WoodardFront.fm Page i Monday, October 24, 2005 6:17 PM

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook
Second Edition


WoodardFront.fm Page ii Monday, October 24, 2005 6:17 PM


WoodardFront.fm Page iii Monday, October 24, 2005 6:17 PM

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook
Second Edition

Woodard & Curran, Inc.

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
BUTTERWORTH–HEINEMANN IS AN IMPRINT OF ELSEVIER


WoodardFront.fm Page iv Monday, October 24, 2005 6:17 PM

Butterworth–Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK
Copyright © 2006, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights
Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333,
e-mail: You may also complete your request on-line
via the Elsevier homepage (), by selecting “Support & Contact”
then “Copyright and Permission” and then “Obtaining Permissions.”
Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Elsevier prints its
books on acid-free paper whenever possible.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Application submitted
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 13: 978-0-7506-7963-3
ISBN 10: 0-7506-7963-8
For information on all Elsevier Butterworth–Heinemann publications,
visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com
Printed in the United States of America
05 06 07 08 09 10

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1


WoodardFront.fm Page v Monday, October 24, 2005 6:17 PM

Dedication
To Franklin E. Woodard, Ph.D. Without Frank’s tireless dedication to the first edition, this second edition would not be
possible. His boundless enthusiasm and expertise in waste
treatment practices are an inspiration to all. He is an engineer,
a mentor, an educator, a peer, and a friend. Thank you, Frank.



WoodardFront.fm Page vi Monday, October 24, 2005 6:17 PM


WoodardTOC.fm Page vii Monday, October 24, 2005 6:18 PM

Table of Contents

Preface to First Edition
Preface to Second Edition
Acknowledgments

ix
xi
xiii

1 Evaluating and Selecting
Industrial Waste Treatment
Systems

1

Treatment Evaluation Process:
Industrial Wastewater
Treatment Evaluation Process:
Air Emissions
Treatment Evaluation Process:
Solid Wastes
Bibliography


2

2 Fundamentals
Electron Configurations and
Energy Levels
Electrical and Thermodynamic
Stability
Chemical Structure and Polarity
of Water
Hydrogen Bonding
Solutions and Mixtures
Summary
Examples
Bibliography

3 Laws and Regulations
Introduction
History of Permitting and
Reporting Requirements
Water Pollution Control Laws
Groundwater Pollution Control Laws
Air Pollution Control Laws
Bibliography

4 Pollution Prevention
Pollution Prevention Pays
General Approach
Hierarchy of Potential
Implementation Strategies

Bibliography

5 Waste Characterization
Waste Characterization Study
Waste Audit
Environmental Audit
Characteristics of Industrial
Wastewater
Characteristics of Discharges
to the Air
Characteristics of Solid Waste
Streams from Industries
Bibliography

18
27
28

29
30

67
67
70
76
82

83
83
86

90
97
111
119
124

32

6 Industrial Stormwater
Management

33

General
Federal Stormwater Program
State Stormwater Permitting
Programs
Prevention of Groundwater
Contamination
Stormwater Management Concepts
Stormwater Treatment System
Design Considerations
Stormwater as a Source of
Process Water Makeup
Bibliography

38
38
45
46

49

51
51
51
53
55
58
64
vii

127
127
127
128
131
131
132
135
147


WoodardTOC.fm Page viii Monday, October 24, 2005 6:18 PM

viii

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

7 Methods for Treating
Wastewaters from Industry

General
Principle and Nonprinciple
Treatment Mechanisms
Waste Equalization
pH Control
Chemical Methods of Wastewater
Treatment
Biological Methods of Wastewater
Treatment
Development of Design Equations
for Biological Treatment of
Industrial Wastes
Treatment of Industrial
Wastewaters Using Aerobic
Technologies
Physical Methods of Wastewater
Treatment
Bibliography

149
149
150
153
157
160
185
187

195


257
331

8 Treatment of Air Discharges
fromIndustry

335

Air Discharges
Air Pollution Control Laws
Air Pollution Control
Treatment Objectives
Bibliography

335
335
336
345
357

9 Solid Waste Treatment and
Disposal

363

Background
Categories of Wastes
Characterization of Solid Wastes
The Solid Waste Landfill
Landfill Cover and Cap Systems

Solid Waste Incineration
The Process of Composting
Industrial Wastes
Bibliography

364
365
369
377
380
386
398
405

10 Wastes from Industries
(Case Studies)

409

General
Electroplating of Tin
The Copper Forming Industry
Prepared Frozen Foods
Wastepaper De-inking
Die Casting: Aluminum, Zinc,
and Magnesium
Anodizing and Alodizing
Production and Processing of Coke
The Wine Making Industry
The Synthetic Rubber Industry

The Soft Drink Bottling Industry
Production and Processing of
Beef, Pork, and Other Sources
of Red Meat
Rendering of By-Products
from the Processing of Meat,
Poultry, and Fish
The Manufacture of Lead Acid
Batteries
Bibliography

409
413
422
426
434
441
447
451
455
459
468
472

Glossary & Acronyms

497

Index


501

479

486
492


WoodardPreface.fm Page ix Monday, October 24, 2005 6:19 PM

Preface
to First Edition

This book has been developed with the intention of providing an updated primary reference
for environmental managers working in industry, environmental engineering consultants,
graduate students in environmental engineering, and government agency employees concerned with wastes from industries. It presents an explanation of the fundamental mechanisms
by which pollutants become dissolved or suspended in water or air, then builds on this knowledge to explain how different treatment processes work, how they can be optimized and how
one would go about efficiently selecting candidate treatment processes.
Examples from the recent work history of Woodard & Curran, as well as other environmental engineering and science consultants, are presented to illustrate both the approach used in
solving various environmental quality problems and the step by step design of facilities to
implement the solutions. Where permission was granted, the industry involved in each of these
examples is identified by name. Otherwise, no name was given to the industry, and the industry has been identified only as to type of industry and size. In all cases, the actual numbers and
all pertinent information have been reproduced as they occurred, with the intent of providing
accurate illustrations of how environmental quality problems have been solved by one of the
leading consultants in the field of industrial wastes management.
This book is intended to fulfill the need for an updated source of information on the characteristics of wastes from numerous types of industries, how the different types of wastes are
most efficiently treated, the mechanisms involved in treatment, and the design process itself. In
many cases, “tricks” that enable lower cost treatment are presented. These “tricks” have been
developed through many years of experience and have not been generally available except by
word of mouth.

The chapter on Laws, and Regulations is presented as a summary as of the date stated in the
chapter itself and/or the addendum that is issued periodically by the publisher. For information
on the most recent addendum, please call the publisher or the Woodard & Curran office in
Portland, Maine ((207) 774-2112).

ix


WoodardPreface.fm Page x Monday, October 24, 2005 6:19 PM


WoodardPreface.fm Page xi Monday, October 24, 2005 6:19 PM

Preface
to Second Edition

As the change in author’s name implies, this book has been turned over, in a manner of speaking, to the firm (Woodard & Curran) who will perpetuate it in continually updated editions,
for many years to come. In growing from 12 employees in 1979 to over 460 in 2005, our knowledge of industries and their wastes has increased in breadth and depth. We have brought this to
bear on the updating of this, the second edition, and are confident that the reader will benefit
greatly.
As was stated in the preface to the first edition, the readership that the authors had in mind
included environmental managers working in industry, environmental engineering consultants, graduate students in environmental engineering, and federal, state, or regional employees
of government agencies, who are concerned with wastes from industries.
The book maintains its approach of identifying the fundamental chemical and physical
characteristics of each target pollutant, then identifying the mechanism by which that target
pollutant is held in solution or suspension by the waste stream (liquid, gaseous, or solid). The
most efficient method by which each target pollutant can be removed from the waste stream
can then be determined.
The chapter on laws and regulations has been expanded significantly, especially in the area
of air pollution control. Again, this chapter is up to date as of the end of 2005. The reader is

invited to call Woodard & Curran’s office in Portland, Maine at (207) 774-2112 for information
on new laws or regulations.

xi


WoodardPreface.fm Page xii Monday, October 24, 2005 6:19 PM


WoodardPreface.fm Page xiii Monday, October 24, 2005 6:19 PM

Acknowledgments

This second edition was a collaborative effort involving a number of individuals. Being a second edition, however, we would be remiss if we did not acknowledge the individuals, corporations and business organizations that contributed to the first edition. No distinction has been
made between first and second edition contributors. We have attempted to cite all contributors. If we have neglected to cite someone, it is unintentional and we extend our sincerest apologies. Thus, heartfelt gratitude and acknowledgements are extended to:
Adam H. Steinman, Esq.; Aeration Technologies, Inc.; R. Gary Gilbert; Albert M. Pregraves;
Andy Miller; Claire P. Betze; Connie Bogard; Connie Gipson; Dennis Merrill; Dr. Steven E.
Woodard; Geoffrey D. Pellechia; George Abide; George W. Bloom; Henri J. Vincent; Dr.
Hugh J. Campbell; J. Alastair Lough; Janet Robinson; Dr. James E. Etzel; James D. Ekedahl;
Karen L. Townsend; Katahdin Analytical Services; Keith A. Weisenberger; Kurt R. Marston;
Michael Harlos; Michael J. Curato; Patricia A. Proux-Lough; Paul Bishop; Randy E. Tome;
Eric P. King; Raymond G. Pepin; Robert W. Severance; Steven N. Whipple; Steven Smock;
Susan G. Stevens; Terry Rinehart; Cambridge Water Technology, Inc.; Katherine K. Henderson; Mohsen Moussavi; Lee M. Cormier; Nimrata K. (Tina) Hunt; Peter J. Martin; Dixon P.
Pike, Esq.; Bruce S. Nicholson, Esq.; Charlotte Perry; Thomas R. Eschner; Ethan Brush;
Kimberly A. Pontau; James H. Fitch, Jr.; Paul M. Rodriguez; Kyle M. Coolidge; Gillian J.
Wood; Sarah Hedrick; Chigako Wilson; Jonathan A. Doucette; Ralph Greco, Jr.; Todd A.
Schwingle; Christian Roedlich, Ph.D.; and Sharon E. Ross.
Many of these individuals contributed text or verbal information from which Frank freely
drew in the production of the first edition. While the second edition contains some new information, it is in large part a repeat of the first edition, and it took effort from dozens of people to
recreate what Frank originally produced.


xiii


WoodardPreface.fm Page xiv Monday, October 24, 2005 6:19 PM


Woodward.book Page 1 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM

1 Evaluating and Selecting
Industrial Waste Treatment Systems
focus has shifted from one category (e.g.,
wastewater) to another (e.g., hazardous
wastes) as the times change. However, the
fact is that the three categories of wastes are
closely interrelated, both as they impact the
environment and as they are generated and
managed by individual industrial facilities.
For example, solid wastes disposed of in the
ground can influence the quality of groundwater and surface waters by way of leachate
entering the groundwater and traveling with
it through the ground, then entering a surface water body with groundwater recharge.
Volatile organics in that recharge water can
contaminate the air. Air pollutants can fall
out to become surface water or groundwater
pollutants, and water pollutants can infiltrate
the ground or volatilize into the air.
Additionally, waste treatment processes
can transfer substances from one of the three
waste categories to one or both of the others.

Air pollutants can be removed from an air
discharge by means of a water solution
scrubber. The waste scrubber solution must
then be managed in such a way that it can be
discarded in compliance with applicable regulations. Airborne particulates can be
removed from an air discharge using a bag
house, thus creating solid waste to be managed. On still a third level, waste treatment or
disposal systems themselves can directly
impact the quality of the air, water, or
ground. Activated sludge aeration tanks are
very effective in causing volatilization of substances from wastewater. Failed landfills can
be potent polluters of both groundwater and
surface water. The goal of the manager or
engineer is thus to design treatment processes that minimize the volume and toxicity

The approach used to develop systems to
treat and dispose of industrial wastes is distinctly different from the approach used for
municipal wastes. There is a lot of similarity
in the characteristics of wastes from one
municipality, or one region, to another.
Because of this, the best approach to designing a treatment system for municipal wastes
is to analyze the performance characteristics
of many existing municipal systems and
deduce an optimal set of design parameters
for the system under consideration. Emphasis is placed on the analysis of other systems,
rather than on the waste stream under consideration. In the case of industrial waste,
however, few industrial plants have a high
degree of similarity between products produced and wastes generated. Therefore,
emphasis is placed on analysis of the wastes
under consideration, rather than on what is

taking place at other industrial locations.
This is not to say that there is little value in
analyzing the performance of treatment systems at other more or less similar industrial
locations. Quite the opposite is true. It is
simply a matter of emphasis.
Wastes from industries are customarily
produced as liquid wastes (such as process
wastes, which go to an on-site or off-site
wastewater treatment system), solid wastes
(including hazardous wastes, which include
some liquids), or air pollutants; often, the
three are managed by different people or
departments. These wastes are managed and
regulated differently, depending on the characteristics of the wastes and the process producing them. They are regulated by separate
and distinct bodies of laws and regulations,
and, historically, public and governmental

1


Woodward.book Page 2 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM

2

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

of both process waste and the final treatment
residue, since final disposal can incur significant cost and liability.
Industrial waste treatment thus encompasses a wide array of environmental, technical, and regulatory considerations. Regardless of the industry, the evaluation and selection of waste treatment technologies typically follows a logical series of steps that help
to meet the goal of minimizing waste toxicity

and volume. These steps start with a bird’seye description and evaluation of the wasteproducing processes and then move through
a program of increasingly detailed evaluations that seek the optimal balance of efficiency and cost, where cost includes both
treatment and disposal. The following sections present an illustration of this process,
as applied to two very different waste
streams: industrial wastewater and air emissions. The sections show, through specific
examples, the basic engineering approach to
evaluating and selecting waste treatment
technologies. This approach is implicit in the
more detailed descriptions provided in subsequent chapters.

Treatment Evaluation Process:
Industrial Wastewater
Figure 1-1 illustrates the approach for developing a well-operating, cost-effective treatment system for industrial wastewater. The
first step is to gain familiarity with the manufacturing processes themselves. This usually
starts with a tour of the facility and then
progresses through a review of the literature
and interviews with knowledgeable people.
The objective is to gain an understanding of
how wastewater is produced. There are two
reasons for understanding the origin of the
water: the first is to enable an informed and
therefore effective waste reduction, or minimization (pollution prevention), program;
the second is to enable proper choice of candidate treatment technologies.
Subsequent steps shown in Figure 1-1
examine, in increasing detail, the technical

Figure 1-1 Approach for developing an industrial wastewater treatment system.


Woodward.book Page 3 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM


Evaluating and Selecting Industrial Waste Treatment Systems

and economic merits of available technologies, thereby narrowing the field of candidates as the level of scrutiny increases.
Understanding and correctly applying each
of these steps are critical to successful identification of the best treatment approach.
These steps are described in detail in the following text.

Step 1: Analysis of Manufacturing
Processes
One of the first steps in the analysis of manufacturing processes is to develop a block diagram that shows how each manufacturing
process contributes wastewater to the treatment facility. A block diagram for a typical
industrial process, which in this case involves
producing finished woven fabric from an
intermediate product of the textile industry,
is provided in Figure 1-2. Each block of the
figure represents a step in the manufacturing
process. The supply of water to each point of
use is represented on the left side of the block
diagram. Wastewater that flows away from
each point of wastewater generation is shown
on the right side.
In this example, the “raw material”
(woven greige goods) for the process is first
subjected to a process called “desizing,”
where the substances used to provide
strength and water resistance to the raw fabric, referred to as “size,” are removed. The
process uses sulfuric acid; therefore, the liquid waste from this process would be
expected to have a low pH, as well as containing the substances that were used as sizing.
For instance, if starch were the substance

used to size the fabric, the liquid waste from
the desizing process would be expected to
exhibit a high biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), since starch is readily biodegradable.
As a greater understanding of the process
is gained, either from the industry’s records
(if possible) or from measurements taken as
part of a wastewater characterization study,
process parameters would be indicated on
the block diagram. These process parameters
may include any number of the following:

3

flow rates, total quantities for a typical processing day, upper and lower limits, and characteristics such as BOD, chemical oxygen
demand (COD), total suspended solids
(TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), and any
specific chemicals being used. Each individual step in the overall industrial process
would be developed and shown on the block
diagram, as illustrated in Figure 1-2.

Step 2: Wastes Minimization and
Wastes Characterization Study
After becoming sufficiently familiar with the
manufacturing processes as they relate to
wastewater generation, the design team
should institute a wastes minimization program (actually part of a pollution prevention
program), as described in Chapter 4. Then,
after the wastes reduction program has
become fully implemented, a wastewater

characterization study should be carried out,
as described in Chapter 5.
The ultimate purpose of the wastewater
characterization study is to provide the
design team with accurate and complete
information on which to base the design of
the treatment system. Both quantitative and
qualitative data are needed to properly size
the facility and to select the most appropriate
treatment technologies.
Often, enough new information about
material usage, water use efficiency, and
wastes generation is learned during the
wastewater characterization study to warrant a second level of wastes minimization
effort. This second part of the wastes minimization program should be fully implemented, and then its effectiveness should be
verified by more sampling and analyses,
which amount to an extension of the wastewater characterization study.
A cautionary note is appropriate here concerning maintenance of the wastes minimization program. If a treatment facility is
designed and, more specifically, sized based on
implementation of a wastes minimization
program, and that program is not maintained,
causing wastewater increases in volume,


Woodward.book Page 4 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM

4

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook


Figure 1-2 Typical industrial process block diagram for a woven fabric finishing process (from the EPA Development Document for the Textile Mills Industry).

strength, or both, the treatment facility will
be underdesigned and overloaded at the
start. It is extremely important that realistic
goals be set and maintained for the wastes
minimization program, and that the design
team, as well as the industry’s management
team, is fully aware of the consequences of
overloading the treatment system.

Step 3: Determine Treatment
Objectives
After the volume, strength, and substance
characteristics of the wastewater have been
established, the treatment objectives must be
determined. These objectives will depend on
where the wastewater is to be sent after treatment. If the treated wastewater is discharged


Woodward.book Page 5 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM

Evaluating and Selecting Industrial Waste Treatment Systems

to another treatment facility, such as a
regional facility or a Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW), it must comply with
pretreatment requirements. As a minimum,
compliance with the Federal Pretreatment
Guidelines issued by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and published in the
Federal Register is required. Some municipal

or regional treatment facilities have pretreatment standards that are more stringent than
those required by the EPA.
If the treated effluent is discharged to an
open body of water, permits issued by the
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) and the appropriate state
agency must be obtained. In all cases, Categorical Standards issued by the EPA apply,
and it is necessary to work closely with one
or more government agencies while developing the treatment objectives.

Step 4: Select Candidate Technologies
Once the wastewater characteristics and the
treatment objectives are known, candidate
technologies for treatment can be selected.
Rationale for selection is discussed in detail
in Chapter 7. The selection should be based
on one or more of the following:
•
•
•

Successful application to a similar wastewater
Knowledge of chemistry, biochemistry,
and microbiology
Knowledge of available technologies, as
well as knowledge of their respective
capabilities and limitations

Then, bench-scale investigations should
be conducted to determine technical as well

as financial feasibility.

Step 5: Bench-Scale Investigations
Bench-scale investigations have the purpose
of quickly and efficiently determining the
technical feasibility and a rough approximation of the financial feasibility of a given
technology. Bench-scale studies range from

5

rough experiments, in which substances are
mixed in a beaker and results observed
almost immediately, to rather sophisticated
continuous flow studies, in which a refrigerated reservoir contains representative industrial wastewater, which is pumped through a
series of miniature treatment devices that are
models of the full-size equipment. Typical
bench-scale equipment includes the six-place
stirrer shown in Figure 1-3(a); small columns
for ion exchange resins, activated carbon, or
filtration media, shown in Figure 1-3(b); and
“block aerators,” shown in Figure 1-3(c), for
performing microbiological treatability studies, as well as any number of customdesigned devices for testing the technical feasibility of given treatment technologies.
Because of scale-up problems, it is seldom
advisable to proceed directly from the results
of bench-scale investigations to the design of
a full-scale wastewater treatment system.
Only in cases in which there is extensive
experience with both the type of wastewater
being treated and the technology and types
of equipment to be used can this approach be

justified. Otherwise, pilot-scale investigations should be conducted for each technology that appears to be a legitimate candidate
for reliable, cost-effective treatment.
The objective of pilot-scale investigations
is to develop the data necessary to determine
the minimum size and least-cost system of
equipment that will enable a design of a
treatment system that will reliably meet its
intended purpose. In the absence of pilotscale investigations, the design team is
obliged to be conservative in estimating
design criteria for the treatment system. The
likely result is that a pilot test will pay for
itself by allowing less conservative design criteria to be used.

Step 6: Pilot-Scale Investigations
A pilot-scale investigation is a study of the
performance of a given treatment technology
using the actual wastewater to be treated,
usually on site and using a representative


Woodward.book Page 6 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM

6

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

Figure 1-3

(a) Photograph of a six-place stirrer.


model of the equipment that would be used
in the full-scale treatment system. The term
representative model refers to the capability of
the pilot treatment system to closely duplicate the performance of the full-scale system.
In some cases, accurate scale models of the
full-scale system are used. In other cases, the
pilot equipment bears no physical resemblance to the full-scale system. For example,
fifty-five gallon drums have been successfully
used for pilot-scale investigations.
It is not unusual for equipment manufacturers to have pilot-scale treatment systems
that can be transported to the industrial site
on a trailer. A rental fee is usually charged, and
there is sometimes an option to include an
operator in the rental fee. It is important,
however, to keep all options open. Operation
of a pilot-scale treatment system that is rented
from one equipment manufacturer might
produce results that indicate that another type
of equipment, using or not using the same
technology, would be the wiser choice. Figure
1-4 presents a photograph of a pilot-scale
wastewater treatment system.

One of the difficulties in operating a pilotscale treatment system is the susceptibility of
system upsets, which may be caused by slug
doses, wide swings in temperature, plugging
of the relatively small diameter pipes, or a
lack of familiarity on the part of the operator.
Therefore, it is critical to operate a pilot-scale
treatment system for a sufficiently long

period of time to:
1.

2.

Evaluate its performance on all combinations of wastes that are reasonably
expected to occur during the foreseeable
life of the prototype system.
Provide sufficient opportunity to evaluate all reasonable combinations of operation parameters. When operation
parameters are changed—for instance,
the volumetric loading of an air scrubber, the chemical feed rate of a sludge
press, or the recycle ratio for a reverse
osmosis system—the system must operate for sufficient time to achieve a steady
state before the data to be used for evaluation are taken. This can be particularly


Woodward.book Page 7 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM

Evaluating and Selecting Industrial Waste Treatment Systems

7

(b)

(c)
Figure 1-3 (b) Illustration of a column set up to evaluate treatment methods that use granular media. (c) Diagrammatic
sketch of a column set up to evaluate treatment methods that use granular media.


Woodward.book Page 8 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM


8

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

Figure 1-4

Photograph of a pilot-scale wastewater treatment system.


Woodward.book Page 9 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM

Evaluating and Selecting Industrial Waste Treatment Systems

problematic in anaerobic biological
treatment systems, which can take
months to equilibrate. Of course, it will
be necessary to obtain data during the
period just after operation parameters
are changed, to determine when a steady
state has been reached.
During the pilot plant operation period,
observations should be made to determine
whether or not performance predicted from
the results of the bench-scale investigations is
being confirmed. If performance is significantly different from that which had been
predicted, it may be prudent to stop the pilotscale investigation work and try to determine
the cause for the performance difference.

Step 7: Prepare Preliminary Designs

The results of the pilot-scale investigations
show which technologies are capable of
meeting the treatment objectives, but do not
enable an accurate estimation of capital and
operating costs. A meaningful cost-effectiveness analysis can take place only after the
completion of preliminary designs of the
technologies that produced satisfactory effluent quality in the pilot-scale investigations. A
preliminary design, then, is the design of an
entire waste treatment facility, carried out in
sufficient detail to enable accurate estimation
of the costs for construction, operation, and
maintenance. It must be complete to the
extent that the sizes and descriptions of all of
the pumps, pipes, valves, tanks, concrete
work, buildings, site work, control systems,
and manpower requirements are established.
The difference between a preliminary design
and a final design is principally in the completeness of detail in the drawings and in the
specifications. It is almost as though the team
that produces the preliminary design could
use it directly to construct the plant. The
extra detail that goes into the final design is
principally to communicate all of the intentions of the design team to people not
involved in the design process.

9

Step 8: Conduct Economic
Comparisons
The choice of treatment technology and

complete treatment system between two or
more systems proven to be reliably capable of
meeting the treatment objectives should be
based on a thorough analysis of all costs over
the expected life of the system. Because this
evaluation often drives the final choice, accurate cost estimates, based on an appropriate
level of detail, are essential. How much detail
is necessary? This is illustrated in the following example, which shows an actual evaluation of treatment alternatives for a manufacturing facility considering a treatment system
upgrade. The example illustrates both the
types of charges to be considered, as well as
the level of detail necessary to support technology selection at this stage of the evaluation. Actual costs (which were accurate at the
time of the first edition of this book) are
shown for illustrative purposes only, and
should not be used as a basis for current evaluations.
Example 1-1: Estimating Costs for
Treatment Technology Selection
This example illustrates an economic comparison of five alternatives for treating wastewater from an industrial plant producing
microcrystalline cellulose from wood pulp.
This plant discharged about 41,000 gallons
per day (GPD) of wastewater with a BOD
concentration of approximately 20,000 mg/L
to the local POTW. The municipality that
owned the POTW charged the industry a fee
for treatment, and the charge was proportional to the strength, in terms of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD); total suspended solids (TSS); fats, oils and greases
(FOG); and total daily flow (Q).
In order to reduce the treatment charges
from the POTW, the plant had the option of
constructing and operating its own wastewater treatment system. Since there was not an
alternative for discharging the treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system, there
would continue to be a charge from the



Woodward.book Page 10 Monday, October 24, 2005 6:06 PM

10

Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook

POTW, but the charge would be reduced in
proportion to the degree of treatment
accomplished by the industry. Because the
industry’s treated wastewater would be further treated by the POTW, the industry’s
treatment system is referred to as a “pretreatment system,” regardless of the degree of
treatment accomplished.
Four alternatives for the treatment of this
waste were evaluated:
1. Sequencing batch reactors (SBR)
2. Rotating biological contactors (RBC)
3. Fluidized bed anaerobic reactors
4. Expanded bed anaerobic reactors
Both capital and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs for each of these systems
were evaluated.

Capital Costs
Tables 1-1 through 1-4 show the capital costs
associated with each one of these alternatives.
The number and type of every major piece of
equipment is included, and a general cost
estimate is provided for categories of costs
(site work or design) that cannot be accurately estimated at this stage. Buildings, utilities, labor, and construction are all captured.

The estimated costs for the major items of
equipment presented in this example,
referred to as “cost opinions,” were obtained
by soliciting price quotations from actual
vendors. Ancillary equipment costs were
obtained from cost-estimating guides, such
as Richardson’s, as well as experience with
similar projects. Elements of capital cost,
such as equipment installation, electrical,
process piping, and instrumentation, were
estimated as a fixed percentage of the purchase price of major items of equipment.
Costs for the building, including plumbing
and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), were estimated as a cost per
square foot of the buildings. At this level of
cost opinion, it is appropriate to use a con-

tingency of 25% and to expect a level of accuracy of ± 30% for the total estimated cost.
This example also shows an interesting
circumstance from which engineers should
not shy away: the evaluation of a technology
that is not yet commercially available. At the
time of the writing of the first edition of this
text, this was the case for the expanded bed
anaerobic reactor. However, this technology
showed promise and therefore was retained
in the evaluation. The cost was estimated by
using the major system components from the
fluidized bed anaerobic reactor (Table 1-3),
but deleting items that are not required for
the expanded bed system, such as clarifiers,

sludge-handling equipment, and other
equipment.
As a result of these deletions, the estimated capital cost for the expanded bed
anaerobic reactor system is $1,700,000.

O&M Costs
Operational costs presented for each treatment alternative include the following elements:
•
•
•
•
•
•

Chemicals
Power
Labor
Sludge disposal, if applicable
Sewer use charges
Maintenance

Because these costs are present for the life
of the system, O&M costs are often much
more important in the evaluation process
than capital costs. In consequence, O&M
costs must include as much detail as capital
costs, if not more. For instance, in this example the bases for estimating the annual operating cost for each of the above elements
were: (1) the quantity of chemicals required
for the average design value; (2) power costs
for running pumps, motors, blowers, etc.; (3)

manpower required to operate the facility;
(4) sludge disposal costs, assuming sludge
would be disposed of at a local landfill;