Fourth-Generation
Wireless Networks:

Applications and Innovations
Sasan Adibi
Research in Motion (RIM), Canada
Amin Mobasher
Research in Motion (RIM), Canada & Stanford University, USA
Tom Tofigh
AT&T Labs, USA

InformatIon scIence reference
Hershey • New York


Director of Editorial Content:
Senior Managing Editor:
Assistant Managing Editor:
Publishing Assistant:
Typesetter:
Cover Design:
Printed at:

Kristin Klinger
Jamie Snavely
Michael Brehm
Sean Woznicki
Kurt Smith, Sean Woznicki
Lisa Tosheff
Yurchak Printing Inc.

Published in the United States of America by
Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue
Hershey PA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail:
Web site: />Copyright © 2010 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or
companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Fourth-generation wireless networks : applications and innovations / Sasan
Adibi, Amin Mobasher, and Tom Tofigh, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: "This book presents a comprehensive collection of recent findings
in access technologies useful in the architecture of wireless networks"-Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-61520-674-2 (hardcover)
1.
Wireless communication systems--Technological innovations. 2. Cellular
telephone systems--Technological innovations. 3. Mobile communication
systems--Technological innovations. I. Adibi, Sasan, 1970- II. Mobasher,
Amin, 1978- III. Tofigh, Tom, 1955TK5103.2.F683 2010
621.384--dc22
2009040025
British Cataloguing in Publication Data
A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the

authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.


Dedication

To our wives
Negar, Mona, & Mojgan


List of Reviewers
Nada Golmie, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), USA
Pouya Taaghol, Intel Mobility Group, USA
Subhas Mondal, Wipro Inc., USA
Behrouz Maham, University of Oslo (UiO), Norway
Masoud Ebrahimi, Research in Motion (RIM), Canada
Yi Yu, Research In Motion (RIM), Canada
Shirook Ali, Research In Motion (RIM), Canada
Farzaneh Kohandani, Research In Motion (RIM), Canada
Yongkang Jia, Research In Motion (RIM), Canada
Hadi Baligh, Huawai Technologies, Canada
Alireza Bayesteh, Research In Motion (RIM), Canada
Hamid Farmanbar, Nortel Networks, Canada
Xinhua Ling, Research In Motion (RIM), Canada
Heunchul Lee, Stanford University, USA
Cagatay Buyukkoc, AT&T Labs, USA
Wei Wu, Research In Motion (RIM), Canada
Biplab Sikdar, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA


Table of Contents


Foreword .......................................................................................................................................... xxiv
Preface ..............................................................................................................................................xlvii
Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................. xlix
Section 1
Network Architectures
Roadmaps and Architectural Models
Chapter 1
Evolution of Personal Wireless Broadband Services from 3G to 4G ..................................................... 1
Sudhir K. Routray, Krupajal Engineering College, India
Chapter 2
A New Global Ubiquitous Consumer Environment for 4G Wireless Communications ....................... 20
Ivan Ganchev, University of Limerick, Ireland
Máirtín S. O’Droma, University of Limerick, Ireland
Jený István Jakab, Tecnomen Ltd, Ireland
Zhanlin Ji, University of Limerick, Ireland
Dmitry Tairov, University of Limerick, Ireland
Chapter 3
4G Access Network Architecture .......................................................................................................... 46
Young-June Choi, NEC Laboratories America, USA
Chapter 4
Architecture for IP-Based Next Generation Radio Access Network .................................................... 61
Ram Dantu, University of North Texas, USA
Parthasarathy Guturu, University of North Texas, USA
Chapter 5
Long Term Evolution (LTE): An IPv6 Perspective............................................................................... 77
Nayef Mendahawi, Research In Motion (RIM), Ltd., Canada
Sasan Adibi, Research In Motion (RIM), Ltd., Canada



Chapter 6
HWN* Framework Towards 4G Mobile Communication Networks ................................................. 100
Chong Shen, Tyndall National Institute, Ireland
Dirk Pesch, Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland
Robert Atkinson, University of Strathclyde, Scotland
Wencai Du, Hainan University, China
Forthcoming 4G Challenges:
Problems and Solutions
Chapter 7
User Experience in 4G Networks ....................................................................................................... 125
Pablo Vidales, Deutsche Telekom Laboratories, Germany
Marcel Wältermann, Deutsche Telekom Laboratories, Germany
Blazej Lewcio, Deutsche Telekom Laboratories, Germany
Sebastian Möller, Deutsche Telekom Laboratories, Germany
Chapter 8
Fourth Generation Networks: Adoption and Dangers ........................................................................ 146
Jivesh Govil, Cisco Systems Inc., USA
Jivika Govil, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Chapter 9
Potential Scenarios and Drivers of the 4G Evolution ......................................................................... 181
Elias Aravantinos, Stevens Institute of Technology, USA
M. Hosein Fallah, Stevens Institute of Technology, USA
Chapter 10
Knowledge Sharing to Improve Routing and Future 4G Networks ................................................... 193
Djamel F. H. Sadok, Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil
Joseilson Albuquerque de França, Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil
Luciana Pereira Oliveira, Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil
Renato Ricardo de Abreu, Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil
Next Generation Technologies
Chapter 11

Personal Environments: Towards Cooperative 4G Services............................................................... 228
Tinku Rasheed, Create-Net, Italy
Usman Javaid, Vodafone Group, UK
Chapter 12
Next Generation Broadband Services from High Altitude Platforms ................................................. 249
Abbas Mohammed, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden
Zhe Yang, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden


Chapter 13
Radio-over-Fibre Networks for 4G ..................................................................................................... 268
Roberto Llorente, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain
Maria Morant, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain
Javier Martí, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain
Section 2
Radio Access Protocols
Scheduling and Quality of Service
Chapter 14
MAC Protocol of WiMAX Mesh Network ......................................................................................... 292
Ming-Tuo Zhou, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Singapore
Peng-Yong Kong, Institute for Infocomm Research, Singapore
Chapter 15
Advanced Scheduling Schemes in 4G Systems .................................................................................. 313
Arijit Ukil, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd., India
Chapter 16
End-to-End Quality of Service in Evolved Packet Systems ............................................................... 361
Wei Wu, Research In Motion, Limited, USA
Noun Choi, Research In Motion, Limited, USA
Mobility and Handover
Chapter 17

An End-to-End QoS Framework for Vehicular Mobile Networks ..................................................... 377
Hamada Alshaer, University of Leeds, UK
Jaafar Elmirghani, University of Leeds, UK
Chapter 18
LTE Mobility Solutions at Network Level for Global Convergence .................................................. 405
Titus-Constantin Bălan, Siemens SIS PSE, Romania
Florin Sandu, “Transilvania” University of Brasov, Romania
Chapter 19
Handover Optimization for 4G Wireless Networks ............................................................................ 424
Dongwook Kim, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea
Hanjin Lee, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea
Hyunsoo Yoon, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea
Namgi Kim, Kyonggi University, South Korea


Cross-Layer Designs
Chapter 20
Survey of Cross-Layer Optimization Techniques for Wireless Networks .......................................... 453
Han-Chieh Chao, National Ilan University, Taiwan
Chi-Yuan Chang, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
Chi-Yuan Chen, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
Kai-Di Chang, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
Chapter 21
Cross-Layer Joint Optimization of Multimedia Transmissions over IP Based
Wireless Networks .............................................................................................................................. 469
Catherine Lamy-Bergot, THALES Communications S.A., France
Gianmarco Panza, CEFRIEL, Italy
Chapter 22
Video Streaming Based Services over 4G Networks: Challenges and Solutions ............................... 494
Elsa Mª Macías, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain

Alvaro Suarez, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Section 3
Physical Layer Advances
Advanced Multiple Access Transmission Schemes
Chapter 23
Aspects of OFDM-Based 3G LTE Terminal Implementation ............................................................ 526
Wen Xu, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
Jens Berkmann, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
Cecilia Carbonelli, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
Christian Drewes, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
Axel Huebner, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
Chapter 24
The Use of Orthogonal Frequency Code Division (OFCD) Multiplexing in Wireless
Mesh Network (WMN) ....................................................................................................................... 565
Syed S. Rizvi, University of Bridgeport, USA
Khaled M. Elleithy, University of Bridgeport, USA
Aasia Riasat, Institute of Business Management, Pakistan
Chapter 25
A New Approach to BSOFDM: Parallel Concatenated Spreading Matrices OFDM ......................... 582
Ibrahim Raad, University of Wollongong, Australia
Xiaojing Huang, University of Wollongong, Australia


Chapter 26
The Next Generation CDMA Technology for Futuristic Wireless Communications:
Why Complementary Codes? ............................................................................................................. 596
Hsiao-Hwa Chen, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Enhanced Decoding Techniques
Chapter 27
Configurable and Scalable Turbo Decoder for 4G Wireless Receivers .............................................. 622

Yang Sun, Rice University, USA
Joseph R. Cavallaro, Rice University, USA
Yuming Zhu, Texas Instruments, USA
Manish Goel, Texas Instruments, USA
Chapter 28
Parallel Soft Spherical Detection for Coded MIMO Systems ............................................................ 644
Hosein Nikopour, Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd., Canada
Amin Mobasher, Stanford University, USA
Amir K. Khandani, University of Waterloo, Canada
Aladdin Saleh, Bell Canada, Canada
Collaboration and Capacity
Chapter 29
Capacity Estimation of OFDMA-Based Wireless Cellular Networks ................................................ 666
André Carlos Guedes de Carvalho Reis, Universidade de Brasília, Brazil
Paulo Roberto de Lira Gondim, Universidade de Brasília, Brazil
Chapter 30
Wireless Collaboration: Maximizing Diversity through Relaying ..................................................... 684
Patrick Tooher, Concordia University, Canada
M. Reza Soleymani, Concordia University, Canada
Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 710
About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 759
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 777


Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword .......................................................................................................................................... xxiv
Preface ..............................................................................................................................................xlvii
Acknowledgment .............................................................................................................................. xlix
Section 1

Network Architectures
Roadmaps and Architectural Models
Chapter 1
Evolution of Personal Wireless Broadband Services from 3G to 4G ..................................................... 1
Sudhir K. Routray, Krupajal Engineering College, India
The chapter covers the basic conceptual model of the 4G system and the operations of its physical systems.
It starts from the very basics of the wireless communication services, and then the author goes though
the different standards of the systems which provide wireless broadband services, like the 3G, and other
wireless broadband systems, like WiMAX etc. The author then looks through the 3GP project and its visions, then goes through the 3GPP2. The vision and the achievements of the 3GPP LTE are then discussed
including the 4G and its successor systems. After that the authors turn towards the technical ideas behind
the wireless broadband services like the 3G and 4G. 4G system architecture and its features are looked
into, the differences between the 3G and 4G are discussed, and then the whole chapter is concluded with
the impact of the 4G system on the present mobile communication scenario.
Chapter 2
A New Global Ubiquitous Consumer Environment for 4G Wireless Communications ....................... 20
Ivan Ganchev, University of Limerick, Ireland
Máirtín S. O’Droma, University of Limerick, Ireland
Jený István Jakab, Tecnomen Ltd, Ireland
Zhanlin Ji, University of Limerick, Ireland
Dmitry Tairov, University of Limerick, Ireland
A changed wireless environment for 4G and future generations of wireless communications is addressed
in this chapter. This change is primarily focused on making the end user of wireless services more central
and more a consumer in the global wireless environment than heretofore. In the ‘Ubiquitous Consumer
Wireless World (UCWW)’ –the descriptive name for this new wireless environment paradigm– the global


supply of wireless communications services is founded on the new Consumer-centric Business Model
(CBM). This is a radical change and departure from present globally pervasive business model for service
delivery based on the user being a subscriber, called appropriately the Subscriber-centric Business Model
(SBM). The reasons and background for the drive to bring about this changed wireless environment are

reviewed, with the main body of the chapter focusing on descriptions of the technological composition of
two of the new core infrastructural enabling elements. These are the third-party authentication, authorization, and accounting (3P-AAA) service, and the service advertisement, discovery, and association (ADA)
through newly defined wireless billboard channels (WBCs). The former, 3P-AAA, arises from the need to
bring about a separation of the supply of the AAA service from the supply of the communications service,
which is necessary to ensure the consumer character of the user and to promote and safeguard all the new
benefits that will flow for users, new consumer-oriented wireless access network providers, and other
stakeholders through this new wireless environment. As there will be restructuring implications for the
operation and location of charging and billing functions, treatment of this aspect is also included. The latter,
ADA & WBCs, arises in tandem with this separation of services, the consequent metric of business success
changing from ‘number of subscribers’ to ‘number of consumer transactions and service purchases’ and
the need, therefore, for a new direct ‘push’ advertisement means for service providers to attract consumers and for consumers to be continually up-to-date on new service offerings. The proposals for protocol
interfaces and architectures for both these elements are explored and discussed, with those aspects needing
to be addressed in global standardization activities highlighted.
Chapter 3
4G Access Network Architecture .......................................................................................................... 46
Young-June Choi, NEC Laboratories America, USA
Although all-IP networking is the ultimate goal of 4G wireless networks, 3G LTE and WiMAX systems
have designed semi all-IP network architectures for efficient radio resource and mobility management.
These semi all-IP networks separate layer 2 and layer 3 handoff operations by grouping many base stations
(BSs) as a subnet, thus alleviating handoff, while the pure all-IP networks provide a simple network platform at the cost of high handoff overhead. The authors compare the semi all-IP networks to the pure all-IP
networks, and provide an overview to WiMAX access service networks and 3G LTE backhaul networks.
They then present advanced architectures that support efficient radio resource and mobility management.
First, they present a semi hierarchical cellular system with a super BS that behaves like a normal BS as well
as a supervisor over other BSs within the group. They further extend this model to a system that combines
multiple access techniques of OFDMA and FH-OFDMA with microcells and macrocells. Also, to alleviate the handoff latency, a dual-linked BS model is presented in order to support seamless handoff. Finally,
as an integrated approach to supporting diverse QoS requirements, the authors consider an IP-triggered
resource allocation strategy (ITRAS) that exploits IntServ and DiffServ of the network layer to interwork
with channel allocation and multiple access of MAC and PHY layers, respectively. These cross layer approaches shed light on designing a QoS support model in a 4G network that cannot be handled properly
by a single layer based approach.
Chapter 4

Architecture for IP-Based Next Generation Radio Access Network .................................................... 61
Ram Dantu, University of North Texas, USA
Parthasarathy Guturu, University of North Texas, USA
High call volumes due to novel mobile data applications necessitate development of next generation wireless
networks centered on high performing and highly available radio access networks (RANs). In this chapter,


the authors present an innovative IP-based wireless routing architecture (for a RAN) with mechanisms for
seamless handoff operations and high Quality of Service (QOS). Algorithms for dynamic configuration of
the RAN, and efficacious network bandwidth management through traffic control are also presented. The
authors establish the superiority of their system with real-life data indicating significant cost and availability
improvements with our system over the traditional networks.
Chapter 5
Long Term Evolution (LTE): An IPv6 Perspective............................................................................... 77
Nayef Mendahawi, Research In Motion (RIM), Ltd., Canada
Sasan Adibi, Research In Motion (RIM), Ltd., Canada
The main characteristic of 4th Generation (4G) Networks is being based on all IP architecture, operating
mainly on IPv6. This includes services such as voice, video, and messaging. LTE is considered to be a
3rd Generation (3G) network and one of 4th Generation (4G) roadmap mobile access technologies. LTEAdvanced (LTE-A), on the other hand, is a 4G technology concept with evolving features. Therefore LTE
is the key feature in the understanding of LTE-A evolution. The main focus of LTE is the enhancement of
the packet-switched (PS) mechanisms on top of the UMTS enhancements, based on All IP Network (AIPN).
IPv6 networking provides maximum service delivery flexibility, user decoupling, and scalability improvements, while leveraging the existing IETF standards. This requires major focus on network simplification,
end-to-end delay reductions, optimal traffic routing, seamless mobility, and IP-based transport provisioning.
This chapter aims to present a survey and highlight specific IPv6-based features presented mostly in the
3GPP standard literature, and to provide a high-level discussion on the LTE-IPv6 requirements.
Chapter 6
HWN* Framework Towards 4G Mobile Communication Networks ................................................. 100
Chong Shen, Tyndall National Institute, Ireland
Dirk Pesch, Cork Institute of Technology, Ireland
Robert Atkinson, University of Strathclyde, Scotland

Wencai Du, Hainan University, China
The objective of the Hybrid Wireless Network with dedicated Relay Nodes (HWN*) proposal is to interface
the Base Station (BS) Oriented Mobile Network (BSON) and the 802.11X assisted Mobile Ad hoc Wireless Network (MANET) so that one system can be utilised as an alternative radio access network for data
transmissions, while the incorporation of the Relay Node (RN) is to extend the communication coverage,
optimise medium resource sharing, increase spatial reuse opportunity, stabilise MANET link and create
more micro-cells. The HWN* keeps the existing cellular infrastructure and a end-user Mobile Terminal
(MT) can borrow radio resources from other cells through secured multi-hop RN relaying, where RNs are
placed at pre-engineered locations. The main contribution of this work is the development of a HWN*
system framework and related medium access and routing protocols/algorithms. The framework dedicatedly addresses the transparent multiple interface traffic handover management, cross layer routing, RN
positioning and network topology issues to increase communication system capacity, improve Quality of
Service (QoS), optimise transmission delay and reduce packet delivery delay.


Forthcoming 4G Challenges:
Problems and Solutions
Chapter 7
User Experience in 4G Networks ....................................................................................................... 125
Pablo Vidales, Deutsche Telekom Laboratories, Germany
Marcel Wältermann, Deutsche Telekom Laboratories, Germany
Blazej Lewcio, Deutsche Telekom Laboratories, Germany
Sebastian Möller, Deutsche Telekom Laboratories, Germany
Forthcoming 4G networks will enable users to freely roam across different communication systems. This
implies that formerly independent wireless and wired technologies will be integrated to deliver transparent access to a plethora of mobile services and applications. This will also involve changes in the user’s
experience mainly derived from (1) mobility across heterogeneous technologies, (2) drastic changes in the
underlying link conditions, and (3) continuous adaptation of applications, e.g. flexible coding schemes.
This chapter presents a detailed study of these so far unknown phenomena arising in the context of 4G
networks. Current instrumental models employed to estimate user perception, such as PESQ (ITU-T Rec.
P.862, 2001) for predicting the quality of transmitted speech, were designed to measure conditions that are
common in today’s wireless and wired systems. However, it is expected that new conditions encountered
in 4G networks are not going to be accurately handled by today’s models. Thus, they need to be adjusted,

or new models should be proposed in order to predict the perceptual influence of new phenomena such as
the three aspects aforementioned. The authors undertook this task and designed a novel methodology and
experimental setup to measure user perception in future 4G networks. Moreover, the authors carried out an
extensive set of subjective tests to accurately quantify user perception and derive conclusions for optimal
user experience in 4G networks. These processes and initial results are included in this chapter.
Chapter 8
Fourth Generation Networks: Adoption and Dangers ........................................................................ 146
Jivesh Govil, Cisco Systems Inc., USA
Jivika Govil, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Mobile researchers are witnessing burgeoning interest in 4G wireless networks that patronize global roaming
across diverse wireless and mobile networks. The pith of 4G mobile systems lies in seamlessly integrating
the existing wireless technologies including Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA). High
Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)/ High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). 1×Evolution
Data Optimized, (1×EVDO). Wireless LAN, and Bluetooth. However, migrating current systems to 4G
engenders enormous challenges. With ever-changing specification and standards, developing a prototype
requires flexible process to provide 4G system capabilities. The 4G system has its own advantages and
associated dangers. This chapter intends to deal with adoption issues of 4G, the fundamentals as well as
issues pertaining to 4G networks, standards, terminals, services of 4G and the vision of network operators
and service providers. Besides, to overcome the challenges of sophisticated personal, session and service
mobility, advanced mobility management (MM) is needed to fulfill the need for seamless global roaming.
The chapter endeavors to make an evaluation on development, transition, and roadmap for fourth generation
mobile communication system with a perspective of wireless convergence domain in addition to mobility
management. Lastly, open research issues in 4G are succinctly discussed.


Chapter 9
Potential Scenarios and Drivers of the 4G Evolution ......................................................................... 181
Elias Aravantinos, Stevens Institute of Technology, USA
M. Hosein Fallah, Stevens Institute of Technology, USA
Nowadays, the mobile Internet communications can play a significant role in the Telecommunications Sector,

resolving certain issues and bottlenecks of personal communications, with most European countries close
to 100% penetration and a global projection of 4 billion mobile users by 2011. As we are moving to the
next generation, we are still lacking the precise definition of the architecture and the successful deployment
path of the 4G technology. Several theories have been developed looking at different standards and aiming
to select and develop the most promising one. In this paper the authors are introducing and presenting a
study that aims to explain a new concept of “4G readiness” revealing long run national strategies for 4G
deployment and suggesting some critical metrics that could describe the future of the mobile broadband
environment. They describe the methodology, assumptions and discuss the expected results based on
similar studies such as the e-readiness study.
Chapter 10
Knowledge Sharing to Improve Routing and Future 4G Networks ................................................... 193
Djamel F. H. Sadok, Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil
Joseilson Albuquerque de França, Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil
Luciana Pereira Oliveira, Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil
Renato Ricardo de Abreu, Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil
Current networking trends show a rapid convergence of several nestled networks as GSM/UMTS, WLAN,
Bluetooth, wired networks among others. Nonetheless, such a complex environment raises new challenges
including information routing, high dynamicity and possible disconnections. For such reasons, nontraditional routing paradigms have been put forward while adopting innovative ideas based on models from
areas as diverse as biological, epidemic and social behavior. The reader will learn about new forms of
routing being considered for integrating these future networks, based on the use of different metrics, such
as shared network knowledge and willingness in taking and forwarding it. In this chapter an overview of
traditional routing and the requirements for 4G systems are first made. New directions for routing based
on policy and the identification of stimulus to control and improve the message forwarding in addition to
their efficiency in the new context of 4G networks are presented.
Next Generation Technologies
Chapter 11
Personal Environments: Towards Cooperative 4G Services............................................................... 228
Tinku Rasheed, Create-Net, Italy
Usman Javaid, Vodafone Group, UK
The Fourth Generation of wireless networks promises to offer a vast range and diversity of converged

services in order to revolutionize the way we communicate today. 4G can not only offer ultra-high data
rates, but would also enable the ubiquitous computing paradigm, particularly interesting for the end-user


with the help of various personalized and user-friendly services and devices. This increase in short-range
communication among users and introduction of personalized services would form a “Personal Ubiquitous
Environment” around the user. Since in such environments, multiple users will come closer (without any
third-party barriers); their cooperation would be the key to success. Several technological and social barriers have prevented so far an effective cooperation between technologies, systems or users. This chapter
focuses on the potential impacts of cooperative ubiquitous services in 4G networking systems. The authors
explain the technological implications of cooperative systems considering the personal environment ubiquity. Furthermore, it attempts to characterize the socio-technical dimension of the potentials and limits of
cooperation in 4G systems.
Chapter 12
Next Generation Broadband Services from High Altitude Platforms ................................................. 249
Abbas Mohammed, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden
Zhe Yang, Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden
In this chapter the authors investigate the possibility and performance of delivering broadband services
from High Altitude Platforms (HAPs). In particular, the performance and coexistence techniques of providing worldwide interoperability for microwave access (WiMAX) from HAPs and terrestrial systems in the
shard frequency band are investigated. The WiMAX standard is based on orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM) and multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) technologies and has been regarded
as one of the most promising 4G standards to lead 4G market and deliver broadband services globally.
The authors show that it is possible to provide WiMAX services from an individual HAP system. The
coexistence capability with the terrestrial WiMAX system is also examined. The simulation results show
that it is effective to deliver WiMAX via HAPs and share the spectrum with terrestrial systems.
Chapter 13
Radio-over-Fibre Networks for 4G ..................................................................................................... 268
Roberto Llorente, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain
Maria Morant, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain
Javier Martí, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Spain
Radio-over-Fibre (RoF) is an optical communication technique based on the transmission of standard
wireless radio signals though optical fibre in their native format. This technique is an enabling step in the

deployment of dense fourth generation (4G) cellular and pico-cellular wireless networks. The optical fibre
provides a huge bandwidth that can support a variety of wireless systems, regardless of their frequency
bands, being protocol-transparent which is reflected in an great network flexibility. Radio-over-fibre techniques enables a high user capacity by frequency reuse, simplifies the network operation as the signals are
distribute in their native format, and permits to transfer signal part of the processing power from the base
station units to the central control station, thus reducing the overall deployment cost and complexity. The
principles of radio-over-fibre are presented in this chapter, including the key transmission impairments
and the expected performance. The main application scenarios are discussed. These include the backhaul
of 4G or base-stations, addressing 4G and 3G compatibility issues, and distributed-antenna system (DAS).
Finally, emerging applications like radio-over-fibre in beyond-3G scenarios and transmission of 60 GHz
wireless are also described in this chapter.


Section 2
Radio Access Protocols
Scheduling and Quality of Service
Chapter 14
MAC Protocol of WiMAX Mesh Network ......................................................................................... 292
Ming-Tuo Zhou, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Singapore
Peng-Yong Kong, Institute for Infocomm Research, Singapore
WiMAX based on IEEE std 802.16 is believed to be one of the important technologies of 4G. It aims to
provide high-speed access over distance of several to tens kilometers. In IEEE std 802.16-2004, WiMAX
defines an optional mesh mode, with which multi-hop, multi-route, self-organizing and self-healing communications can be achieved in metropolitan-level areas. This chapter presents medium access control
(MAC) protocol of WiMAX mesh mode, on frame structure, network configuration, network entry, and
scheduling algorithms. It also summaries the most recent progress on data slots resource scheduling and
allocation algorithms. Finally, an application example of using WiMAX mesh network for high-speed and
low-cost maritime communications is also presented in this chapter.
Chapter 15
Advanced Scheduling Schemes in 4G Systems .................................................................................. 313
Arijit Ukil, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd., India
The deterministic factor for 4G wireless technologies is to successfully deliver high value services such

as voice, video, real-time data with well defined Quality of Service (QoS), which has strict prerequisite of
throughput, delay, latency and jitter. This requirement should be achieved with minimum use of limited
shared resources. This constraint leads to the development and implementation of scheduling policy which
along with adaptive physical layer design completely exploit the frequency, temporal and spatial dimensions of the resource space of multi-user system to achieve the best system-level performance. The basic
goal for scheduling is to allocate the users with the network resources in a channel aware way primarily as
a function of time and frequency to satisfy individual user’s service request delivery (QoS guarantee) and
overall system performance optimization. Advanced scheduling schemes consider cross-layer optimization principle, where to fully optimize wireless broadband networks; both the challenges from the physical
medium and the QoS-demands from the applications are to be taken into account. Cross-layer optimization
needs to be accomplished by the design philosophy of jointly optimizing the physical, media access control,
and link layer, while leveraging the standard IP network architecture. Cross-layer design approaches are
critical for efficient utilization of the scarce radio resources with QoS provisioning in 4G wireless networks
and beyond. The scheduler, in a sense, becomes the focal point for achieving any cross-layer optimization,
given that the system design allows for this. The scheduler uses information from the physical layer up to
the application layer to make decisions and perform optimization. This is a fundamental advantage over a
system where the intelligence is distributed throughout the all entities of the network. In this chapter, the
authors present an overview of the basic scheduling schemes as well as investigate advanced scheduling
schemes particularly in OFDMA and packet scheduling schemes in all-IP based 4G systems. Game theoretic approach of distributed scheduling, which is of particular importance in wireless ad hoc networks,
will also be discussed. 4G wireless networks are mostly MIMO based which introduces another degree
of freedom for optimization, i.e. spatial dimension, for which scheduling in MIMO systems is very much


complicated and computation intensive. MIMO resource allocation and scheduling is also covered in this
chapter. The key research challenges in 4G wireless networks like LTE, WiMAX and the future research
direction for scheduling problems in 4G networks are also presented in this chapter.
Chapter 16
End-to-End Quality of Service in Evolved Packet Systems ............................................................... 361
Wei Wu, Research In Motion, Limited, USA
Noun Choi, Research In Motion, Limited, USA
The recent emergence of new IP-based services that require high bandwidth and low service latency such
as voice over IP (VoIP), video sharing, and music streaming have motivated the 3rd Generation Partnership

Project (3GPP) to work on the all IP-based cellular networks called Evolved Packet System (EPS). It is
challenging for EPS not only to meet the Quality of Service (QoS) requirements of new services but also
to make sure the QoS of existing services not impacted. In this chapter, the authors will first present an
overview of EPS, and then focus on the aspects of QoS principles and mechanisms in EPS. End-to-end
QoS models have been developed to analyze the application performance in EPS. Simulation results have
shown that VoIP service requires resource reservation to guarantee its QoS requirement, and e-mail service
does not experience significant performance degradation even when assigned a low service priority and the
system experiences short period congestion. However, web browsing performance may not be improved
proportionally to the network bandwidth increase due to the inherent network probing procedure of the
transport protocol.
Mobility and Handover
Chapter 17
An End-to-End QoS Framework for Vehicular Mobile Networks ..................................................... 377
Hamada Alshaer, University of Leeds, UK
Jaafar Elmirghani, University of Leeds, UK
In recent years we have witnessed a great demand for high speed Internet access in vehicular environment,
e.g., trains, buses and medical transport. This chapter introduces an integrated architecture for 4G vehicular
mobile networks, which aims to guarantee high quality in provisioned triple-play traffic services (video,
voice, and data) to road users. Within this architecture which is based on a cross layer design approach,
our contributions can be described in three folds. Firstly, the authors introduce simple and efficient probing
mechanisms which are integrated with network resource reservation policies for multihomed vehicular
networks. Secondly, packet, flow and user splitting mechanisms have been integrated with end admission
traffic control and scheduling mechanisms to guarantee even traffic load distribution among available air
interfaces. Finally, the whole architecture has been evaluated under OMNeT++, where results illustrate the
impact of network mobility on quality in provisioned services offered to a multihomed NEMO.
Chapter 18
LTE Mobility Solutions at Network Level for Global Convergence .................................................. 405
Titus-Constantin Bălan, Siemens SIS PSE, Romania
Florin Sandu, “Transilvania” University of Brasov, Romania
One of the research challenges for next generation all-IP-based wireless systems is the design of intelligent

mobility management techniques that take advantage of IP-based technologies to achieve global seamless


roaming among various access technologies. Since Mobile IPv6 is considered a mature protocol, mobility management at the network layer is the frequent approach for heterogeneous networks. The tendency
of future convergent scalable architectures is splitting the mobility management in two domains, global
mobility and localized mobility management. This chapter presents the advantages of MIPv6, a global
mobility protocol, and its enhancements. A case study based on MIPv6 for UMTS and WiFi convergence
is also presented. Proxy MIPv6, the newest protocol of the MIPv6 family, already included in the roadmap
of future 4G networks, will be analyzed as a solution for localized mobility management. The main goal
of the chapter is describing the way mobility protocols (MIPv6 and PMIPv6) will be implemented for
the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Long Term Evolution architecture. The chapter ends with
the presentation of the interoperation between different network technologies using global and localized
mobility management protocols, which provide flexibility, scalability and independence between mobility
domains.
Chapter 19
Handover Optimization for 4G Wireless Networks ............................................................................ 424
Dongwook Kim, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea
Hanjin Lee, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea
Hyunsoo Yoon, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, South Korea
Namgi Kim, Kyonggi University, South Korea
The authors present a velocity-based bicasting handover scheme to optimize link layer handover performance
for 4G wireless networks. Before presenting their scheme, as related works, they firstly describe general
handover protocols which have been proposed in the previous research, in terms of the layers of network
protocol stack. Then, they introduce state-of-the-art trends for handover protocols in three representative
standardization groups of IEEE 802.16, 3GPP LTE, and 3GPP2. Finally, they present the proposed bicasting
handover scheme. Original bicasting handover scheme enables all potential target base stations for a mobile
station (MS) which prepares for handover to keep bicasted data, in advance before the MS actually performs
handover. This scheme minimizes the packet transmission delay caused by handover, which achieves the
seamless connectivity. However, it leads to an aggressive consumption of backhaul network resources.
Moreover, if this scheme gets widely adopted for high data rate services and the demand for these services grows, it is expected that the amount of backhaul network resources consumed by the scheme will

significantly increase. Therefore, the authors propose a novel bicasting handover scheme which not only
minimizes link layer handover delay but also reduces the consumption of backhaul network resources in
4G wireless networks. For the proposed scheme, they exploit the velocity parameter of MS and a novel
concept of bicasting threshold is specified for the proposed mobile speed groups. Simulations prove the
efficiency of the proposed scheme over the original one in reducing the amount of consumed backhaul
network resources without inducing any service quality degradation.
Cross-Layer Designs
Chapter 20
Survey of Cross-Layer Optimization Techniques for Wireless Networks .......................................... 453
Han-Chieh Chao, National Ilan University, Taiwan
Chi-Yuan Chang, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
Chi-Yuan Chen, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
Kai-Di Chang, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan


The explosive development of Internet and wireless communication has made personal communication
more convenient. People can use a handy wireless device to transfer different kinds of data such as voice
data, text data, and multimedia data. Multimedia streaming, video conferencing, and on-line interactive 3D
games are expected to attract an increasing number of users in the future. The bandwidth requirement would
be high and the heterogeneous terminals would generally provide limited resource, such as low processing
power, low battery life and limited data rate capabilities. These applications would be the major challenge
for wireless networks. Although the traditional layered protocol stacks have been used for many years, they
are not suitable for the next generation wireless networks and the mobile systems. Due to the time varying
transmission of the wireless channel and the dynamic resource requirements of different application, the
traditional layered approach to the mobile multimedia communication is full of challenges to meet the user
requirement on performance and efficiency. Cross-layer design is an interesting research topic that actively
exploits the dependence between different protocol layers to obtain performance gains. The authors performed a survey and introduced the cross-layer design principles and issues for different research topics,
including QoS, mobility, security, application, and the next generation wireless communication.
Chapter 21
Cross-Layer Joint Optimization of Multimedia Transmissions over IP Based

Wireless Networks .............................................................................................................................. 469
Catherine Lamy-Bergot, THALES Communications S.A., France
Gianmarco Panza, CEFRIEL, Italy
The traditional approach consisting in separately optimizing each module of a transmission chain has
shown limitations in the case of wireless communications where delay, power limitation and error-prone
channels are experienced. This is why modern designers focus on a more integrated strategy to establish
the heterogeneous 21st century networks, such as 3G (i.e. UMTS) system and its evolutions (i.e. Beyond
3G or 4G like LTE or future 5G systems). Indeed, it was shown in several studies that optimal allocation
of user and system resources could be effectively achieved with the co-operative optimization of communication system components. In this chapter, an innovative Joint-Source Channel Coding and Decoding
(JSCC/D) system is described and its performance over an IPv6-based Network infrastructure is assessed.
A particular focus is put on the application controller, the key component to realize the adaptation strategies. Conclusions and considerations about the system implementation are also proposed, and the interest
of a possible extension to a point-to-multipoint scenario is explained.
Chapter 22
Video Streaming Based Services over 4G Networks: Challenges and Solutions ............................... 494
Elsa Mª Macías, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Alvaro Suarez, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
4G networks must not only show high bandwidth but also provide an excellent user experience, especially
for video streaming, which is a key technique for multimedia services on 4G networks like Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), Television over IP (TvIP), broadcatching, interactive digital television, and Video on
Demand (VoD). These services are challenging because of the well-known problems of the radio channel.
Efficient solutions are designed by considering cross layer techniques. In this chapter the authors firstly
review a number of video streaming based services, and then they present the basic operation of the video
streaming and its problems in 4G networks, emphasizing Wireless Fidelity (WiFi) technology. In order
to solve these problems they propose two cross layer strategies (one for access networks and another for


ad hoc networks) and integrate the first one into two application level solutions. The authors test the user
experience that accesses a Web portal including a VoD with a mobile telephone equipped with WiFi and
High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) Wireless Network Card Interfaces (WNIC). Results invite
them to be optimistic.
Section 3

Physical Layer Advances
Advanced Multiple Access Transmission Schemes
Chapter 23
Aspects of OFDM-Based 3G LTE Terminal Implementation ............................................................ 526
Wen Xu, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
Jens Berkmann, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
Cecilia Carbonelli, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
Christian Drewes, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
Axel Huebner, Infineon Technologies AG, Germany
3GPP standardized an evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN) within the release 8 Long Term Evolution (LTE)
project. Targets include higher spectral efficiency, lower latency, and higher peak data rate in comparison
with previous 3GPP air interfaces. The E-UTRAN air interface is based on OFDMA and MIMO in downlink
and on SCFDMA in uplink. Main challenges for a terminal implementation include an efficient realization
of fast and precise synchronization, MIMO channel estimation and equalization, and a turbo decoder for
data rates of up to 75 Mbps per spatial MIMO stream. In this study, the authors outline the current 3GPP
LTE standard and highlight some implementation details of an LTE terminal. Efficient sample algorithms
are presented for key components in the baseband signal processing including synchronization, cell search,
channel estimation and equalization, and turbo channel decoder. Their performances, computational and
memory requirements, and relevant implementation challenges are discussed.
Chapter 24
The Use of Orthogonal Frequency Code Division (OFCD) Multiplexing in Wireless
Mesh Network (WMN) ....................................................................................................................... 565
Syed S. Rizvi, University of Bridgeport, USA
Khaled M. Elleithy, University of Bridgeport, USA
Aasia Riasat, Institute of Business Management, Pakistan
In the present scenario, improvement in the data rate, network capacity, scalability, and the network throughput are some of the most serious issues in wireless mesh networks (WMN). Specifically, a major obstacle
that hinders the widespread adoption of WMN is the severe limits on throughput and the network capacity.
This chapter presents a discussion on the potential use of a combined orthogonal-frequency code-division
(OFCD) multiple access scheme in a WMN. The OFCD is the combination of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and the code division multiple access (CDMA). Since ODFM is one of the
popular multi-access schemes that provide high data rates, combining the OFDM with the CDMA may

yield a significant improvement in a WMN in terms of a comparatively high network throughput with
the least error ration. However, these benefits demand for more sophisticated design of transmitter and


receiver for WMN that can use OFCD as an underlying multiple access scheme. In order to demonstrate
the potential use of OFCD scheme with the WMN, this chapter presents a new transmitter and receiver
model along with a comprehensive discussion on the performance of WMN under the new OFCD multiple
access scheme. The purpose of this analysis and experimental verification is to observe the performance
of new transceiver with the OFCD scheme in WMN with respect to the overall network throughput, bit
error rate (BER) performance, and network capacity. Moreover, in this chapter, the authors provide an
analysis and comparison of different multiple access schemes such as FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, OFDM,
and the new OFCD.
Chapter 25
A New Approach to BSOFDM: Parallel Concatenated Spreading Matrices OFDM ......................... 582
Ibrahim Raad, University of Wollongong, Australia
Xiaojing Huang, University of Wollongong, Australia
This chapter discusses a new concept for Block Spread OFDM called Parallel Concatenated Spreading
matrices OFDM (PCSM-OFDM) which was first presented in (Raad, I. and Huang, X. 2007). While
BSOFDM improved the overall BER performance on OFDM in frequency selective channels, this new
approach further improves the BER of BSOFDM by over 3dB gain. This uses coding gain to achieve this
and is similar in concept to the well known error correction codes Turbo Codes. This is done by copying
the data at the transmitter n times in parallel and multiplexing.
Chapter 26
The Next Generation CDMA Technology for Futuristic Wireless Communications:
Why Complementary Codes? ............................................................................................................. 596
Hsiao-Hwa Chen, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
This chapter addresses the issues on the architecture of next generation CDMA (NG-CDMA) systems,
which should offer a much better performance in terms of its capacity and transmission rate, etc., than
that possible in all current 2-3G systems based on CDMA technology. The ultimate goal is to engineer a
CDMA system, whose performance will no longer be interference-limited, for its application in futuristic

wireless communications. To achieve this, many challenging issues should be tackled, such as innovated
design approaches for CDMA codes, multi-dimensional spreading techniques, suitable CDMA signaling
format for high-speed bursty traffic, and so forth. This chapter will review the author’s ongoing research
activities on the NG-CDMA technology, which can offer a performance never inferior to that of orthogonal
frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) technology. In particular, the author will briefly introduce
a new CDMA code design method, called Real Environment Adapted Linearization (REAL) approach,
which can be used to generate CDMA code sets with inherent immunity against multipath interference and
multiple access interference for both uplink and downlink transmissions. The chapter will also illustrate that
an interference-free CDMA can only be made possible with the application of orthogonal complementary
codes (OCCs). The use of traditional CDMA codes, such as Gold, Kasami, Walsh-Hadamard and OVSF
codes, all working on an one-code-per-channel basis, will never help in this sense. Several other topics
related to the NG-CDMA technology will also be addressed, such as system performance issues, other
properties of the NG-CDMA technology, and so on.


Enhanced Decoding Techniques
Chapter 27
Configurable and Scalable Turbo Decoder for 4G Wireless Receivers .............................................. 622
Yang Sun, Rice University, USA
Joseph R. Cavallaro, Rice University, USA
Yuming Zhu, Texas Instruments, USA
Manish Goel, Texas Instruments, USA
The increasing requirements of high data rates and quality of service (QoS) in fourth-generation (4G) wireless communication require the implementation of practical capacity approaching codes. In this chapter,
the application of Turbo coding schemes that have recently been adopted in the IEEE 802.16e WiMax
standard and 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard are reviewed. In order to process several 4G wireless standards with a common hardware module, a reconfigurable and scalable Turbo decoder architecture
is presented. A parallel Turbo decoding scheme with scalable parallelism tailored to the target throughput
is applied to support high data rates in 4G applications. High-level decoding parallelism is achieved by
employing contention-free interleavers. A multi-banked memory structure and routing network among
memories and MAP decoders are designed to operate at full speed with parallel interleavers. A new on-line
address generation technique is introduced to support multiple Turbo interleaving patterns, which avoids

the interleaver address memory that is typically necessary in the traditional designs. Design trade-offs in
terms of area and power efficiency are analyzed for different parallelism and clock frequency goals.
Chapter 28
Parallel Soft Spherical Detection for Coded MIMO Systems ............................................................ 644
Hosein Nikopour, Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd., Canada
Amin Mobasher, Stanford University, USA
Amir K. Khandani, University of Waterloo, Canada
Aladdin Saleh, Bell Canada, Canada
This Chapter briefly evaluates different multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) detection techniques in
the literature as the candidates for the next generation wireless systems. The authors evaluate the associated problems and solutions with these methods. The focus of the chapter is on two categories of MIMO
decoding: i) hard detection and ii) soft detection. These techniques significantly increase the capacity of
wireless communications systems. Theoretically, a-posteriori probability (APP) MIMO decoder with soft
information can achieve the capacity of a MIMO system. A sub-optimum APP detector is proposed for
iterative joint detection/decoding in a MIMO wireless communication system employing an outer code.
The proposed detector searches inside a given sphere in a parallel manner to simultaneously find a list of
m-best points based on an additive metric. The metric is formed by combining the channel output and the
a-priori information. The parallel structure of the proposed method is suitable for hardware parallelization.
The radius of the sphere and the value of m are selected according to the channel condition to reduce the
complexity. Numerical results are provided showing a significant reduction in the average complexity (for
a similar performance and peak complexity) as compared to the best earlier known method. This positions
the proposed algorithm as a candidate for the next generation wireless systems. The proposed scheme is
applied for the decoding of the rate 2, 4 × 2 MIMO code employed in the IEEE 802.16e standard.


Collaboration and Capacity
Chapter 29
Capacity Estimation of OFDMA-Based Wireless Cellular Networks ................................................ 666
André Carlos Guedes de Carvalho Reis, Universidade de Brasília, Brazil
Paulo Roberto de Lira Gondim, Universidade de Brasília, Brazil
The usage of wireless cellular network architecture increases the capacity of a wireless system, by combining

cells into clusters in which channels are uniquely assigned per cell and reusing such clusters throughout the
network. Unfortunately, a cellular network system may become interference limited regarding its capacity
instead of noise/range limited due to intensive resources reuse like time, frequency and space. Using as input
the physical layer parameters and deployment scenario, an analytical approach is proposed for capacity
estimation of networks based on Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) technology
whose sub channels are composed of distributed subcarriers. This innovative approach is based on a new
analytical method for SINR calculation based on a proposed subcarrier collision probability model. The
usage of such method is exemplified for a single-hop sectorized Mobile WiMAX cellular network and the
results are validated against published works.
Chapter 30
Wireless Collaboration: Maximizing Diversity through Relaying ..................................................... 684
Patrick Tooher, Concordia University, Canada
M. Reza Soleymani, Concordia University, Canada
To achieve performance gains in the wireless channel, spatial diversity is employed. These higher order
transmit diversity gains generally require multiple transmit antennas at the source. This requirement is
not always possible in real world applications, where practical concerns limit the number of antennas a
wireless device can have. Recently, a new method to achieve transmit diversity has been proposed: collaborative communications. In this framework, a node in a wireless network can use the resources of other
idle nodes and form what can be viewed as a virtual transmitting antenna array. This chapter presents an
overview of the development of collaborative communications. Two-phase protocols that can achieve collaboration are presented. A discussion on the improvement of collaborative communications protocols is
given. A broader perspective of collaborative communications is given by discussing ideas such as power
allocation and multiple relays.
Compilation of References .............................................................................................................. 710
About the Contributors ................................................................................................................... 759
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 777


xxiv

Foreword: Wireless Communication—History
and Visions


How did we arrive at our current state of tHe art?
Pre-Cellular Mobile Telephony
In order to understand where we’re going, we need to understand how we arrived at today’s state of the
art. The notion of reliable mobile telephone service was first introduced in the 1950’s. The first widely
deployed system was developed by AT&T Bell Laboratories in the United States and referred to as Mobile
Telephone Service (MTS). MTS was fairly simple, comprising 1) a mobile analogue FM transceiver capable of operating on either 8 or 16 radio frequency channels in the vehicle, 2) a wide coverage FM base
station transceiver and 3) an operator-assisted switching centre, by which calls were manually connected
and disconnected to an outside party (Sarkar, Mailloux, Oliner, Salazar-Palma, & Sengupta, 2005). The
mobile transceiver was extremely large, weighing 20 kilos or more and therefore was usually mounted in
the trunk of the vehicle. A cable was run from the transceiver to the vehicle interior, where the user could
operate the device using a control head and a telephone handset.
To place a call from the mobile, the user would first observe the “busy” light on the mobile control
unit. If the system were available, the user would then lift the handset and press the “talk” switch to call
the mobile operator and request that a number be dialled. The operator would then connect the audio lines
from the Public Switched Telephone System (PSTN) to the mobile audio interface, and the call could
proceed. Between 1964 and 1969, AT&T introduced the Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS).
The primary improvement was that automated switching replaced the need for manual involvement by
a telephone operator. IMTS enabled users to place calls themselves using a dial installed on the mobile
control head. Likewise, incoming calls were automatically routed to the mobile station, where the user
was alerted by an alert tone (Gascoigne, 1974; Harte, 2006).
MTS and IMTS were fairly crude in contrast to the smart phones of today, but these systems were
revolutionary for their time. They were truly technical substitutes for fixed-line telephony, and this is the
way the consumer mobile communication industry remained for many years. Throughout the 1970’s,
adoption of MTS and IMTS service in the United States was rapid, and in the mean time similar services
were introduced in Europe. From a market segmentation viewpoint, the subscribers of mobile telephone
services between the 1950’s and early 1980’s were primarily high-end business users. The cost of equipment and service were extremely high compared to the cost of fixed-line phone service, prohibiting adoption by the general population. Nevertheless, mobile subscribers were individuals for whom economic
utility value was of primary importance – they could afford it, and didn’t mind paying the price one bit for
mobile communication.
The rapid adoption of mobile telephony during the 1970’s was somewhat of a paradox to many fixedline telephone company executives who saw the mobile telephone market as an extremely small niche

market, deserving very little attention. After all, there was a huge network of coin phones across Europe