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Content
Introduction
Speech Organs
Speech product & Mechanism
The description & classification
of English speech sounds
The English consonants
Place of articulation
Manner of articulation
Voicing
Phonetic features of English
consonants
The Vowels
Transcription

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Aspects of connected speech
Assimilation
Dissimilation
Elision
Metathesis

Epenthesis
Liasion
Stress
Intonation
Phonology
The Phoneme
The Allophone
The Syllable
Phonological Rules

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










Mine
Determine
Debt
Climber
Receipt
Basic
Pronoun
Innocent
Interesting
Adversetisement (BrE)

(AmE)


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Introduction
Study of Pronunication

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Phonetics:

Phonology:


describing speech sounds
in terms of phonetic
features/properties

studying speech sounds
in terms of
functions & patterning

- How

speech sounds are
produced using articulators?
-How the sound waves are
measured?
- How speech sounds are
perceived with the ears, nerves
and brain?

- How

many distinctive sounds are
there in a particular language
system?

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- Which rules that govern the
interaction between these

sounds?
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Comparison: Phonology and phonetics

Phonetics

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Phonology

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the basis for
phonological analysis

the basis for further work in

morphology, syntax, discourse
& orthography design

Analyzes the sound patterns
of a particular language by
determining which phonetic
Analyzes the production of all
sounds are significant, and
human speech sounds,
explaining how these sounds
regardless of language
are interpreted by
the native speaker

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INTRODUCTION

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Phonetics: The science of speech sound


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Aim:
to provide the set of features, or properties that
can describe all sounds in human language

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3 main areas of phonetics

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Articulatory phonetics Acoustic phonetics Auditory phonetics

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• deals with the
physiological aspects

of speech sound
(How speech sounds
are produced using
articulators)

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• deals with
transmission of
speech sounds
through the air
(How sound waves
are measured)

• deals with
listeners’
perception
(How speech
sounds are
perceived with ear,
nerves & brain) 5

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The s pe e c h o rg ans /Artic ulato rs
(S o und pro duc ing S ys te ms )*

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Alveolar ridge

Nasal Cavity

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Uvula
Oral Cavity

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Velum

Hard palate
Front

Tip
Blade

Back/Dorsum

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Pharynx


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Epiglottis
Glottis
Larynx
Vocal folds

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THE DESCRIPTION & CLASSIFICATION
OF ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS

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Speech sounds as Segments or Phones


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 A phone
- an unanalyzed sound of a language.
- the smallest identifiable unit found in a
stream of speech
 A segment
- any discrete unit or phone
- a representation of such a unit.

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ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS

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The basic division: 2 major classes

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44 basic speech sounds

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20 vowels

24 consonants

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THE ENGLIS H CONS ONANTS


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Definition:

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A speech sound produced
with a complete or partial obstruction
of the air stream in vocal tract

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Description:
can be described in terms of
articulatory parameters:
 place of articulation
 manner of articulation
 voicing

Place of articulation:
The points where articulators
actually touch or are
at the closest

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THE ENGLIS H CONS ONANTS **

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Sound

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Passive

Articulators
Active

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E.g.

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[p, b, m, w] *


Bilabial

upper lip

lower lip

Dental

teeth

tongue tip

Labiodental

upper teeth

lower lip

Alveolar

teeth ridge

tip

[t d s z n l r ]*

Palatal

hard palate


Front

[j]*

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[ , ] *

Palato-alveolar behind alveolar tongue blade
soft palate

Velar

Tongue back
vocal cords

Glottal

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[f, v*]


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[t, d,  ,  ]*
* , ŋ, w ]
[k,
**
[h,  ] *
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 Manner of articulation:
(Constriction degrees)
How close the articulators get:
Complete or partial?

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Main constriction degrees
(types of obstruction)

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Sound class

Movement of
articulator

Sound

Stop (plosives)


complete stop of air,
then rapid separation
stop of air, then slow
separation
Narrowing, causing
audible friction
lowering of velum, air
escapes through nose
air escapes down
side of tongue
slight narrowing, not
enough for friction

[p, t, k, b, d, ,  ]

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Affricates

1
Fricatives

2
Nasals
Lateral
Approximants

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[ t, d]

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[,, f, v, z, s, , , h ]
[m, n, ŋ ] *
[l]*
[w, j, r]*
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Manner of articulation of dark el [ l ]

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I’ll [ aI l ]
child
while
owl
oil
meal
school

useful
howl - how
file - fire
mile - mind

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l

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 Manner of articulation of [ w ]

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We [wi:]
Wine [waIn]
Semi-vowel
Start with [u:]
then glides to []
How [ha]

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[haw]
Semi-consonant
We [wi:]
Quite [kwaI]

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Manner of articulation of [ j ]

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Yes [jes]
You [ju:]
Young [jŋ]

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Semi-vowel
Start with [i:]
then glides to []
Semi-consonant
university
[] [ju:nIv:sItI]


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Manner of articulation of [ r ]

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Writer [raIt]
[raItr]
[raItr]
Our [a]
Fire [faI]

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r

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 Voicing (States of glottis)
what are the vocal folds doing?

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 1. Voiced sounds:
+ vibration during the articulation of the
consonant,
e.g. [b, d, ]

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 2. Voiceless sounds:
- vibration during the articulation of the
consonant,
e.g. [f, s, t∫]
s x ch f t k th h ph
*
    t    

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What is the significance of
voicing
in the pronunciation of an

utterance?

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How is plural form – s
pronounced in English?
How is past tense form –ed
pronounced in English?

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The pronunciation of Plural form – S

1. NSTRIDENT + ES [ z ], e.g. 2 glasses, 2 watches
2. NVOICED+S [ z ]. e.g. 2 pens on the table
3. NVLESS +S [ s ], e.g. 2 books on the table

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Stridents: [ s ] [ z ] [ Í ] [ Ù ] [ S ] [ Z ]

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 The pronunciation of past form - ED
1. V td + ED [d], e.g. wanted, needed
2. VVOICED+ED [d]. e.g. I opened a box
3. VVLESS +ED [t], e.g. He looked at us
s or z? t or d?:
dams, houses, tents, beds, dogs
He helped us, he asked us, he begged us

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Place

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Manner
Stop
– voice p
+ voice b
Affricate
– voice
+ voice
Fricative
– voice
+ voice
Nasal
m

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Bilabial Dental Labio Alveolar Palato

dental
alveolar

Lateral
Approximant

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C. Classification of English consonants
Palatal Velar Glottal

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t
d

k




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Í
Ù




f
v

s
z
n

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


r

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h
ŋ


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w

j

(w)
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D. Identification of a consonant :

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[ k ] in terms of 3 parameters

voicing: voiceless

place : velar

manner: stop

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SOME PHONETIC FEATURES
OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS

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A. FORCE OF ARTICULATION:

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greater or lesser effort and high/ low air
pressure required
 Fortis consonants:
voiceless consonants tend to have strong
pronunciation

e.g. [p, t, k]
 Lenis consonants:
voiced consonants tend to have weaker
pronunciation,
e.g. [b, d,  ]

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B. LENGTH OF ARTICULATION

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I. Voiceless > Voiced consonants at final position,

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e.g. hit vs hid

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tap vs tab

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II. Open syllable > closed syllables,

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e.g. be [ bi:] > bead [bi:d] > beat [bi:t]

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III. Syllables closed with voiced consonant >
syllables closed with voiceless consonants,

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e.g. bead [bi:d] > beat [bi:t], raise [reIz] > race [reIs]

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PRACTICE

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peace - peas

eyes - ice

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lose - loose

bat - bad

lice - lies

cup - cub


rise - rice

rack - rag

duck - dug

price - prize

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C. VOICE OF ARTICULATION

1. Full voice:

1. [b, d, ] are intervocalic, e.g. about, ado, ago
2. [l, r] are syllable initial, e.g. rain, lean
2. Devoiced:
1. [b, d, ] are syllable initial,
e.g. be [bi:], do [d u:] go [  ]

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2. [r, l ] are preceded by voiceless stops,
e.g. train [ treIn] , clean [k li:n] clearly
3. Voiceless: when [b, d, g] are word final,
e.g. lead [li: d ], dog [ d   ] bad - bat
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D. SYLLABICITY


When syllabic consonants [l, r, m, n ] are preceded
by another consonant,e.g.
1. [l]: little [ l I t l ], table [teI bl ], total [ t@Utl! ]
2. [r ] matter [ m tr], ladder [ l dr], Mr, consider
3. [m ]: madam [m  dm], rhythm [r I m ], autumn
4. [ n ] : listen [ l I s n], garden [ga:dn ], often

5. medal
6. needlework
7. cattle
8. petals

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Socialism, capitalism, enthusiasm
1. suddenly
2. Britain
3. frightening
4. hidden

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9. panel
10. softener
11. station

12. fastened
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E. FLAPPING

[]

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t "pa:t}I

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Voiceless alveolar [ t ] or voiced alveolar [d ]
becomes voiced flap [] in an unstressed syllable,
e.g.


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[lItl! ], ladder [l  dr], city [sI tI ] (BrE)
[lIl]

[l r]

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[sI I ] (AmE)

Party, meeting, Saturday, daughter
He worked until the party started.
She’s Mr. Timson’s daughter Jenny.
I have one son and one daughter.
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A little

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F. ASPIRATION with [ p, t, k ] The pronunciation of the

I. Aspirated:

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voiceless [p, t, k ] with an
extra puff of air strongly expelled

 [p, t, k] : syllable-initial in a stressed syllable
eg. pay [ph eI] top [th p] keep [khi:p]

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II. Relatively aspirated:
 [p, t, k] : syllable-initial in an unstressed syllable
e.g. upon [  phn ], happen [h  phn ] , ankle

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III. Unaspirated:
 [p, t, k] : preceded by [ s ]
e.g. speak [sp i:k],
stab [stb]

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skill [skIl ]

 [p, t, k] : syllable-final
e.g. stop [st p], meat [mi: t ]
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/pi:stO:lk/?
[phi: s t : lk] pea stalk or
[phi:s th : lk] peace talk

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[mai trein]
[mait rein]
[ais kri:m]
[ai skri:m] ex

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THE ENGLISH VOWELS

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Definition:

a speech sound produced with
relatively little obstruction of air
stream in the vocal tract

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Characteristics: Vowels are

3
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Description:
In terms of articulatory
& auditory parameters
1. Tongue positions
2. Shapes of lips
3. Mouth aperture

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1. voiced
2. Sonorant: louder than consonant

Front

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Central

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Back

***

Close

i:*

u: ***

High **

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**

d

e

Half close

**

:

e


Half open



2


Open**

S

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**

3

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: Mid ***
**

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

Low****

:
Cardinal Vowel Scale

**
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DESCRIPTION OF VOWELS IN TERMS OF 5 PARAMETERS

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Parameter

Specification

E.g.


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Tongue part
(Advancement)

1. front:
2. central:
3. back:

[ i: ], [ I ]
[  ], [ ]
[ ], [:]

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1. high:
2. mid:
3. low:
Shape of lips (Lip rounding) 1. rounded:
2. unrounded:
1. long:
Length (Duration)
2. short:

[ i: ], [ u: ]
[ ], [:]
[ ], [  ]
[: ], [u:]

[ i: ], [ ]

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Tenseness
(Effort with tongue & jaw)

[ i: ], [:]
[e ], [  ]

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Tongue height
(Jaw opening)

1. tense:
2. lax:

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[ i: ], [u: ]
[ e,  ]
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C. Classification of the
vowels

Principle

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Parameters

d
tongue

e

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position

quality



lip position

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horizontal (part)

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vertical (height)
rounded vowels
unrounded vowels

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length of vowel
 degree of tenseness


4
quantity

checked: strong end
 character of their end in closed syllable)
unchecked: lessening
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D. Identification of a vowel:*

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E.g. [ e ] is a front mid unrounded short lax vowel
1. Tongue part:
front
2. Tongue height:
mid
3. Shape of lips:
unrounded
4. Length:
short
5. Tenseness:
lax*

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THE DIPHTHONGS

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I. Definition:
A speech sound involving two vowels, the first of
which glides into the second one
[e ]

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6
[e]
nucleus (core)

[ ]
terminating/ (glide)
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II. Monophthong vs Diphthong

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Monophthong

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Diphthong


e

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complex

pure

3
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Single vowel
No change of
vowel quality

Double vowel
Change of
vowel quality
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FRONT VIEW OF [eI]

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3

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SIDE VIEW OF

[eI]

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Front

Central


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Back

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Close

i:



I

d
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Half close

High

Half open

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





Low

:
Cardinal Vowel Scale

Open

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: Mid



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:

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u:

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III. Classification

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According to the quality of the second element

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Diphthongs

d

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Centring

Rising

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I aI a 

eI

FRONTING



BACKING

ex

our

e

I

triphthong?
ai fire


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The major differences *
between the consonants & the vowels
Sound class Vowels
Basis of
difference
Articulation

4
2

produced with
relatively little
obstruction

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Consonants

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produced with
narrow/
complete closure

Acoustics

more sonorous

generally
less sonorous

Function

syllabic

generally
not syllabic

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AS PECTS OF CONNECTED S PEECH
COARTICULATORY PROCESSES

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Coarticulation

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 Consonants with two simultaneous places
of articulation

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4
3

 Secondary articulation
That of an approximantic nature, in which
case both articulations can be similar, such
as labialized labials, palatalized velars, etc.

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Some common coarticulations:

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Labialization, rounding the lips while producing the
obstruction, as in kʷ and English w.
 Palatalization, raising the body of the tongue
toward the hard palate while producing the
obstruction, as in Russian tʲ.
 Velarization, raising the back of the tongue
toward the soft palate (velum), as in the English
dark el, lˠ or ɫ.

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A. ASSIMILATION
A sound segment changes to become more like its
neighboring sound.
Types: 3 types of assimilation
The change of a
segment is caused by
1. Progressive assimilation: A
B
the preceding sound


A

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The preceding sound causes the change, e.g.
Books [ b k
z]
[b  k
s]
The voiced alveolar [ z] is devoiced by the preceding
voiceless [ k ] and becomes voiceless [ s ].

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2. Regressive assimilation : A
B

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B

The change of a
segment is caused by
the following sound

a. Labialization (assimilation of place):

[t]
[p, b, m ]

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e

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[p]
pen]

e.g.[

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(careful/ slow speech)

4


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[p

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pen]

(Casual/ rapid speech)

The alveolar [ t ] is labialized by the following bilabial [p]

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 [d]

[p, b, m], e.g. [g  d

baI] (careful/ slow speech)

[g  b

baI ] (Casual/rapid speech)

[b]


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 [n]

[p, b, m], e.g. [g  n

4

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men] (careful speech)

[g  m

[m]

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men] (Rapid speech)

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b. Velarization (assimilation of place)
[t]
[k]

[k, ],

[ D&t

ka: ] s.p

[ D&k

ka: ] r.p

___________________________________
___________________________________

d
e

4

___________________________________

The alveolar [ t] is velarized by the following velar [] and
becomes velar [ k ].
[ d ]
[k, ] [ gUd
g3:l ] s.p
[]

[ gUg

[ n ]

[k, ] [ b&n

k ] s.p

[ŋ]

[ b&N

k ] r.p

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

g3:l ] r.p

8

48


16


S
l

___________________________________

c. Nasalisation (assimilation of manner)
[d]

[ n/m ] [ gUd

___________________________________

naIt ] s.p

i
d

___________________________________

e

4

[ gUn

[n/ m]


naIt ] r.p

___________________________________
___________________________________

The stop [ d ] is nasalized by the following nasal [ n ]
and becomes nasal [ n ].
[v]

[m]

[ gIv

mi: ] s.p

[ gIm

mi: ] r.p

___________________________________
___________________________________

9
[ m]

49

S
l

i

C

___________________________________

t∫
b) [ d ] + [ j ] makes [ d ], eg. [aI ni:d + ju:]
[d],

5

___________________________________

a) [ t ] + [ j ] makes [t∫], e.g. [ aI w  n t+ju:]

d
e

___________________________________

3. Mutual assimilation/ Coalescence: A + B

c) ) [ s ] + [ j ] makes [ ∫ ], eg.[aI mIs + ju:]

0

___________________________________
The alveolar [ t ]
combines with

the palatal [ j ]
to make
the palatoalveolar [ Í ]

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

∫
d) ) [ z ] + [ j ] makes [], eg. [aI lu:z + ju:]
[ ]

50

S
l

___________________________________

Mutual Assimilation of [ t ] & [ j ] * p.6

___________________________________

i

___________________________________

d

___________________________________


e

___________________________________
___________________________________

5

___________________________________
t

1

t

j

51

17


S
l

___________________________________

B. DISSIMILATION
A sound segment becomes less alike its neighboring sound.
E.g.

Fifths [fIfs ]

___________________________________

i
d
e

5
2

___________________________________
[fIfts ]
C. ELISON (DELETION)
A sound segment is deleted from the existing string of sounds.
I. Elision of the Schwa [  ]
 when preceded by a consonant in an unstressed syllable, e.g.
today [ t  deI ], po  lice, cor  rect



II. Elision of [ t, d ] between two other consonants,
Hand me [ h n d mi: ], next day [ neks t deI ]

d

3

___________________________________


___________________________________
F. METATHESIS
The order of the sounds is rearranged to ease the
articulation, e.g.

___________________________________
___________________________________

spaghetti [ sp  etI ]

___________________________________

[ p  s  etI ]

e

5

___________________________________

52

S

i

___________________________________

 After a consonant and before a linking [ r ] which precedes
another vowel.

E.g. interesting [Int  r  stI ŋ], secreta ry, lite rature, dictiona ry
E.g.

l

___________________________________

___________________________________

G. EPENTHESIS
A sound segment is inserted within an existing
string of sounds when there is a transition from a
sonorant to a nonsonorant.

___________________________________
___________________________________

E.g. warmth [w : m  ], [le ŋ  ] , [prin s]
p

k

t
53

S
l

___________________________________
___________________________________


H. LIAIS ON (LINKING)

i
d
e

5
4

___________________________________
Six  hours, an  hour  ago,

___________________________________

half  an  hour, twelve  hours  a day,
Four  o’ clock, 5  o’ clock, 6  o’ clock,
7  o’ clock, 8  o’ clock, 12  o’ clock
A couple  of days, a bottle  of wine,
2 people  in the room, a table  at Mario

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

You  wand I, Who  ware you, So  wand so
See  ja man, they  jall, very  jinteresting
54

18



S
l
i
d
e

___________________________________

I. S tre s s
I. Definition
The pronunciation of a syllable/ word with more
force and prominence than the others nearby.
II. The characteristics
The prominence of a stressed syllable can be achieved in terms
of production and perception
1. Loudness (dynamic accent ):

t i: Í@

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

2. Pitch (musical accent) :

i:


5
5

t

___________________________________
Í@

3. Length (qualitative accent ):

t

i i i i i: Í@
55

S
l
i
d
e

5
6

III. Types:
1. Word stress:
The stress pattern given to a word in isolation.
3 possible levels of stress within a word
a. Primary/ High stress:

The greatest stress given to a syllable within a (polysyllabic)
word,
e.g. independent
b. Secondary/ Low stress:
The next stress given to a syllable within a polysyllabic word,
e.g. inde pendent

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

C. Tertiary/ Rhythmic stress:
The weakest stress of a syllable within a polysyllabic word
E.g. mag nification

56

Note: Word stress is fixed

S

___________________________________
2. Sentence stress:

l
i

d
e

5
7

Stress given to words said to be important in a
sentence.
Parts of speech usually have stress in a sentence:
Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb (Content/lexical words)
E.g.  Tom  usually  comes to  class  late on  Monday.
Parts of speech do not usually have stress in a
sentence:
Pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, articles
(Function/grammatical words)

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

57

19


S
l

i
d
e

5
8

___________________________________
IV. Function of stress
a. Distinguish between different parts of speech
Noun
Verb/ Adjective
a record – to record
 import
im  port
 content
con  tent (Adj)
perfect – to perfect
Note:  contact
 contact
b. Distinguish between a compound and a noncompound
(free word group)
GREEN house
(compound)
Green HOUSE
(noncompound)
 BLUE bottle
(compound)
Blue  BOTTLE
(noncompound)

V. Stress Shift/ Change
When a word/ phrase is followed by another word/ phrase
with a high stress or tonic stress.
arti ficial
E.g. inde  pendent
diplomatic

She’s  inde  pendent.
absent minded
But She’s an  independent  girl.

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

58

S

___________________________________

Jane tried to be diplomatic

l

___________________________________
It’s a diplomatic answer


i
d
e

___________________________________
___________________________________

His smile is artificial

___________________________________

J8 has an artificial intelligence

5

___________________________________
___________________________________

He is absent-minded

9
He is an absent-minded teacher
 thirteen

1513

1315

59


S
l
i
d
e

6
0

___________________________________
J. INTONATION
I. Definition:
The pronunciation of a sentence with a rise and fall
of
the voice in different levels of pitch.
II. The Basic Tune shapes
tonic syllable
1. The Glide Down (Falling Tune)
e.g. The weather forecast was wrong.
2. The Glide Up (High Rising Tune)
e.g. Do you have children?
3. The Take Off (Low Rising Tune)
E.g. His mother’s carrying roses, isn’t she?
4. The Dive (Fall-Rise)
E.g. I’d like a cup of tea, a mixed salad without
onion,and some bread with butter with plumb jam

___________________________________
___________________________________

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

60

20


S

III. The representation of the intonation contour

___________________________________

l

1. The Glide Down (Falling Tune)

___________________________________

i
d
e








1





___________________________________

2. The Glide Up (High Rising Tune)
e.g. Are you a student?


6

___________________________________

e.g. I’m from Canada.







___________________________________
___________________________________




3. The Take Off (Low Rising Tune)
E.g. You are Chinese, aren’t you?










4. The Dive (Fall-Rise)
E.g. They sell milk, sugar,






___________________________________



biscuit ...


61


S
l

___________________________________
IV. Ho w the Bas ic Tune s hape s are us e d

___________________________________

i
d
e

6
2

___________________________________
1. The Glide Down can be used for:
a. A definite, complete statement,
e.g. It’s snowing. I’ll get frozen.
b. Most Wh-Questions,
e.g. What would you like to know?
c. A question-tag (the speaker is certain of her information)
e.g. That’s his father, isn’t he?
d. A strong command,
e.g. Call the weather forecasters.
e. An exciting greeting or exclamation,
e.g. Good afternoon/ Oh! How stupid of me!
f. A definite short, answer Yes/ No,
62
e.g. Yes, I do. No, she isn’t.


S
l

e

6
3

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

___________________________________

2. The Glide Up ca n be us e d for:

___________________________________

i
d

___________________________________

___________________________________
a. Most Yes- No Questions,
e.g. Are you a man?
b. A statement intended as a question,
e.g. You mean very cloudy?
c. A polite request,

e.g. Could you help me, please?
d. A casual greeting,
e.g. Good afternoon!

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

63

21


S

___________________________________

l
i
d
e

6
4

___________________________________

3. The Take off ca n be us e d for:


___________________________________

a. A question tag when the speaker isn’t
certain of his information,
e.g. she’s cold, isn’t she?
b. A grumbling statement,
e.g. You’re always late.
c. An echoing question,
e.g. A: Lumley Castle is on your left.
B: Where’s Lumley Castle?
A: Lord and Lady Lumley have a
collection of wild animals.
B: What have they got?

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

64

S

___________________________________

l

___________________________________

i


___________________________________

d
e

6
5

Man: Have you seen my sport shirts?
Mom: Your sport shirts? They’re being washed.
Man: Have you moved my math books?
Mother: Your math books? They’re on the bookshelf.
Man: Have you taken my reading lamp?
Mother: Your reading lamp? No, it’s on the desk.
Man: Can I borrow some postcards?
Mother: Postcard? All right. It’s in the drawer,in the
envelope.
Man: Will you iron my tennis short?
Mother: Your tennis short. No, you have to iron it
yourself.
65

S
l
i
d
e

6

6

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

___________________________________
4. The Dive can be used for:

___________________________________

a. A list of things,
e.g. There’s some sugar, there’s some coffee
and there’s a lot of tea.
b. An incomplete statement implying BUT ...
e.g. He’s intelligent (but he’s lazy ...)
c. With Before/ When phrase,
e.g. Before I eat dinner, I’ll have a bath first.
d. Correcting thing,
e.g. A: He’s forty.
B: No, he’s fifty.
5. Alternative question A or B?,
e.g. Would you like tea or coffee?

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________


66

22


S
l
i
d
e

6
7

___________________________________

PHONOLOGY
The function and patterning of sounds

___________________________________
___________________________________

A. Definition:
The study of how the speech sounds function and form
patterns according to phonological rules.
B. Basic elements used to make up the phonological patterns:
I. The Features:
The smallest phonological units to build up/ define the segment,
e.g.

/n/
- vocalic
+ nasal
- continuant
II. The segments:
The phonological discrete units used to build up the syllable,

/k

e.g.

I

n/

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

67

S

___________________________________

l

III. The syllables: suprasegmental unit


___________________________________

i

The phonological units used to build up the word, e.g.
/ kndI /
kn
dI

___________________________________

Phonological representation of hierarchical levels of elements
Wd
Word level

___________________________________

d
e

6
8

S



Syllable level




k

___________________________________

n

d

+ consonantal
- continuant

+ vocalic
- back

+ consonantal
- continuant Feature level

- voice

- high

+ nasal

68

___________________________________

What is the phonological hierarchy?


___________________________________
A ranking that organizes a stream of speech into levels
of ascending size and complexity.

9

___________________________________
___________________________________

Levels of the phonological hierarchy:

e

6

___________________________________

Segment level

l
i

___________________________________

___________________________________
Breath group (utterance)
Stress group (word)
Syllable
Segment
Features

Units at one level of the hierarchy cluster together to
form units of the next higher level. At each level,
speech can be segmented into units that have similar
kinds of phonetic features.

___________________________________
___________________________________

69

23


S
l
i
d
e

7
0

S
l
i
d
e

7
1


___________________________________

Segments in contrast

the smallest contrastive
or distinctive unit
in the sound system
A. The Phoneme:
of a language that
e.g. / p / - / b / in / p  t / - / b  t /” distinguishes between
/ I / - / i: / in / h I t / - / h i: t /
different words
 /p/&/b/
/ I / & / i: / : different phonemes.
B. The Distinctive feature (Contrastive/phonemic):
Distinguish/contrast between two different
phonemes, e.g.
+/- voice in 2 bilabial stops / p / & / b /
- voice
+ voice
+ labial
+ labial
+ stop
+ stop
70

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

___________________________________

C. The Minimal Pair Te s t : The bas ic te s t to
dis c o ve r whic h s o unds are pho ne me s

___________________________________

I. The Minimal Pair:

___________________________________

consists of two forms/words that are identical in
everywhere except for one segment that occurs
in the same place in the string/phonemic context
e.g.
hit / hIt / : / t / voiceless alveolar
hid / hId / : / d / voiced alveolar

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

II. Environment/Context/Background:

___________________________________


The phonemic context in which a sound or segment
occurs, e.g.
/ f  n / is the environment for / f /
& / v  n / the environment for / v /
71

S
l
i

Sounds

d

t-d

e

7
2

___________________________________

Provide the minimal pairs for the following pairs of
sound segments
Initial

___________________________________
___________________________________


Final

___________________________________
___________________________________

k-g

___________________________________

p-b

___________________________________

s-S
Í - dZ
72

24


S
l
i
d
e

7
3

A. The allophone:

Any form of the variants of a phoneme in pronunciation.
A predictable phonetic realization of a phoneme in
speech.
e.g. / p / : aspirated when syllabic-initial,
[ phi:k ] peak
but unaspirated after / s /, [ spi:k ] speak
Both aspirated [ ph ] & unaspirated [ p ] are two phonetic
realizations or allophones of the same phoneme / p /.
/p/
phoneme
[ ph ]

S
l
i
d
e

7
4

___________________________________

Phonetically Conditioned Variations
The Phoneme & the Allophone

[p]

allophones


i

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

73

B. Complementary Distribution (CD)
I. Definition:
Two or more segments never occur in the same
phonetic environment, e.g.
voiced [ l ]
voiceless [ l ] Elsewhere:
lake [ leI k ]
please [ pli:z ] wider distribution of a
form in many phonemic
blue [ blu: ]
clear [ klI ]
envinronments
slow [ sl ]
play [pleI ]
Complementary distribution of [ l ] and [ l ] in English
Context
[l]
[ l ]
After voiceless stop
no

yes
Elsewhere
yes
no
II. Non-distinctive/Phonetic/predictable feature:
The feature that makes this allophone phonetically
differs from another allophone,
74
e.g. the aspiration h
in [ ph i: ] & [ p i: ] pea

S
l

___________________________________

___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________
___________________________________

___________________________________
___________________________________

Phoneme vs. Allophone

___________________________________


Phoneme

Allophone

What you interpret

What you hear

Name for a class of sounds

actual members of that class

___________________________________

abstract unit of language
contrastive/distinctive

concrete unit of speech
noncontrastive/ nondistinctive

___________________________________

7

non-predictable

predictable

___________________________________


5

phonemic (in dictionary)

phonetic (in pronunciation)

basic, underlying form

-phonetic

socialized

individual (free variation)

d
e

___________________________________

realization/ variant

75

25