result of the first two phases of GLOBE.
His major research interests are the role of personality traits and motives as they relate to
effective leadership and organizational performance, power, and personality in organizations,
leadership, and the implications of cross-cultural variation for effective leadership and organizational performance.
Jon P. Howell is professor of management and organizational behavior in the College of Business
Administration and Economics at New Mexico State University. His MBA is from the University
of Chicago and his PhD from the University of California at Irvine. Professor Howell has published book chapters as well as research articles in the Academy of Management Journal, Academy
of Management Review, Leadership Quarterly, Journal of Management, Organizational
Dynamics, and other management journals. His primary research interests are leadership, substitutes for leadership, and international management. He is currently working on the second edition


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of his book Understanding Behaviors for Effective Leadership (Prentice Hall). Contact information: Jon P. Howell, Department of Management, College of Business Administration and
Economics, PO Box 30001, MSC 3DJ, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 880038001. Voice: 505.646.4900. Fax: 505.646.1372. E-mail:
Jorge Correia Jesuino holds a PhD in sociology from the Technical University of Lisbon. He
is professor emeritus at Instituto Superior de Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa (ISCTE) in
Lisbon, Portugal. His teaching and research activities focus on organizational behavior and
social representations. He has published a number of texts on leadership and group processes.
He joined the GLOBE project from its inception as CCI for Portugal.
Hayat Kabasakal is professor of management and organization studies at the Management
Department of Bogaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey. She received her PhD in 1984 in strategic
management and organizational behavior from the University of Minnesota. In 1984, she
joined Bogaziçi University faculty where she teaches management and organizational behavior
courses to undergraduate, MBA, executive MBA, and doctoral students. She has served as the
associate dean of the Faculty of Administrative Sciences and department head of the Management Department. She is currently the co-director of the Center for Disaster Management.
Her research interests center on organizational behavior, with a focus on leadership, culture,
and gender in organizations. She has published in the Journal of Strategic Management,
Organizational Behavior Teaching Review, Journal of Applied Psychology: An International
Journal, Journal of World Business, International Journal of Social Economics, and Bogaziçi
Journal: Review of Social, Economic and Administrative Studies.
She is a member of the Academy of Management, Turkish Faculty Members’ Association,
and GLOBE Foundation. She has served as the editor of Bogaziçi Journal: Review of Social,

Economic and Administrative Studies and on the editorial boards of several international and
national journals focusing on management and organizational studies.
Mary A. Keating lectures in human resource management in Trinity College, Dublin, where she
is director of undergraduate studies at the School of Business Studies. She is a research associate in the Institute of International Integration Studies (TCD), a fellow of the Salzburg Seminar,
and a member of the worldwide research network GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) program. She previously lectured at University College,
Dublin. She has published and contributed to national policy in the area of human resource management. Her research interests include international human resource management, strategies,
and practices, and cross-cultural management and leadership. She is involved in executive education at the Irish Management Institute and has extensive consulting experience.
Jeff Kennedy teaches organizational behavior and international human resource management at
both the undergraduate and MBA levels. His research on cross-cultural leadership and
management has been published in a variety of journals, including the Journal of International
Business Studies, Academy of Management Executive, Asia Pacific Journal of Management, and
Organizational Dynamics. Prior to joining the Nanyang Business School in Singapore, he
worked as an industrial/organizational psychologist for the Royal New Zealand Navy, a senior
HR consultant for Ernst & Young (specializing in executive recruitment and management development), and a senior lecturer at Lincoln University, New Zealand.
Paul Koopman (1946) is professor of the psychology of management and organization at
the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, the Netherlands. In 1980, he finished his PhD study
on decision making in organizations. Since then, he studied different types of processes
of management and decision making on the organizational level (industrial democracy,


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reorganization, turnaround management, privatization in Eastern Europe) and the departmental
level (leadership and motivation, quality circles, teamwork, ICT, innovation management). At
this moment, he is interested and actively involved in cross-cultural research, in particular in
relation to issues of HRM, leadership, trust, and organizational culture.
Alexandre Kurc is an associate professor in social psychology at the University of Nancy
2 where he created an advanced professional degree in cross-cultural psychology. As a
member of the communication and social psychology research team (GRC), his research
focuses on intercultural situations, and, more recently, on sanitary and social problems.
He has been a member of the ARIC Board (Association for Cross-Cultural Research)
since 2001.
Marie-Françoise Lacassagne is a full professor of social psychology at the University of
Burgundy where she created a university degree in coaching and mental performance. She is
the director of the ISOS (Social Interaction and Sports Organisation) laboratory. Her current
research is in sports management with a special focus on social interaction in sport marketing and in sports coaching. She is also interested in fans’ behavior.
Christopher Leeds is a member of the council of Conflict Research & Society, London,
a visiting research fellow at the University of Kent at Canterbury, and a researcher at the University
of Nancy 2 where he taught British studies and humor studies as an associate professor until 2002.
Ji Li, PhD, University of Toronto, 1993, is currently an associate professor in the Department
of Management, School of Business, Hong Kong Baptist University. His research interests
include the effects of culture or other institutional factors on firm behavior and firm performance.
Martin Lindell is professor in the Department of Management and Organization at the Swedish
School of Economics and Business Administration. His main research interests are innovation,
leader behavior, strategy development, and acquisitions. He has written articles in journals such as
Technovation, Leadership Quarterly, Scandinavian Journal of Management, International
Strategic Management and Organization, Journal of Small Business Management, and Business
Strategy and the Environment. He has recently chaired the Scandinavian Academy of
Management. Contact information: Martin Lindell, Professor, Swedish School of Economics and
Business Administration, P.O.Box 479, FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland. Phone: 358 9 43133274.

Fax: 358 9 43133275. E-mail:
Mercedes López teaches and researches in the School of Psychology at Buenos Aires
University. She consults on qualitative research and directs research and training on interpersonal
behavior in organizations for leading national and international organizations: Burke, Business
Bureau, “a & c” for Metrogas, Alico, BNP, Cinzano-BAMSA, Coca Cola, Liberty, Jumbo,
BankBoston, Psyma, Sky, Guby, Telecom. ASECOM for Travelpass, Aquafresh, St. Ives,
Boomerang, ABN AMRO, and Princeton Gallup for Toyota. Holds a master of science degree
in Sociology (FLACSO) and her doctorate is in psychology, Buenos Aires University. She has
published several academic papers. Address: Pje. Pedro López Anaut 4072, (1228) Capital
federal, Bs. As., Argentina. Telephone: 54 011 4 931 4770. E-mail:
Gillian S. Martin lectures in business German in Trinity College, Dublin. She holds a PhD in
applied linguistics, is a fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, and a research associate at the Institute of
International Integration Studies (TCD). She previously lectured in the University of Limerick. Her
research interests include cross-cultural negotiation and leadership, organizational communication,
and doctor–patient interaction. She is a member of the worldwide research network GLOBE
(Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) program. She has been a guest lecturer at universities in Düsseldorf, Linz, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, and Bonn.