Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

1

Phonemes and Variants
The following tables show the correspondence between each English phoneme and its main allophonic variants.

Consonants:

.o.
voiceless bilabial plosive
Variant
g

Zo \
Zo\
Zo=\
Zo¨\
Z¨\
Zo˛´\
Zo´\

Zom\

Zok\
Zo^\
Z>o\
Z>\
ZoŒ\

Environment & description

Strong or full aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is in initial position in stressed
syllables and followed by a vowel. The plosive is followed by strongly expelled glottal
breath. E.g.: pen Z!ogdm\, appear Z?!ogH?\-
(It’s also possible to say that the plosive is
followed by a voiceless vowel. E.g.: pen Z!odfidm\, appear Z?!oHfiH?\).
Weak or partial aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is before a vowel in either syllablefinal position, or initial position in unstressed syllables. The plosive is followed by weakly
expelled breath. E.g.: police Zo?!kh9r\, upper Z!Uo?\Lack of aspiration or unaspirated: It occurs when the plosive is preceded by a .r. in the
same syllable and is followed by a vowel. E.g.: spend Z!ro<=dmc\Affrication: It isn’t very common but it’s useful as a tool to learn (and teach) how to
produce strong aspiration. This plosive is followed by a short and weak voiceless bilabial
fricative transition. E.g.: pen Z!o¨dm\, appear Z?!o¨H?\Weakening of plosives: If the speaker doesn’t complete the closure needed for the
plosive, a homorganic fricative may replace an unstressed intervocalic .o. in rapid speech.
It isn’t advisable for non-native speakers. E.g.: upper Z!U¨?\Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: clipboard
Z!jkHo˛´aN9c\+
top prize Z!sPo´˛
!oq`Hy\No audible release: As the oral closure of the second stop consonant (plosive, affricate,
or heterorganic nasal) or lateral is produced before the closure of .o. is released, no burst
noise is heard. Also, it’s optional before silence. E.g.: trapdoor Z$sqzo´!cN9\, hypnotic
ZgHo´!mPsHj\, simple Z!rHlo´k\, cop Z!jPo´
{{\“True” Nasal release: The plosive is released through the nose when followed by a
homorganic nasal .l.. E.g.: topmost Z!sPoml?Trs\.
“Extended” Nasal release: For simplicity’s sake, we may also use this symbol when this
plosive is followed by a heterorganic nasal, although this is not true nasal release, as the
air escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: hypnotic ZgHom!mPsHj\
(c.f.
ZgHo´!mPsHj\(“Extended” lateral release: For simplicity’s sake, we may also use this symbol when this
plosive is followed by a heterorganic .k., although this is not true lateral release, as the air
escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: simple Z!rHlokk\
(c.f.
Z!rHlo´k\(No audible plosion: The linking symbol indicates that there’s no audible burst noise. This
can be used as an “umbrella” symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:

trapdoor Z$sqzo^!cN9\, hypnotic ZgHo^!mPsHj\, simple Z!rHlo^k\, clipboard
Z!jkHo^aN9c\Glottal reinforcement or glottalization: A glottal closure is produced before or
simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed syllables.
A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by either
silence or another consonant. E.g.: captain Z!jz>osHm\Glottal replacement or glottalling: A glottal closure is produced instead of the plosive.
The plosive must be final, especially in stressed syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must
precede the plosive and it must be typically followed by a homorganic consonant (i.e.
.o+a+l.). It’s not very frequent in GB. E.g.: top prize Z!sP>
!oq`Hy\Labiodentalization: This plosive may become labiodental to resemble a forthcoming
labiodental .e+
u.. You need to bite your lower lip. E.g.: cupful Z!jUoŒeTk\-

Feature

Aspiration

Affrication

Fricativation

Release &
plosion

Glottal stop

Change of
place of
articulation



Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

2

.s.
voiceless alveolar plosive
Variant

Zsg\
Zs\
Zs=\
Zsr\
Zr“\
nq
Zs”\
Zs˛´\
Zs´\
Zsm\
Zsk\
Zs^\
Z>s\
Z>\
ZsŒ\
ZoŒ\
Zs›¢“‡\
'Zsqfi\(

Z3\

.o.

.j.

Environment & description
Strong or full aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is in initial position in stressed
syllables and followed by a vowel. The plosive is followed by strongly expelled glottal
breath. E.g.: tore Z!sgN9\, attend Z?!sgdmc\- (It’s also possible to say that the plosive is
followed by a voiceless vowel. E.g.: tore Z!sNfi9N9\, attend Z?!sdfidmc\).
Weak or partial aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is before a vowel in either
syllable-final position, or initial position in unstressed syllables. The plosive is followed by
weakly expelled breath. E.g.: today Zs?!cdH\, utter Z!Us?\Lack of aspiration or unaspirated: It occurs when the plosive is preceded by a .r. in the
same syllable and is followed by a vowel. E.g.: stay Z!rs<=dH\Affrication: It’s quite common in London English and it’s useful as a tool to learn (and
teach) how to produce strong aspiration. This plosive is followed by a short and weak
voiceless alveolar fricative. It is also common in unstressed and final positions. E.g.: toss
Z!srPr\, right Z!q`Hsr\, better Z!adsr?\Weakening of plosives: If the speaker doesn’t complete the closure needed for the
plosive, a homorganic slit fricative may replace an unstressed intervocalic .s. in rapid
speech. It isn’t advisable for non-native speakers. E.g.: better Z!adr“?+
!ads”?\Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: great day
Z!fqdHs´˛
!cdH\+
not today Z!mPs´˛
s?!cdH\No audible release: As the oral closure of the second stop consonant (plosive, affricate,
or heterorganic nasal) is produced before the closure of .s. is released, no burst noise is
heard. Also, it’s optional before silence. E.g.: football Z!eTs´aN9k\, utmost Z!Us´l?Trs\,
right Z!q`Hs´
{{\“True” Nasal release: The plosive is released through the nose when followed by a
homorganic nasal .m.. E.g.: Britain Z!aqHsmm\.
“Extended” Nasal release: The plosive is released through the nose when followed by a
heterorganic nasal Zl+
M+
E\. E.g.: atmosphere Z!zsml?reH?\.

Lateral release: The plosive is released through the sides of the tongue when followed by
a homorganic lateral .k.. E.g.: little Z!kHskk\.
No audible plosion: The linking symbol indicates that there’s no audible burst noise. This
can be used as an “umbrella” symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:
great day Z!fqdHs^!cdH\, football Z!eTs^aN9k\, Britain Z!aqHs^m\, little Z!kHs^k\.
Glottal reinforcement or glottalization: A glottal closure is produced before or
simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed
syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by
either silence or another consonant. It’s very frequent in GB. E.g.: football Z!eT>saN9k\Glottal replacement or glottalling: A glottal closure is produced instead of the plosive.
The plosive must be final, especially in stressed syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must
precede the plosive and it must be followed by either silence or another consonant. E.g.:
football Z!eT>aN9k\Dentalization: The tip of the tongue is placed between the teeth or behind the upper
teeth when .s. is followed by ZS+
C+
cŒ+
sŒ+
mŒ+
kŒ\. E.g.: right there Z!q`HsŒ
!Cd?\Labiodentalization: This plosive may become labiodental to resemble a forthcoming
labiodental .e+
u.. You need to bite you lower lip. E.g.: rightful Z!q`HoŒek\Post-alveolar affricate: The close-knit cluster .sq. becomes a voiceless post-alveolar
affricate, especially noticeably in stressed position. Although the accurate transcription is
Zs›¢“‡\, we normally use Zsqfi\
for practical reasons. E.g.: transitory Z!sqfizmrHsqfih\Tap or flap: The tip of the tongue quickly hits the back part of the alveolar ridge once. It’s
<r> in Spanish caro .!j`3n.. It is mandatory as unstressed, generally intervocalic, .s+
c.
in General American English. E.g.: writer/rider Z!¢`H3?¢\+
Betty Z!ad3h\+
party
Z!o@9¢3h\

'this use is also frequent in Australian English). In General British, it can
occasionally stand for unstressed intervocalic .s+
c. at word boundary in phrases of
frequent use or internally in words of frequent use. E.g.: whatever Z!vP3du?\+
British
Z!a¢H3HR\+
take it easy Z$sdHj
H3
!h9yh\Bilabialization: The alveolar sound can become bilabial to resemble a following bilabial
.o+
a+
l+
v.. E.g.: Great Britain .!fqdHo
˛!aqHsm.Velarization: The alveolar sound can become velar to resemble a following velar .j+
f..
E.g.: latecomer .!kdHj˛jUl?.-

Feature

Aspiration

Affrication

Fricativation

Release &
plosion

Glottal stop


Change of
place of
articulation

Change of
manner of
articulation

Assimilation of
place


Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

3

.j.
voiceless velar plosive
Variant

Zjg\
Zj\
Zj=\
Zjw\
Zw\
Zj˛´\
Zj´\

Zjm\


Zjk\
Zj^\
Z>j\
Z>\

Environment & description
Strong or full aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is in initial position in stressed
syllables and followed by a vowel. The plosive is followed by strongly expelled glottal
breath. E.g.: kiss Z!jgHr\, occur Z?!jg29\-
(It’s also possible to say that the plosive is
followed by a voiceless vowel. E.g.: kiss Z!jHfiHr\, occur Z?!j2fi929\).
Weak or partial aspiration: It occurs when the plosive is before a vowel in either syllablefinal position, or initial position in unstressed syllables. The plosive is followed by weakly
expelled breath. E.g.: connect Zj?!mdjs\, baker Z!adHj?\Lack of aspiration or unaspirated: It occurs when the plosive is preceded by a .r. in the
same syllable and is followed by a vowel. E.g.: school Z!rj<=t9k\Affrication: It isn’t very common but it’s useful as a tool to learn (and teach) how to
produce strong aspiration. This plosive is followed by a short and weak voiceless velar
fricative (i.e. a Spanish “jota”). E.g.: kiss Z!jwHr\, occur Z?!jw29\Weakening of plosives: If the speaker doesn’t complete the closure needed for the
plosive, a homorganic fricative (i.e. a Spanish “jota”) may replace an unstressed
intervocalic .j. in rapid speech. It isn’t advisable for non-native speakers. E.g.: baker
Z!adHw?\Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: bookcase
Z!aTj´˛jdHr\+
rock gig Z!qPj´˛
$fHf\No audible release: As the closure of the second stop consonant (plosive, affricate, or
heterorganic nasal) or lateral is produced before the closure of .j. is released, no burst
noise is heard. Also, it’s optional before silence. E.g.: blackboard Z!akzj´aN9c\,
thickness Z!SHj´m?r\, cycle Z!r`Hj´k\, hook Z!gTj´
{{\“True” Nasal release: The plosive is released through the nose when followed by a
homorganic nasal .M.. E.g.: bacon Z!adHjMM\.
“Extended” Nasal release: For simplicity’s sake, we may also use this symbol when this
plosive is followed by a heterorganic nasal, although this is not true nasal release, as the
air escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: thickness Z!SHjmm?r\

(c.f.
thickness Z!SHj´m?r\(“Extended” lateral release: For simplicity’s sake, we may also use this symbol when this
plosive is followed by a heterorganic .k., although this is not true lateral release, as the air
escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: cycle Z!r`Hjkk\
(c.f. Z!r`Hj´k\(No audible plosion: The linking symbol indicates that there’s no audible burst noise. This
can be used as an “umbrella” symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:
bookcase Z!aTj^jdHr\, thickness Z!SHj^m?r\, cycle Z!r`Hj^k\, bacon Z!adHj^M\Glottal reinforcement or glottalization: A glottal closure is produced before or
simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed syllables.
A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by either
silence or another consonant. E.g.: rock star Z!qP>rs@9\Glottal replacement or glottalling: A glottal closure is produced instead of the plosive.
The plosive must be final, especially in stressed syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must
precede the plosive and it must be typically followed by a homorganic consonant (i.e.
.j+
f+
M.). It’s not very frequent in GB. E.g.: rock climber Z!qP>jk`Hl?\-

Feature

Aspiration

Affrication

Fricativation

Release &
plosion

Glottal stop



Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

4

.a.
voiced bilabial plosive
Variant

Environment & description

Za˛´\

Zafi\

Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: subplot
Z!rUa´˛okPs\+
web browser Z!vda´˛
aq`Ty?\No audible release: As the closure of the second stop consonant (plosive, affricate, or
heterorganic nasal) or lateral is produced before the closure of .a. is released, no burst
noise is heard. Also, it’s optional before silence. E.g.: cab driver Z!jza´
cq`Hu?\,
abnormal Z$za´!mN9lk\, able Z!dHa´k\, rib Z!qHa´
{{\“True” Nasal release: The plosive is released through the nose when followed by a
homorganic nasal .l.. E.g.: submit Zr?am!lHs\.
“Extended” Nasal release: For simplicity’s sake, we may also use this symbol when this
plosive is followed by a heterorganic nasal, although this is not true nasal release, as the
air escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: abnormal Z$zam!mN9lk\
(c.f.
Z$za´!mN9lk\(“Extended” lateral release: For simplicity’s sake, we may also use this symbol when this
plosive is followed by a heterorganic .k., although this is not true lateral release, as the air

escapes inaudibly and centrally through the mouth. E.g.: able Z!dHakk\
(c.f. Z!dHa´k\(No audible plosion: The linking symbol indicates that there’s no audible burst noise. This
can be used as an “umbrella” symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:
Z!vda^aq`Ty?\, able Z!dHa^k\, submit Zr?a^!lHs\.
Devoicing: This plosive is fully devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless
consonant or silence. E.g.: website Z!vdafir`Hs\, verb Z!u29afi
{{\-

ZaŒ\

Labiodentalization: This plosive may become labiodental to resemble a forthcoming
labiodental .e+
u.. You need to bite your lower lip. E.g.: obvious Z!PaŒuh?r\-

Za´\

Zam\

Zak\
Za^\

Feature

Release &
plosion

Voice
Change of
place of
articulation


.c.
voiced alveolar plosive
Variant

Zcy\
Zc˛´\
Zc´\
Zcm\
Zck\
Zc^\
Zcfi\
ZcŒ\
ZaŒ\
Zc›¢“\
'Zcq“\(

Environment & description
Affrication: It’s quite common in London English. This plosive is followed by a short and
weak voiced alveolar fricative. It is also common in unstressed and final positions. E.g.:
do Z!cyt9\, good Z!fTcy\, ready Z!qdcyh\Lack of release: The closure is kept when a homorganic plosive follows. E.g.: guard dog
Z!f@9c´˛
!cPf\+
red jacket Z!qdc›´˛
!cYzjHs\No audible release: As the closure of the second stop consonant (plosive, affricate, or
heterorganic nasal) is produced before the closure of .c. is released, no burst noise is
heard. Also, it’s optional before silence. E.g.: bedbug Z!adc´aUf\, admit Z?c´!lHs\,
head Z!gdc´
{{\Nasal release: The plosive is released through the nose when followed by a homorganic
nasal .m.. E.g.: garden Z!f@9cmm\.

Lateral release: The plosive is released through the sides of the tongue when followed by
a homorganic lateral .k.. E.g.: medal Z!ldckk\.
No audible plosion: The linking symbol indicates that there’s no audible burst noise. This
can be used as an “umbrella” symbol to encompass all the previous release types. E.g.:
red jacket Z!qdc^!cYzjHs\, admit Z?c^!lHs\, garden Z!f@9c^m\, medal Z!ldc^k\.
Devoicing: This plosive is fully devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless
consonant or silence. E.g.: godson Z!fPcfirUm\, word Z!v29cfi
{{\Dentalization: The tip of the tongue is placed between the teeth or behind the upper
teeth when .c. is followed by a dental sound ZS+
C+
cŒ+
sŒ+
mŒ+
kŒ\. E.g.: did they Z!cHcŒ
CdH\Labiodentalization: This plosive may become labiodental to resemble a forthcoming
labiodental .e+
u.. You need to bite you lower lip. E.g.: adverb Z!zaŒu29a\Post-alveolar affricate: The close-knit cluster .cq. becomes a voiced post-alveolar
affricate, especially noticeably in stressed position. Although the accurate transcription is
Zc›¢“\, we normally use Zcq“\
for practical reasons. E.g.: domedary Z!cq“PlHcq“h\-

Z3\

Tap or flap: (See Z3\ under .s.). E.g.: did it Z!cH3
Hs\-

.a.

Bilabialization: The alveolar sound can become bilabial to resemble a following bilabial
.o+

a+
l+
v.. E.g.: goodbye .$fTa!a`H.Velarization: The alveolar sound can become velar to resemble a following velar .j+
f..
E.g.: broadcast .!

.f.

Feature
Affrication

Release &
plosion

Voice
Change of
place of
articulation
Change of
manner of
articulation

Assimilation of
place


Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

5


.sR.
voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
Variant

Environment & description

Feature

st

Z>sR\

Z>R\

Zm's(R\

Glottal reinforcement or glottalization of the 1 element: A glottal closure is produced
before or simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed
syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by
any sound, as the second element is consonantal in nature. It’s extremely frequent in GB.
E.g.: lunch Z!kUm>sR\st
Glottal replacement or glottalling of the 1 element: A glottal closure is produced before
or simultaneously with the plosive. The plosive must be final, especially in stressed
syllables. A vowel, nasal or lateral must precede the plosive and it must be followed by
any sound, as the second element is consonantal in nature. It’s less frequent than
glottalization (i.e. glottal reinforcement). E.g.: lunch Z!kUm>R\st
Elision of the 1 element when preceded by .m.: In .msR. endings, the first element of the
affricate may be lost, especially in stressed position. This happens because the oral
alveolar closure needed for .m. is very similar to the closure needed for .s.. The affricate
must be final, especially in stressed syllables. E.g.: lunch Z!kUmR\-


Glottal stop

Elision

.cY.
voiced palato-alveolar affricate
Variant

ZcY‡\

Environment & description
Devoicing: The second element of this affricate (or, at times, the whole affricate) is fully
devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless consonant or silence. E.g.:
vegetable Z!udcY‡s?ak\, spinach Z!roHmHcY‡
{{\-

Feature
Voicing

st

Zm'c(Y\

Elision of the 1 element when preceded by .m.: In .mcY. endings, the first element of the
affricate may be lost, especially in stressed position. This happens because the oral
alveolar closure needed for .m. is very similar to the closure needed for .c.. The affricate
must be final, especially in stressed syllables. E.g.: orange juice Z!PqHmY
$cYt9r\-


Elision


Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

6

.u.
voiced labio-dental fricative
Variant

Zufi\

Environment & description
Devoicing: The consonant is fully devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless
consonant or silence. E.g.: gravestone Z!fqdHufirs?Tm\, twelve Z!svdkufi
{{\-

Feature
Voicing

.C.
voiced dental fricative
Variant

ZCfi\

Environment & description
Devoicing: The consonant is fully devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless
consonant or silence. E.g.: loathsome Z!k?TCfirl\, with Z!vHCfi

{{\-

Feature
Voicing

.y.
voiced alveolar fricative
Variant

Environment & description

.Y.

Regressive assimilation of place: When final .y.
is followed by a palatal .i+
sR+
cY+
R+
Y.
(or sometimes even post-alveolar .q.), it may become palatal so as to resemble the
forthcoming sound. E.g.: these judges ZCh9Y
!cYUcYHy\, miserable Z!lHYq?ak\+
these
years ZCh9Y
!iH?y\Coalescent assimilation: When final .y.
is followed by the palatal semi-vowel .i., these
two sounds may fuse into .cY.. E.g.: these years Z!Ch9YH?y\, (c.f.
ZCh9Y
!iH?y\(+
luxurious ZkUf!YT?qh?r\-


Zyfi\

Devoicing: The consonant is fully devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless
consonant or silence. E.g.: newspaper Z!mit9yfiodHo?\, please Z!okh9yfi
{{\-

ZY‡\

Devoicing of the assimilated form: The resulting consonant .Y. is fully devoiced under the
influence of a following voiceless consonant. E.g.: these shops ZCh9Y‡
!RPor\-

Feature

Assimilation

Voicing

.r.
voiceless alveolar fricative
Variant

.R.

Environment & description

Feature

Regressive assimilation of place: When final .r.

is followed by a palatal .i+
sR+
cY+
R+
Y. (or
sometimes even post-alveolar .q.), it may become palatal so as to resemble the
forthcoming sound. E.g.: question Z!jvdRsRm\, grocery Z!fq?TRqh\+
miss you Z!lHR
it\-

Assimilation

Coalescent assimilation: When final .r.
is followed by the palatal semi-vowel .i., these
two sounds may fuse into .sR.. E.g.: miss you Z!lHRt\, (c.f. Z!lHR
it\(+
issue Z!HRt9\-

.Y.
voiced palato-alveolar fricative
Variant

ZY‡\

Environment & description
Devoicing: The consonant is fully devoiced under the influence of a following voiceless
consonant or silence. E.g.: garage sale Z!fzq@9Y‡
rdHk\, camouflage Z!jzl?ek@9Y‡
{{\-


Feature
Voicing

.g.
voiceless glottal fricative
Variant

Zé\

Environment & description
Voicing: The consonant is fully voiced when it occurs between vowels. This sounds as a
weak vowel sound. E.g.: ahead Z?!édc\-

Feature
Voicing


Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

7

.k.
voiced alveolar lateral approximant
Variant

Zk\
Z4\
Zn+
T\
Z4Œ\


ZJ+
kfi\

Zkÿ+
4ÿ\

Environment & description
Clear .k.: This variant of .k.
has a front vowel resonance similar to .d.. It occurs before
vowels and .i. within the word or at word boundary. E.g.: late Z!kdHs\, sell it Z!rdk
Hs\+
William Z!vHki?l\Dark .k.: This variant of .k.
has a back vowel resonance similar to .n+
T.. It occurs before
consonants, silence and .v. within the word or at word boundary. E.g.: milk Z!lH4j\,
sell them Z!rd4
Cl\+ fill Z!eH4
{{\Vocalization of /l/: the contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge is
removed, thus a back vowel Zn\ or ZT\ is produced. It is in free variation with Z4\ in
London speech. E.g.: milk Z!lHTj+
!lHnj\, sell them Z!rdT
Cl+
!rdn
Cl\+ fill
Z!eHT
{{+
!eHn
{{\Dentalization: The tip of the tongue is placed between the teeth or behind the upper
teeth when .k. is followed by a dental sound ZS+

C+
cŒ+
sŒ+
mŒ+
kŒ\. In this way, .k. changes its
place of articulation to resemble the following dental sound. E.g.: sell them Z!rd4Œ
Cl\,
build them Z!aH4ŒcŒ
Cl\Fully devoiced and fricative: The aspiration of strongly stressed, syllable initial .o+
j.
is
manifested through the devoicing and frication of .k.. The former voiced approximant
becomes a fully voiceless fricative ZJ\. For simplicity’s sake, we may use the symbol Zkfi\ to
indicate this. E.g.: play Z!oJdH+
!okfidH\, clean Z!jJh9m+
!jkfih9m\-
Note: The sequence .sk.
is
never part of the same syllable. E.g.: Atlantic Z?s!kzmsHj\-
Syllabic: This approximant consonant can “absorb” a preceding weak vowel and become
the centre of the syllable. E.g.: apple juice Z!zo4ÿ
cYt9r\+
w Z!cUakÿ
it9\-

Feature

Resonance

Place of

articulation

Voicing and
manner of
articulation
Syllabicity

.i.
voiced palatal approximant
Variant

Environment & description

Feature

ZB+
i‡\


Fully devoiced and fricative: The aspiration of strongly stressed, syllable initial .o+
s+
j.
is
manifested through the devoicing and frication of .i.. The former voiced approximant
becomes a fully voiceless palatal fricative ZB\. For simplicity’s sake, we may use the
symbol Zi‡\ to indicate this. E.g.: computer Zj?l!oBt9s?+
j?l!oi‡t9s?\, tune
Z!sBt9m+
!si‡t9m\, cute Z!jBt9s+
!ji‡t9s\-


Voicing and
manner of
articulation

ZB\


Coalescence: The cluster .gi.
fuses into a voiceless palatal fricative ZB\. E.g.: huge
Z!Bt9cY\, human Z!Bt9l?m\-

.v.
voiced labio-velar approximant
Variant

Environment & description

ZV+
vfi\


Fully devoiced and fricative: The aspiration of strongly stressed, syllable initial .o+
s+
j.
is
manifested through the devoicing and frication of .v.. The former voiced approximant
becomes a fully voiceless palatal fricative ZV\. For simplicity’s sake, we may use the
symbol Zvfi\ to indicate this. E.g.: queen Z!jVh9m+
!jvfih9m\, twelve Z!sVdku+

!svfidku\,
Puerto Rico Z$oV29s?T
!qh9j?T+
$ovfi29s?T
!qh9j?T
\-

Feature
Voicing and
manner of
articulation


Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

8

.q.
Z¢\
voiced post-alveolar approximant
Variant

Zq\

Z3\

Z¢\
'Zq\(

Z±\


Z¢“‡\

Zs›¢“‡\
'Zsqfi\(

Zc›¢“\
'Zcq“\(

Environment & description
Roll or trill: The symbol Zq\ in the International Phonetic Alphabet stands for a rolled
sound, however, its familiar shape is borrowed in English to stand for its typical voiced
post-alveolar approximant. The rolled variant Zq\ is the sound that typically corresponds
to Spanish <rr> in carro .!j`qn.. The tip of the tongue hits the back part of the alveolar
ridge several times at great speed. In English, it is found in the pronunciation of some
rural Scottish accents, but it’s becoming rare. Also, traditional actors sometimes use this
pronunciation on the stage. E.g.: Edinburgh Z!dcHmaq?\, Romeo Z!q?Tlh?T\Tap or flap: The tip of the tongue quickly hits the back part of the alveolar ridge once.
This sound typically corresponds to intervocalic <r> in Spanish caro .!j`3n.. In English, it
is an allophone of unstressed intervocalic .q.
in either old fashioned conservative English
Received Pronunciation or current rural speech. It can also be heard in quite conservative
speakers after .S+
a+
f.. These uses are not recommended for foreign speakers of English.
E.g.: veri Z!ud3h\+
far away Z$e@93
?!vdH\+
three green branches
Z$S3h9
$f3h9m

!a3@9msRHy\-
(C.f. Z3\
as .s+
c.).
Approximant: The most frequent realization in General British is a voiced post-alveolar
approximant Z¢\. The tip of the tongue is raised to a position quite close to the back part
of the alveolar ridge, without causing friction. Although the real symbol is Z¢\, we
normally borrow the symbol .q. to represent this phoneme, as the trill Zq\
is not in
contrast with Z¢\ in General British. The approximant is used everywhere, except after
stressed .o+
j. or any .c+
q. (as they turn it into a fricative). E.g.: really sorry
Z$¢H?kh
!rP¢h\ = .$qH?kh
!rPqh.Retroflex approximant: Some speakers of American English may use a retroflex Z±\
instead of a regular post-alveolar Z¢\. Auditorily, it’s perceived as a “stronger” or “more
marked” .q. sound. Articulatorily, the tip of the tongue is curled further back, and the
approximation is made between the post-alveolar part of the palate and the lower side of
the tongue. E.g.: bright red Z$a¢`Hs
!¢dc\
vs. Z$a±`Hs
!±dc\Fully devoiced and fricative: The aspiration of strongly stressed, syllable initial .o+
s+
j.
is
manifested through the devoicing and frication of .q.. The former voiced approximant
becomes a fully voiceless fricative Z¢“‡\. For simplicity’s sake, we may use the symbols Zqfi+
¢fi\
to indicate this. E.g.: prince Z!o¢“‡Hmr+

!o¢fiHmr+!oqfiHmr\, try Z!s¢‡“`H+
!s¢fi`H+!sqfi`H\, crew
Z!j¢‡“t9+
!j¢fit9+!jqfit9\-
Voiceless post-alveolar affricate: The cluster .sq., whether stressed or unstressed,
becomes a voiceless unit. .s. is retracted to a post-alveolar regional under the influence of
.q., and .q. becomes voiceless and fricative under the influence of .s.. For simplicity’s
sake, we may use the symbols Zsqfi+
s¢fi\ to indicate this. E.g.: true Z!s›¢“‡t9+
!sݢfit9+!sqfit9\,
secretary Z!rdjq?s›¢“‡h+
!rdjq?sݢfih+!rdjq?sqfih\-
Voiced post-alveolar affricate: The cluster .cq., whether stressed or unstressed, becomes
a voiced unit. .c. is retracted to a post-alveolar regional under the influence of .q., and .q.
becomes fricative under the influence of .c.. For simplicity’s sake, we may use the
symbols Zcq“+
c¢“\ to indicate this. E.g.: draw Z!c›¢“N9+
!c¢“N9+
!cq“N9\, android
Z!zmc›¢“NHc+
!zmc¢“NHc+
!zmcq“NHc\-

Feature

Manner of
articulation &
regionalsocial
variants


Voicing
and/or
manner of
articulation

Affricates

.l.
voiced bilabial nasal
Variant

Environment & description

Feature

ZE\

Labiodentalization: The lower lip is bitten by the upper teeth when .l. is followed by a
labiodental sound Ze+
u+
aŒ+
oŒ\. In this way, .l. changes its place of articulation to
resemble the following labiodental sound. E.g.: comfort Z!jUEe?s\-

Place of
articulation

Zmÿ\

Syllabic: This approximant consonant can “absorb” a preceding weak vowel and become

the centre of the syllable. E.g.: ribbon Z!qHalÿ\-

Syllabicity


Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

9

.m.
voiced alveolar nasal
Variant

Environment & description

ZmŒ\

Dentalization: The tip of the tongue is placed between the teeth or behind the upper
teeth when .m. is followed by a dental sound ZS+
C+
cŒ+
sŒ+
mŒ+
kŒ\. In this way, .m. changes its
place of articulation to resemble the following dental sound. E.g.: sent them Z!rdmŒsŒ
Cl\,
sand them Z!rzmŒcŒ
Cl\-

Feature


ZE\

Labiodentalization: The lower lip is bitten by the upper teeth when .m. is followed by a
labiodental sound Ze+
u+
aŒ+
oŒ\. In this way, .m. changes its place of articulation to
resemble the following labiodental sound. E.g.: infant Z!HEe?ms\, invention ZHE!udmRm\-

Zmÿ\

Syllabic: This approximant consonant can “absorb” a preceding weak vowel and become
the centre of the syllable. E.g.: garden Z!f@9cmÿ\-

Place of
articulation

Syllabicity

.M.
voiced velar nasal
Variant

ZMÈ\

Environment & description
Syllabic: This approximant consonant can “absorb” a preceding weak vowel and become
the centre of the syllable. E.g.: bacon grinder Z!adHjMÈ
fq`Hmc?\-


Feature
Syllabicity

Pure vowels
Phoneme

Variant

ZHh\

.h9.

Zh∂\

ZH'h(\

.d.

Zd·\

Z`\
.z.
Zz·\
Zz9\

.@9.

Z@∂\


Environment & description
A diphthong is the most common realization, especially in final position. The
vowel gets tenser towards the end-point. E.g.: tea for me Z$sHh
e?
!lHh\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: seat Z!rh∂s\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
meaningless Z!lh∂mHMk?r\When a weak vowel follows .h9., the second element of the diphthongized
version may be lost. E.g.: Ian Z!Hh?m+
!H?m\+
three o’clock
Z$SqHh
?!jkPj+
$SqH
?!jkPj\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: sex Z!rd·jr\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
separateness Z!rd·oq?sm?r\A very open front Z`\
is heard in modern General British English. For
simplicity’s sake, we keep the traditional .z. symbol (which is typical of most
other accents of English, such as General American, and which is a good
reminder that this sound is very different from the Spanish .`.). E.g.: bad
.!azc.
Z!azc+
!a`c\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: back Z!az·j\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:

blackening Z!akz·j?mHM\The vowel is generally longer in monosyllables ending in a voiced sound. It’s
not clear what words admit this more readily. E.g.: bad Z!az9c+
!a`9c\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The allophone is never extremely short, so as not to confuse it with .U.,
whose quality is quite close to
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 25% of its length. E.g.: heart Z!g@∂s\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
gardening Z!f@∂c?mHM\-

Feature
Diphthongization

Clipping

Smoothing

Clipping

Lowering

Clipping

Lengthening

Clipping


Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016


.P.

ZP·\

.N9.

ZN∂\

.T.

ZT·\
Z6‚\

.t9.

ZTt\
Zt‚9\

.t9.

A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: lot Z!kP·s\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
sorrowfulness Z!rP·q?Tekm?r\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: force Z!eN∂r\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
formalism Z!eN∂l?kHyl\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.

The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: push Z!oT·R\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
Pulitzer Z!oT·kHsr?\A somewhat centralized and unrounded vowel is becoming quite common in
General British, especially in frequent words. E.g.: good Z!fTc+
!f6‚c\
A diphthong is a common realization, especially in final position. The vowel
gets tenser towards the end-point [Tt\. It may also be unrounded [6‚L‚\- E.g.:
two Z!sTt+
!s6‚L‚\Another common realization is a centralized back rounded vowel Zt‚9\ or even
unrounded ZL‚9\. The centralization is greatest after the palatal .i.. E.g.: two
Z!st‚9+
!sL‚9\+
you Z!it‚9+
!iL‚9\-

10

Clipping

Clipping

Clipping

Centralization
Diphthongization

Centralization

Zt9\


A back vowel quality is found before dark [4], which has a back resonance as
well. E.g.: fool Z!et94\-

Retraction

Zt∂\

A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: root Z!qt∂s\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
foolishness Z!et∂kHRm?r\-

Clipping

ZT't(\

When a weak vowel follows .t9., the second element of the diphthongized
version may be lost. E.g.: Ewan Z!iTt?m+
!iT?m\+
two o’clock
Z$sTt
?!jkPj+
$sT
?!jkPj\-

Smoothing

.U.


ZU·\

.29.

Z2∂\

A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: front Z!eqU·m·s\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
ultimate Z!U·ksHl?s\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The allophone is never extremely short, so as not to confuse it with .?.,
whose quality is quite close to .29..
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 25% of its length. E.g.: thirst Z!S2∂rs\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
Birmingham Z!a2∂lHM?l\-

Clipping

Clipping


Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

11

Diphthongs
Phoneme


Variant

ZH9+
H?\
.H?.

ZH·?\

ZD9+
D?\
.d?.

ZD·?+
d·?\

ZT9+
T?\
.T?.

ZN9\
ZT·?\

Zd·H\
.dH.
Zd9?\
Zd9?4\

ZN·H\
.NH.
ZN9?\

ZN9?4\

.`H.

Z`·H\

Environment & description
A monophthongal variety is becoming quite common in General British,
especially before .q.. E.g.: dear Z!cH9\+
material Zl?!sH9qh?k\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The first element is the one showing the clipping, as the second element is
aimed at but never reached.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: fierce Z!eH·?r\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
seriously Z!rH·?qh?rkh\A monophthongal variety has become the standard in General British,
especially before .q.. E.g.: pair Z!oD9+
!oD?\+
Mary Z!lD9qh+
!lD?qh\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The first element is the one showing the clipping, as the second element is
aimed at but never reached. Although the first element is an open vowel
ZD\+
Zd\ may sometimes be used for simplicity’s sake.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: scarce Z!rjD·?r\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
scarily Z!rjD·?q?kh\A monophthongal variety has become quite common in General British,
especially before .q.. E.g.: poor Z!oT9+
!oT?\+

plural Z!okT9q?k+
!okT?q?k\Most words allow the monophthonging to ZN9\- Speakers can choose what
version to use. This monophthonging competes with the previous one. E.g.:
sure Z!RN9+
!RT?\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The first element is the one showing the clipping, as the second element is
aimed at but never reached. Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed
syllables follow. E.g.: furiously Z!eiT·?qh?rkh\A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The first element is the one showing the clipping, as the second element is
aimed at but never reached.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: late Z!kd·Hs\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
famously Z!ed·Hl?rkh\The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence ZdH?\.
E.g.: player Z!okd9?+
!okdH?\-

Before dark Z4\, the second element is absorbed into a weak transitional
.?.-
The effect may be subjected to smoothing. E.g.: sure Z!od9?4+
!odH?4\-
A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The first element is the one showing the clipping, as the second element is
aimed at but never reached.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: choice Z!sRN·Hr\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
loitering Z!kN·Hs?qHM\The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence ZNH?\.
E.g.: ejoyable ZHm!cYN9?ak+
Hm!cYNH?ak\-


Before dark Z4\, the second element is absorbed into a weak transitional
.?.-
The effect may be subjected to smoothing. E.g.: oil Z!N9?4+
!oNH?4\-
A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The first element is the one showing the clipping, as the second element is
aimed at but never reached.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: write Z!q`·Hs\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
widening Z!v`·Hc?mHM\-

Feature
Monophthonging

Clipping

Monophthonging

Clipping

Monophthonging

Clipping

Clipping

Smoothing
Darkening


Clipping

Smoothing
Darkening

Clipping


Prof. Francisco Zabala - 2016

Z`9?\
Z`9+
@9\
Z`9?4\

Z`·H\
.`T.
Z`9?\
Z`9+
@9\
Z`9?4\

Z?·T+
2·T\
.?T.
Z?9+
29\
ZPT4\


12

The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence Z`H?\.
E.g.: tire Z!s`9?+
!s`H?\-

A further step is the monophthonging of the sequence Z`H?\ to Z`9\, or even
Z@9\, especially in conservative British English. E.g.: tire Z!s`9+
!s@9\-
Before dark Z4\, the second element is absorbed into a weak transitional
.?.-
The effect may be subjected to smoothing. E.g.: isle Z!`9?4+
!`H?4\-
A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The first element is the one showing the clipping, as the second element is
aimed at but never reached.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: out Z!`·Ts\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
countering Z!j`·Tms?qHM\The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence Z`T?\.
E.g.: tower Z!`9?+
!`H?\-

A further step is the monophthonging of the sequence Z`T?\ to Z`9\, or
even Z@9\, especially in conservative British English. E.g.: tower Z!s`9+
!s@9\-
Before dark Z4\, the second element is absorbed into a weak transitional
.?.-
The effect may be subjected to smoothing. E.g.: owl Z!`9?4+
!`T?4\-

A quantity change, but not a quality change, produces a shorter allophone.
The first element is the one showing the clipping, as the second element is
aimed at but never reached. The symbol Z2T\ represents more accurately
the idea that .29. is a strong vowel, unlike schwa.
• Pre-fortis clipping occurs when the syllable ends in a fortis sound.
The vowel loses 50% of its length. E.g.: goat Z!f?·Ts+
!f2·Ts\-
• Rhythmic clipping occurs when unstressed syllables follow. E.g.:
countering Z!l?·Tkc?qHM\The second element of the diphthong may be lost in the sequence Z?T?\.
E.g.: lowering Z!k29qHM+
!k?9qHM+
!k?T?qHM\-

Before dark Z4\, the first element is generally retracted to .P.+
as the whole
sequence has a back vowel resonance. E.g.: goal Z!fPT4\-

Smoothing
Levelling or
monophthonging
Darkening

Clipping

Smoothing
Levelling or
monophthonging
Darkening

Clipping


Smoothing &
monophthonging
Darkening