Enhancing the Protection of the Welfare of
Animals in the Malaysian Legal System

Arif Fahmi Md Yusof
Master of Comparative Laws (International Islamic University Malaysia)
Bachelor of Law (Hons) (International Islamic University Malaysia)

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

College of Law and Justice
Victoria University
Melbourne, Australia

2015


Abstract

This is an evaluative study on the protection of the welfare of animals in Malaysian law.
It suggests that the animal welfare approach which argues for prevention of cruelty,
application of stronger laws and promotion of humane treatment is the basic
requirement on which the laws and policy must be based.
The study utilises both doctrinal and empirical legal research techniques. Interview
data are used to complement doctrinal discussions to provide valuable insights in
understanding the law and the practices around it. The study also provides possible
suggestions designed to enhance the protection of the welfare of animals in Malaysia.
An examination of the legal protection afforded to animals by the law in three different
periods: before the coming of the British, during British occupation and post-Malaysian
Independents, reveals that the law protects animals for three main purposes. They are:
protection from unnecessary cruelty, protection as the property of people and

protection for conservational and environmental purposes.
However, the protection received by animals under the current animal protection
regime is inadequate. There are many critics of current Malaysian law concerning the
welfare of animals. The absence of clear guidelines in the legislation concerning animal
welfare has resulted in animal welfare receiving inadequate protection.
Using information from current developments in philosophy concerning animal welfare,
with references to animal welfare science and international instruments, and comparing
it with the domestic elements of animal protection, this study considers measures and
possible ways to enhance protection of the welfare of animals in Malaysia.
The research suggests that Malaysia should consider incorporating references to
scientific discoveries concerning animal sentience and the principles of Five Freedoms
and Three Rs in legislation relating to animal welfare. It also suggests that education
should play an important role in promoting kindness towards animals. Most importantly,
the thesis urges the Malaysian government to expedite the tabling of the Animal
Welfare Bill 2012 (Malaysia) in parliament to prove the government’s commitment to
protecting the welfare of animals.

i


Student Declaration

“I, Arif Fahmi Md Yusof, declare that the PhD thesis entitled ‘Enhancing the Protection
of the Welfare of Animals in the Malaysian Legal System’ is no more than 100,000
words in length including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices,
bibliography, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been
submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or
diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work”.

Signature:


Date: 20 March 2015

ii


Acknowledgements
I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my principal supervisor, Dr Edwin
Tanner, for his continuous and persuasive commitment to conveying a spirit of
adventure in regard to research throughout the period of completing this project.
Without his supervision and constant help, this thesis would not have been possible.
I would like to thank my associate supervisor, Professor Neil Andrews, for critically
reviewing the draft of the project, from the early preparation of the candidature proposal
through to the final draft of the thesis.
In addition, I am indebted to Dr Kerry Tarner for her kindness in sharing her ideas on
the methodology of research. Her suggestions have helped me a lot in preparing the
interview data.
I would like to express my gratitude to all academic and non-academic staff and
colleagues at the College of Law and Justice, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia,
and the Faculty of Syariah and Law, Islamic Science University of Malaysia (Universiti
Sains Islam Malaysia [USIM]).
I am particularly grateful for financial support from USIM and the Ministry of Higher
Learning, Malaysia.
I would like to acknowledge the assistance of library staff at Victoria University; USIM;
National Archives of Malaysia; Department of Veterinary Service, Malaysia; and
Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Malaysia.
A special note of thanks is due to all interviewees who participated in the study. The
information provided and shared by interviewees from various government
departments, private institutions and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) as well
as by individual people has been valuable for the project.

My special gratitude to my parents, Md Yusof Ishak and Ramlah Hj Ishak, and my
mother-in-law, Maharani Ngah, my family and friends for their endless love, moral
support, prayers and encouragement. Special thanks are due to my wife, Izawati
Wook, who has been a great friend for the same journey, and our three wonderful
children, Farhan, Ammar and Ainaa, for their love, sacrifices, support and tolerance.
I dedicate this work to all non-human animals who continue to provide great assistance
and benefits to all humans.

iii


List of Publications
(a) Paper presentations
1. Arif Yusof, 'Animals and the Law: A New Legal Frontier in Malaysia?' (Paper
presented at the 7th UUM International Legal Conference (ILC 2013),
Universiti Utara Malaysia, 14 November 2013).
2. Arif Yusof, ‘Custom and Animal Law in Malaysia’ (Paper presented at the
International Conference on Law and Society II (ICLAS II), International Islamic
University Malaysia, 9 October 2013).
3. Arif Yusof, 'Beyond Doctrinal Research: A Student’s Experience in Researching
Laws Relating to Animals in Malaysia' (Paper presented at the Sydney Law
School Postgraduate Conference 2012, Sydney Law School, Australia, 1
November 2012).
4. Arif Yusof. ‘An Overview of the Status of Animals in Current Philosophical
Debate’ (Paper presented at Diskusi Syariah dan Undang-Undang, Universiti
Sains Islam Malaysia, 21 April 2011).
(b) Opinions/Commentaries
1. Arif Yusof, 'Sharing of Slaughtering Photos May Disturb Others', The Malaysian
Insider, 19 October 2013.
2. Arif Yusof, 'Feast of Sacrifice: Treat Animals Humanely and Respect Others',

The Malaysian Insider, 14 October 2013.
3. Arif Yusof, 'World Animal Day: Enhancing the Protection of the Welfare of
Animals', The Malaysian Insider, 4 October 2013.
4. Arif Yusof, 'A Victim of Muslims' Misunderstanding: The Dog', The Malay Mail,
31 July 2013.
5. Arif Yusof, 'Tanggungjawab Manusia dan Kebajikan Haiwan (Humans’
Responsibilities and Animal Welfare)', Sinar Harian, 15 November 2012.
6. Arif Yusof, 'World Animal Day: Sentient Beings Worthy of Respect', The New
Straits Times, 4 October 2012.
7. Arif Yusof, 'Adopt Law to Utilise Whole Shark', The Star Online, 14 March 2012.
8. Arif Yusof, 'Greater Protection for Animals', The Star Online, 28 September
2011.
9. Arif Yusof, 'Islam dan Haiwan (Islam and Animals)', Utusan Malaysia, 15
December 2010.
10. Arif Yusof, 'Sembelihan Haiwan ikut Peradaban Islam (Animal Slaughtering
follows Islamic manners)’, Berita Harian, 13 November 2010.

iv


Table of Contents: List of Chapters

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH .................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................. 15
CHAPTER 3: THE STATUS OF ANIMALS ................................................................................. 43
CHAPTER 4: OVERVIEW OF LAWS RELATING TO ANIMALS IN MALAYSIA ........................ 78
CHAPTER 5: LEGAL STATUS OF ANIMALS IN MALAYSIA ................................................... 118
CHAPTER 6: ANIMAL WELFARE AND INTERNATIONAL LAW ............................................. 150
CHAPTER 7: FIELDWORK FINDINGS..................................................................................... 176
CHAPTER 8: THE FUTURE OF ANIMAL WELFARE LAW IN MALAYSIA .............................. 198

CHAPTER 9: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ........................................................................ 223

v


Table of Contents: Detailed Headings
Abstract ........................................................................................................................ i
Student Declaration .................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... iii
List of Publications .................................................................................................... iv
Table of Contents: List of Chapters .......................................................................... v
Table of Contents: Detailed Headings ...................................................................... vi
List of Map and Tables ............................................................................................. xv
List of Selected Abbreviations ................................................................................ xvi
Table of Cases ....................................................................................................... xviii
Table of Statutes ...................................................................................................... xix
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH ................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Contextual background........................................................................................ 2
1.2.1 Animals in Malaysia ...................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 The status of animals .................................................................................... 4
1.2.3 Protection of the welfare of animals in Malaysia ............................................ 5
1.2.4 Previous works on protection of the welfare of animals ................................. 9
1.3 Objectives of the research, theoretical framework and research questions ........ 10
1.3.1 Objectives of the research .......................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Theoretical framework ................................................................................ 11
1.4 Outline of chapters ............................................................................................ 11
1.5 Contribution to knowledge and statement of significance .................................. 13
1.5.1 Academic contribution ................................................................................. 13
1.5.2 Practical contribution ................................................................................... 14

1.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 14

vi


CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................ 15
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Categories of legal research .............................................................................. 16
2.3 Theoretical research .......................................................................................... 16
2.4 Doctrinal research ............................................................................................. 17
2.4.1 Primary sources of law ................................................................................ 17
(a) Legislation................................................................................................... 17
(b) Case law ..................................................................................................... 17
(i) Judicial decisions...................................................................................... 18
(ii) Statutory interpretation ............................................................................. 18
(iii) Complexities and limitations of legal interpretation .................................. 19
(c) Other sources ............................................................................................. 22
(i) Common law ............................................................................................ 23
(ii) Custom .................................................................................................... 23
(iii) International law ...................................................................................... 23
2.4.2 Secondary sources of law ........................................................................... 24
2.5 Law reform research ......................................................................................... 24
2.5.1 Comparative approach ................................................................................ 25
(a) International law as a source of law ............................................................ 25
2.5.2 Empirical approach: Interview ..................................................................... 27
(a) Preparation of interview schedule/questions and ethics approval ................ 28
(b) Sampling and selection of interviewees ...................................................... 29
(c) Conduct of the interviews ............................................................................ 33
(d) Transcribing and data analysis .................................................................... 33
(i) Suggested guidelines in organisation of data ............................................ 34

(ii) Using NVivo in organisation of data, and its critics ................................... 36
(iii) Use of NVivo in this research .................................................................. 39

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2.6 Validity and reliability ......................................................................................... 40
2.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 42

CHAPTER 3: THE STATUS OF ANIMALS ................................................................ 43
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 43
3.2 Moral status of animals...................................................................................... 44
3.2.1 Animals have no moral status ..................................................................... 45
(a) World and religious views ........................................................................... 45
(b) Philosophical views ..................................................................................... 48
(i) Traditional views ....................................................................................... 48
(ii) Contemporary views ................................................................................ 49
3.2.2 Animals possess some moral status, but are inferior to human beings ....... 51
(a) Religious views ........................................................................................... 52
(b) Philosophical views ..................................................................................... 53
3.2.3 Animals are morally equal to humans ......................................................... 58
(a) Utilitarianism ............................................................................................... 59
(b) Rights-based theories ................................................................................. 62
(c) Revised contractarian theory ....................................................................... 65
(d) Capabilities approach.................................................................................. 67
3.3 Animal protection camps: Animal welfare and animal rights .............................. 69
3.3.1 Animal welfare ............................................................................................ 70
3.3.2 Animal rights ............................................................................................... 71
3.3.3 Other approaches ....................................................................................... 73
3.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 74


CHAPTER 4: OVERVIEW OF LAWS RELATING TO ANIMALS IN MALAYSIA ....... 78
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 78
4.2 Historical background before the coming of the British ...................................... 79

viii


4.2.1 Malay custom (adat) ................................................................................... 80
4.2.2 Malay customary law (Adat law).................................................................. 81
4.2.3 Islamic law .................................................................................................. 83
(a) Provisions of Islamic law relating to animals ............................................... 84
(i) Limitation of human use of animals........................................................... 84
(ii) Equality between humans and animals .................................................... 84
(iii) Promoting of kindness towards animals .................................................. 85
(iv) Prevention of cruelty ............................................................................... 85
(v) Animal slaughtering with mercy ............................................................... 85
4.2.4 The Malay digests ....................................................................................... 86
4.2.5 Provisions relating to animals ..................................................................... 87
(a) Animal theft ................................................................................................. 88
(b) Inflicting injury on animals ........................................................................... 89
(c) Responsibilities and liabilities of animal owners .......................................... 89
(d) Punishment for animals............................................................................... 91
4.3 Period of British occupation ............................................................................... 91
4.3.1 British influence .......................................................................................... 91
(a) The Straits Settlements ............................................................................... 94
(b) Malay States ............................................................................................... 96
4.4 Period after independence ................................................................................ 98
4.4.1 Reception of English law ............................................................................. 98
4.4.2 Legislative power ...................................................................................... 100

4.4.3 Animals and the law .................................................................................. 101
4.4.4 Nature of animal law in Malaysia ............................................................... 102
4.5 Laws relating to animals .................................................................................. 103
4.5.1 Federal laws ............................................................................................. 103
(a) Animals Act 1953 (Malaysia) ..................................................................... 103
(b) Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 (Malaysia) ................................................ 104

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(c) Animal Welfare Bill 2012 (Malaysia) .......................................................... 106
(d) Other laws affecting animals ..................................................................... 108
(i) Veterinary Surgeons Act 1974 (Malaysia) ............................................... 108
(ii) Penal Code (Malaysia) ........................................................................... 109
(iii) Feed Act 2009 (Malaysia) ..................................................................... 109
(iv) International Trade in Endangered Species Act 2008 ........................... 110
(v) Fisheries Act 1985 (Malaysia) ................................................................ 111
(vi) Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Malaysia) ........................................... 111
(vii) Minority Offences Act 1955 (Malaysia) ................................................. 112
4.5.2 State laws ................................................................................................. 113
(i) Control of Cattle Enactment .................................................................... 113
(ii) Control of Pig Farming Enactment ......................................................... 113
(iii) Poultry Farming Enactment ................................................................... 114
4.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 115

CHAPTER 5: LEGAL STATUS OF ANIMALS IN MALAYSIA ................................. 118
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 118
5.2 Legal status ..................................................................................................... 119
5.2.1 Background............................................................................................... 119
5.2.2 Rights of animals ...................................................................................... 121

5.3 Protection as property ..................................................................................... 126
5.3.1 Justification of animals as human property................................................ 126
5.3.2 Malay customary law ................................................................................ 128
5.3.3 Malaysian law ........................................................................................... 130
5.4 Protection from gratuitous cruelty .................................................................... 132
5.4.1 Justification of protection from gratuitous cruelty ....................................... 132
5.4.2 Malay customary law ................................................................................ 134
5.4.3 Malaysian law ........................................................................................... 137

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(a) Animals Act 1953 ...................................................................................... 138
(b) Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 (WCA) ...................................................... 139
(c) Animal Welfare Bill 2012 (AWB) ................................................................ 140
5.5 Protection for conservation and the environment ............................................. 143
5.5.1 Justification of conservation and environmental protection........................ 143
5.5.2 Malay customary law ................................................................................ 144
5.5.3 Malaysian law ........................................................................................... 145
5.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 148

CHAPTER 6: ANIMAL WELFARE AND INTERNATIONAL LAW ............................ 150
6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 150
6.2 The nature of animal welfare ........................................................................... 151
6.2.1 Philosophical basis of animal welfare ........................................................ 151
6.2.2 Evolution of the concept of animal welfare ................................................ 153
(a) The Five Freedoms ................................................................................... 154
(b) The Three Rs ............................................................................................ 156
(i) Reduction in numbers of animals ............................................................ 156
(ii) Refinement of experimental methods ..................................................... 157

(iii) Replacement of animals with non-animal techniques ............................ 157
6.2.3 Animal welfare: science and value-based ................................................. 157
6.2.4 Standards and assessment of animal welfare ........................................... 159
(a) Coping ...................................................................................................... 159
(b) Freedom ................................................................................................... 161
6.3 International law and animal welfare................................................................ 162
6.3.1 International law ........................................................................................ 162
6.3.2 World Trade Organization (WTO) ............................................................. 165
6.3.3 World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) .............................................. 167
(a) Terrestrial Code ........................................................................................ 169

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(b) Aquatic Code ............................................................................................ 172
6.3.4 Universal Declaration of Animal Welfare ................................................... 172
6.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 173

CHAPTER 7: FIELDWORK FINDINGS .................................................................... 176
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 176
7.2 Research methodology.................................................................................... 177
7.3 Interviews ........................................................................................................ 178
7.4 Status of animals (philosophical, cultural and religious debate) ....................... 178
7.5 Cultural and religious perspectives in Malaysia towards the status of animals . 181
7.6 Relationship between the law and animal welfare in Malaysia ......................... 185
7.6.1 Does the government protect animals? ..................................................... 185
7.6.2 Consultation with experts or the public before issuing new policies and law
.......................................................................................................................... 186
7.7 Status of animals under existing Malaysian policy and legal framework .......... 188
7.8 The most effective way to protect the welfare of animals ................................. 192

7.9 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 196

CHAPTER 8: THE FUTURE OF ANIMAL WELFARE LAW IN MALAYSIA ............. 198
8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 198
8.2 Animal welfare approach based in Malaysian law and policies ........................ 198
8.2.1 Prevention of cruelty ................................................................................. 199
8.2.2 Arguing for stronger laws .......................................................................... 201
8.2.3 Promotion of humane treatment ................................................................ 203
(a) Education in the humane treatment of animals ......................................... 204
8.3 Elements of animal welfare in Malaysian law ................................................... 206
8.3.1 Constitutional provision ............................................................................. 206
8.3.2 Animal welfare legislation/Law relating to animals..................................... 208

xii


(a) State of animals and the law ..................................................................... 208
(b) Obligations/duties of humans .................................................................... 210
8.3.3 Non-binding instruments ........................................................................... 211
(a) Knowledge, skill and competency ............................................................. 212
(b) Legal responsibility ................................................................................... 212
(c) Five Freedoms and Three Rs .................................................................... 213
(d) Animal transportation ................................................................................ 214
(e) Animal health management ...................................................................... 214
(f) Religious slaughtering ................................................................................ 215
8.4 Proposed framework for standards for the welfare of animals in law relating to
animals in Malaysia ............................................................................................... 216
8.4.1 Definition of animal welfare ....................................................................... 216
8.4.2 Animal sentiency ....................................................................................... 217
8.4.3 Principle of Five Freedoms ....................................................................... 218

8.4.4 Principle of Three Rs ................................................................................ 219
8.4.5 Reference to OIE’s Terrestrial Code and Aquatic Code ............................ 221
8.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 221

CHAPTER 9: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ........................................................ 223
9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 223
9.2 Methodology of research ................................................................................. 224
9.3 Animal welfare approach ................................................................................. 225
9.4 Conclusion to research questions .................................................................... 226
9.5 Limitations of study.......................................................................................... 233
9.6 Suggestions for future research ....................................................................... 234
9.7 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 236

xiii


BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... i
1. Articles/Books/Reports ........................................................................................... i
2. Case Law ............................................................................................................ xv
3. Legislation ...........................................................................................................xvi
4. Treaties/Declarations ..........................................................................................xix
5. Other Sources ..................................................................................................... xx

Appendixes ............................................................................................................ xxiv
Appendix A: Interview Schedule ............................................................................ xxiv
Appendix B: Information to Participants ................................................................. xxvi
Appendix C: Consent Form ................................................................................. xxviii
Appendix D: List of Interviewees ............................................................................xxx
Appendix E: Approval Letters to Conduct interviews ............................................ xxxv
1. Approval letter from the Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department

Malaysia. .......................................................................................................... xxxv
2. Approval letter from the Chief Judge of Malaya (in Malay) .......................... xxxvii
3. Approval letter from the Department of Veterinary Services, Malaysia (by email)
........................................................................................................................ xxxix
4. Approval letter from the Department of Wildlife and National Park Malaysia (by
email)....................................................................................................................xli

xiv


List of Map and Tables

Map
Map 1: Map of Malaysia ................................................................................................ 3

Tables
Table 1: List of interviewees according to categories .................................................. 30
Table 2: Themes and nodes of NVivo ......................................................................... 39
Table 3: Methodologies adopted in answering research questions ............................. 41

xv


List of Selected Abbreviations

AA

Animals Act 1953 (Malaysia)

AMC


Arguments from marginal cases

AWB

Animal Welfare Bill 2012 (Malaysia)

CITES

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora 1973

CLA

Civil Law Act 1956 (Malaysia)

CLJ

Current Law Journal

COE

Council of Europe

DNWP

Department of Wildlife and National Parks

DVS


Department of Veterinary Services Malaysia

EC

European Community

EEC

European Economic Community

EIC

East India Company

EQA

Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Malaysia)

EU

European Union

FAWC

Farm Animal Welfare Council, United Kingdom

GAHP

Good Animal Husbandry Practice


GATT

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994

MLJ

Malayan Law Journal

MYR

Malaysian Ringgit

xvi


NGO

Non-governmental Organisation

OIE

World Organisation for Animal Health

SPCA

Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

UDAW

Universal Declaration of Animal Welfare


UDHR

Universal Declaration on Human Rights

UK

United Kingdom

UN

United Nations

US

United States

US$

United States Dollar

WCA

Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 (Malaysia)

WSPA

World Society for the Protection of the Animals

WTO


World Trade Organization

xvii


Table of Cases

Chiu Wing Wa & Ors v Ong Beng Cheng [1994] 1 MLJ 89
Chong Sin Sen v Janaki Chellamuthu [1997] 2 CLJ 699
Chor Phaik Har v Farlim Properties Sdn Bhd [1994] 3 MLJ 345
Cooper Brookes Pty Ltd v Federal Commissioner of Taxation [1981] 147 CLR 297
Danaharta Urus Sdn Bhd v Kekatong Sdn Bhd (Bar Council, Malaysia, Intervener)
(2004) 2 MLJ 257
Jaswant Singh v Central Electricity Board & Anor (1967) 1 MLJ 272 (Gill J)
Kon Fatt Kiew v PP [1935] MLJ 239
Merdeka University Berhad v Government of Malaysia [1981] 2 MLJ 356
Mohamad Ezam bin Mohd Noor v Ketua Polis Negara & Ors [2002] 4 MLJ 449, FC
(Malaysia)
Pihak Berkuasa Negeri Sabah v Sugumar Balakrishnan [2002] 3 MLJ 72 (FC,
Malaysia)
PP v Kok Wah Kuan [2008] 1 MLJ 1 (Federal Court)
Public Prosecutor v Shahrul Azuwan bin Adanan & Anor [2013] 8 MLJ 70
Re Application of Tan Boon Liat [1976] 2 MLJ 83
Sahrip v Mitchell & Anor (1877) Leic. Reports 466 (Benson Maxwell J)
Sugumar Balakrishnan v Pengarah Imigresen Negeri Sabah [1998] 3 MLJ 289, 307-8.
Ong Cheng Neo v Yeap Cheah Neo & Ors (1872) 1 Ky 326

xviii



Table of Statutes
Animal Ordinance 1902 (Straits Settlements)
Animal Welfare Act 1999 (New Zealand)
Animal Welfare Act 2006 (United Kingdom)
Animal Welfare Bill 2012 (Malaysia)
Animals (Amendment) Act 2013 (Malaysia)
Animals Act 1953 (Malaysia)
Basic Law for the Federal Republic 1949 (Germany)
Buffalo-Fighting and Cock-Fighting (Prevention) Enactment 1935 (Kedah) (Unfederated
Malay States)
Cattle Enactment 1968 (Kelantan) (Malaysia)
Cattle Registration Enactment 1981 (Perak) (Malaysia)
Cattle Registration Enactment 1990 (Kedah) (Malaysia)
Charter of Justice 1807 (Straits Settlements)
Charter of Justice 1826 (Straits Settlements)
Charter of Justice 1855 (Straits Settlements)
Civil Law Act 1956 (Malaysia)
Civil Law Enactment 1937 (Federated Malay States)
Civil Law Extension Ordinance 1951 (Federation of Malaya)
Civil Law Ordinance 1878 (Straits Settlements)
Code of Ethics and Guide to Professional Conduct for Veterinary Surgeons in Malaysia
1982 (Malaysia)
Code of Ethics and Guide to Professional Conduct for Veterinary Surgeons 1992
(Malaysia)
Consumer Protection Act 1999 (Malaysia)
Control and Licensing of Poultry Farming and Poultry Related Activities Enactment
1996 (N.Sembilan) (Malaysia)
Control and Licensing of Poultry Farming Enactment 1997 (Johor) (Malaysia)


xix


Control of Cattle Enactment 1971 (Selangor) (Malaysia)
Control of Cattle Enactment 1971 (Selangor) (Malaysia)
Control of Cattle Enactment 2001 (Pahang) (Malaysia)
Control of Pig Farming Enactment 1991 (Selangor) (Malaysia)
Control of Pig Farming Enactment 1991 (Selangor) (Malaysia)
Control of Pig Farming Enactment 1998 (Pahang) (Malaysia)
Control of Rearing of Pigs Enactment 1980 (N. Sembilan) (Malaysia)
Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822 (England)
Cruelty of Animals Act 1876 (England)
Cruelty to Animal Prevention Enactment 1904 (Federated Malay States)
Cruelty to Animal Prevention Enactment 1904 (Negeri Sembilan) (Federated Malay
States)
Cruelty to Animal Prevention Enactment 1904 (Pahang) (Federated Malay States)
Cruelty to Animal Prevention Enactment 1904 (Perak) (Federated Malay States)
Cruelty to Animal Prevention Enactment 1904 (Selangor) (Federated Malay States)
Cruelty to Animal Prevention Enactment 1910 (Federated Malay States)
Cruelty to Animal Prevention Enactment 1910 (Federated Malay States)
Cruelty to Animal Prevention Enactment 1912 (Perlis) (Unfederated Malay States)
Cruelty to Animals Ordinance 1902 (Straits Settlements)
Customs Act 1967 (Malaysia)
Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Malaysia)
Federal Constitution (Malaysia)
Federal Constitution of Swiss Confederation 1999 (Swiss)
Feed Act 2009 (Malaysia)
Fisheries Act 1985 (Malaysia)
Gambling and Prohibited Amusement 1930 (Kelantan) (Unfederated Malay States)
Indian Constitution 1950 (India)


xx


International Trade in Endangered Species Act 2008 (Malaysia)
Law of the Straits Settlements 1901-1907 (Volume II)
Laws of Malacca (Malacca)
Marine Mammal Protection Act 1972 (United States)
Minority Offences Act 1955 (Malaysia)
Ninety-Nine Laws of Perak (Perak)
Penal Code (Malaysia)
Port Laws of Kedah 1650 (Kedah)
Poultry Farming Enactment 2005 (Pahang) (Malaysia)
Poultry Farming Enactment 2005 (Perak) (Malaysia)
Poultry Farming Enactment 2007 (Selangor) (Malaysia)
Prevention of Cruelty Enactment 1912 (Kedah) (Unfederated Malay States)
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1849 (England)
Prevention of cruelty to Animals Act 1986 (Victoria) (Australia)
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Enactment 1930 (Kelantan) (Unfederated Malay
States)
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Enactment 1937 (Terengganu) (Unfederated Malay
States)
Rearing of Pigs Enactment 1975 (Johor) (Malaysia)
Rearing of Pigs Enactment 1976 (Terengganu) (Malaysia)
Rearing of Pigs Enactment 1980 (Melaka) (Malaysia)
Rearing of Pigs Enactment 1987 (Perlis) (Malaysia)
Registration of Cattle Enactment 1995 (Terengganu) (Malaysia)
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1974 (Malaysia)
Wildlife Conservation Act 2010 (Malaysia)


xxi


Enhancing the Protection of the Welfare of Animals in
the Malaysian Legal System
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
1.1 Introduction
This thesis sets out two major broad aims: first, to determine the legal status of animals
in Malaysia, and second, to suggest a set of guidelines to enhance the protection of the
welfare of animals in the Malaysian legal system. In order to do this, this study has
conducted a review of doctrinal sources and a contextual overview relating to animal
welfare and protection in Malaysia. The literature review and the contextual overview
have led the researcher to frame the research questions that address the research
objectives as well as providing the research method undertaken to answer the following
questions:
1.

What is the status of animals in the current philosophical debate?

2.

What are the cultural and religious perspectives in Malaysia towards the status
of animals?

3.

What is the status of animals in the existing Malaysian legal framework?

4.


What is the relationship between the law and animal welfare in Malaysia?

5.

What is the most effective way to protect the welfare of animals in Malaysia?

Chapter 2 (Research Methodology) explicates the research methods used to answer
these questions. The research questions are answered comprehensively under specific
chapters in the thesis. Chapter 3 (The Status of Animals) provides answers to the first
research question. It explores the status of animals by referring to different views in
philosophy and religion. To go further, Chapter 4 (Overview of Laws Relating to
Animals in Malaysia) offers answers to the second research question by examining the
development of laws relating to animals from the early Malay digests, during British
occupancy and during the post-independence period. Chapter 5 (Legal Status of
Animals in Malaysia) answers the third research question by arguing that animals enjoy
limited legal status as the subjects of protection; as property, from unnecessary cruelty
and for environmental and conservation purposes. This view is also supported by the

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fieldwork findings contained in Chapter 7. Chapter 6 (Animal Welfare and International
Law) provides answers to the fourth and fifth research questions, respectively. This
chapter examines the relationship between animal welfare and the law, by referring to
scientific findings which have influenced the development of several international legal
instruments and recognised international animal welfare organisations. By referring to
these scientific findings, and the provisions in related international instruments, an
answer to the fifth research question is provided, particularly by reference to sets of
guidelines emanating from international animal welfare organisations. These guidelines
have enhanced and may continue to enhance the protection and welfare of animals in

Malaysia. Chapter 7 (Fieldwork Findings) also provides insightful answers to the fifth
research question. Chapter 8 (The Future of Animal Welfare Law in Malaysia) observes
the elements of the animal welfare approach in animal protection laws in Malaysia and
further provides an answer to the fifth research question by charting the future of
animal welfare law in Malaysia.
The research questions are derived from the contextual overview of animal welfare
protection in Malaysia. The incidents of animal cruelty, problems of enforcement and
the non-effectiveness of some legal provisions mark the relatively poor treatment that
animals receive in Malaysia. The next section presents the importance of the research
by looking at the context from which the research questions were generated.
1.2 Contextual background
1.2.1 Animals in Malaysia
Malaysia is situated in Southeast Asia. It consists of Peninsular Malaysia in the west,
and the states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo, in the east. The
Peninsular is bordered by Thailand in the north, and the island of Singapore lies to the
south. Its total coastline measures approximately 4,675 kilometres, which includes
2,068 kilometres for Peninsular Malaysia and 2,607 kilometres for East Malaysia.1

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Malaysia
(12
February
2015)
Encyclopædia
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2

Britannica


Online


Map 1: Map of Malaysia
Malaysia’s unique natural environment is home to a wide variety of animals, ranging
from native to migrating species, and from wild to domestic animals.2 Around 620
species of birds are native to Malaysia and many migrating species winter there.3
Among the most famous are the hornbills, native to Sarawak. Other species of birds
include egrets, herons, kingfishers, kites, mynahs and pheasants. One of the world’s
most endangered animals is also unique to this part of the world: the orangutan, found
only in Sumatra and Borneo, is the only great ape living naturally outside Africa.4 Other
animal species of Malaysia include bears, crocodiles, elephants, leopards, monkeys,
panthers and rhinoceroses. Borneo has over 160 species of snakes, including the
venomous cobras, kraits and sea-snakes.5
Domestic or non-wild animals play an important economic role in Malaysia, particularly
with regard to agricultural activity. Malaysia is actively involved in intensive and
extensive farming of livestock animals such as buffalo, cattle, goats, sheep and swine
(pigs). The total recorded livestock population in Malaysia was 1,792,666 for the year
2012.6 In 2012, 1,502,354 livestock were slaughtered in Malaysia.7 In the same year,
231,249,057 chickens were reared in Malaysia.8
Some domestic animals are kept as companions and as working animals. The most
popular companion animals in Malaysia are cats and dogs. In 2007, the World Society
for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) reported that there were 506,300 cats and

2

Ibid.
Ibid.
4
Ibid.

5
Ibid.
6
'Malaysia: Livestock population' (Department of Veterinary Services Malaysia, 2012).
7
'Malaysia: Slaughtering of Livestock' (Department of Veterinary Service Malaysia, 2012).
8
'Selected Agricultural Indicators Malaysia' (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2012) 32.
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