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Sentencing and Criminal Justice
Providing unrivalled coverage of one of the most high-profile stages in the criminal
justice process, this book examines the key issues in sentencing policy and practice.
It provides an up-to-date account of the legislation on sentencing together with
the ever-increasing amount of Court of Appeal case law. The aim of the book is to
examine English sentencing law in its context, drawing not only upon legislation and
the decisions of the courts but also upon the findings of research and on theoretical
justifications for punishment.
The analysis is given depth and perspective by examining the interaction between
the law and the wider criminal justice system, including the prison and probation
services. The book also discusses the influence of statements from politicians, the
mass media and public opinion. It engages with the theory of sentencing and the
reasons for depriving offenders of their liberty. It looks at the statistical evidence on
the effectiveness of sentences, and pays particular attention to difficult questions
about aggravating and mitigating factors in sentencing, the proper approach to
dealing with persistent offenders, the relevance of race, gender and unemployment,
and the growth of ‘preventive’ orders (such as anti-social behaviour orders) which
are not sentences as such but which impose restrictions and obligations.
This new edition has been extensively revised so as to integrate the new laws
introduced by the Criminal Justice Act 2003, which has brought sweeping reforms
to English sentencing.
Andrew Ashworth is Vinerian Professor of English Law at the University of
Oxford. His previous titles include Principles of Criminal Law (4th edn, 2003), The
Criminal Process (3rdedn,2005,with Mike Redmayne) and Proportionate Sentencing
(2005,with Andrew von Hirsch).

The Law in Context Series
Editors: William Twining (University College London)
and Christopher McCrudden (Lincoln College, Oxford)

Since 1970 the Law in Context series has been in the forefront of the movement to
broaden the study of law. It has been a vehicle for the publication of innovative scholarly
books that treat law and legal phenomena critically in their social, political and economic
contexts from a variety of perspectives. The series particularly aims to publish scholarly
legal writing that brings fresh perspectives to bear on new and existing areas of law taught
in universities. A contextual approach involves treating legal subjects broadly, using
materials from other social sciences, and from any other discipline that helps to explain
the operation in practice of the subject under discussion. It is hoped that this orientation
is at once more stimulating and more realistic than the bare exposition of legal rules. The
series includes original books that have a different emphasis from traditional legal
textbooks, while maintaining the same high standards of scholarship. They are written
primarily for undergraduate and graduate students of law and of other disciplines, but
most also appeal to a wider readership. In the past, most books in the series have focused
on English law, but recent publications include books on European law, globalisation,
transnational legal processes, and comparative law.
Books in the Series
Anderson, Schum & Twining: Analysis of Evidence
Ashworth: Sentencing and Criminal Justice
Barton & Douglas: Law and Parenthood
Bell: French Legal Cultures
Bercusson: European Labour Law
Birkinshaw: European Public Law
Birkinshaw: Freedom of Information: The Law, the Practice and the Ideal
Cane: Atiyah’s Accidents, Compensation and the Law
Clarke & Kohler: Property Law
Collins: The Law of Contract
Davies: Perspectives on Labour Law
De Sousa Santos: Toward a New Legal Common Sense
Diduck: Law’s Families
Elworthy & Holder: Environmental Protection: Text and Materials

Fortin: Children’s Rights and the Developing Law
Glover-Thomas: Reconstructing Mental Health Law and Policy
Gobert & Punch: Rethinking Corporate Crime
Harlow & Rawlings: Law and Administration: Text and Materials
Harris: An Introduction to Law
Harris: Remedies in Contract and Tort
Harvey: Seeking Asylum in the UK: Problems and Prospects
Hervey&McHale: Health Law and the European Union
Lacey & Wells: Reconstructing Criminal Law
Lewis: Choice and the Legal Order: Rising above Politics
Likosky: Transnational Legal Processes
Maughan & Webb: Lawyering Skills and the Legal Process
Moffat: Trusts Law: Text and Materials
Norrie: Crime, Reason and History
O’Dair: Legal Ethics
Oliver: Common Values and the Public–Private Divide
Oliver&Drewry:The Law and Parliament
Picciotto: International Business Taxation
Reed: Internet Law: Text and Materials
Richardson: Law, Process and Custody
Roberts & Palmer: Dispute Processes: ADR and the Primary Forms of Decision Making
Scott & Black: Cranston’s Consumers and the Law
Seneviratne: Ombudsmen: Public Services and Administrative Justice
Stapleton: Product Liability
Tur pin: British Government and the Constitution: Text, Cases and Materials
Twining: Globalisation and Legal Theory
Twining: Rethinking Evidence
Twining & Miers: HowtodoThings with Rules
Ward: ACritical Introduction to European Law
Ward: Shakespeare and Legal Imagination

Zander: Cases and Materials on the English Legal System
Zander: The Law-Making Process
Sentencing and
Criminal Justice
Fourth edition
Andrew Ashworth
Vinerian Professor of English Law,
University of Oxford
cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru,UK
First published in print format
isbn-13 978-0-521-67405-8
isbn-13 978-0-511-13466-1
© Andrew Ashworth 2005
2005
Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9780521674058
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of
relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
isbn-10 0-511-13466-5
isbn-10 0-521-67405-0
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
paperback
eBook (EBL)

eBook (EBL)
paperback
Contents
Preface page x
Table of statutes xi
Tab l e o f cases xvi
1Anintroduction to English sentencing
1
1.1 Courts and crimes 1
1.2 The available sentences 2
1.3 The general statistical background 8
1.4 The criminal process 22
1.5 The formal sources of sentencing decisions 31
1.6 Informal influences on sentencing practice 41
2 Sentencing and the constitution
50
2.1 The separation of powers in sentencing 50
2.2 The Sentencing Advisory Panel and the Sentencing
Guidelines Council 54
2.3 The judiciary, the executive and sentencing policy 58
2.4 The Judicial Studies Board 61
2.5 The position of the magistracy 62
2.6 Conclusions 66
3 Sentencing aims, principles and policies
67
3.1 The aims of the criminal justice system 67
3.2 Justifying state punishment 70
3.3 The rationales of sentencing 72
3.4 Some principles and policies 91
3.5 Sentencing rationales and English criminal justice 98

4 Elements of proportionality
102
4.1 The proportionality principle 102
4.2 Opinions about offence-seriousness 104
vii
viii Contents
4.3 Developing parameters of ordinal proportionality 106
4.4 Offence-seriousness in practice 114
4.5 Individual culpability 142
4.6 Proportionality, human rights and European law 147
4.7 Proportionality and offence-seriousness 148
5 Aggravation and mitigation
151
5.1 Some preliminary problems of principle 151
5.2 Aggravation as increased seriousness 153
5.3 Mitigation as diminished seriousness 160
5.4 Personal mitigation 163
5.5 Mitigation and aggravation in practice 178
5.6 Aggravation and mitigation in theory 180
6 Persistence, prevention and prediction
182
6.1 Historical introduction 182
6.2 Three approaches to punishing persistence 184
6.3 Previous convictions and the Criminal Justice Act 2003 191
6.4 The problem of ‘professional’ criminals 201
6.5 Persistent petty offenders 202
6.6 The prevention of ‘anti-social behaviour’ 203
6.7 Minimum sentences and selective incapacitation 206
6.8 ‘Dangerous offenders’ and the 2003 Act 210
6.9 Conclusion 217

7 Equality before the law
219
7.1 The principle and its challengers 219
7.2 Race 221
7.3 Gender 224
7.4 Employment status 227
7.5 Financial circumstances 230
7.6 Social status 233
7.7 Equality, parsimony and risk 234
8 Multiple offenders
239
8.1 Charging the multiple offender 240
8.2 Concurrent or consecutive? 242
8.3 Effect of the statutory principle 247
8.4 Consecutive sentences and the totality principle 248
8.5 Multiple offenders and proportionality 254
9 Custodial sentencing
255
9.1 The state of the prisons 255
Contents ix
9.2 The use of imprisonment 260
9.3 Principles for the use of custodial sentences 265
9.4 The custody threshold and short custodial sentences 271
9.5 Custodial sentences of twelve months and longer: release
on licence 281
9.6 Demographic features of the prison population 285
9.7 Conclusions 291
10 Non-custodial sentencing
293
10.1 A brief history 293

10.2 The absolute discharge 295
10.3 Conditional discharges and bind-overs 296
10.4 Compensation orders 298
10.5 Fines 302
10.6 The generic community sentence 312
10.7 Deferment of sentence 326
10.8 Conclusions 327
11 Procedural issues and ancillary orders
332
11.1 The sentencing framework of the 2003 Act 332
11.2 Ancillary orders 333
11.3 The obligation to give reasons for sentence 340
11.4 The factual basis for sentencing 342
11.5 Police antecedents statements 346
11.6 The role of the prosecution 347
11.7 Pre-sentence reports 348
11.8 Defence speech in mitigation 350
11.9 The role of the victim 352
12 Special sentencing powers
359
12.1 Young offenders 359
12.2 Young adult offenders 368
12.3 Mentally disordered offenders 370
13 Conclusions
380
13.1 The responsibility of sentencing 380
13.2 The new penal ladder 382
13.3 Delivering change: the guideline system 384
13.4 Risk, public protection and trifurcation 385
13.5 Proportionality and social justice 387

13.6 Political courage and criminal justice 388
References 390
Index 409
Preface
In the five years since the third edition, the brisk pace of change in sentencing set
in the 1990s has continued with vigour. Most significant is the Criminal Justice Act
2003. Over half of its 339 sections and 30 of its 38 schedules relate to sentencing.
Notall of those provisions are yet in force – at the time of writing, it appears that the
new sentence of custody plus and the raising of the magistrates’ courts’ sentencing
limit from 6 to 12 months will not be brought in until autumn 2006. Several chap-
ters have needed extensive rewriting in order to reflect the provisions of the 2003
Act. Attention has also been paid to other significant changes in sentencing – the
continued rise in the prison population to over 75,000; the continued increase in
reliance on the National Probation Service for risk management and rehabilitation
in the community; the extension of social control through the anti-social behaviour
order and the many other preventive orders and the concomitant blurring of bound-
aries, rights and responsibilities that this entails; the development of the guideline
movement in sentencing, and the unexpected return of the Court of Appeal to the
practice of laying down guidelines or ‘guidance’; and many other changes.
Iceased to gather material for this edition at the end of March 2005, but room
has been found for a few subsequent developments. I am grateful for the term’s
sabbatical leave granted by the University of Oxford to enable me to push forward
with this project, and also to the Law Faculty at the University of Tasmania for its
warm welcome and generous support during my visit in January–February 2005.
Ireceived helpful suggestions about the book from a number of colleagues, and my
special thanks go to Elaine Player for commenting on a draft of Chapter 9 and to
Julian Roberts for commenting on a draft of Chapter 6.And,aboveall,Ioweagreat
debt to Von, whose support for me throughout this project was unwavering even
though I had to spend much more time than anticipated at my desk.
Andrew Ashworth

All Souls College, Oxford
May 2005
x
Table of statutes
Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003 206
Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security
Act 2001
s. 39 154
Children Act 1989 365
Children and Young Persons Act 1933
s. 44 74
Children and Young Persons Act 1969
359
Company Directors Disqualification
Act 1986 336
Courts Act 2003 62, 303, 312
s. 36 312
ss. 95–97 312
Crime and Disorder Act 1998 7, 25, 32,
89, 153–5, 361
s. 1 203
s. 1(11) 297
ss. 8–10 365
s. 28 154
s. 29 153
s. 30 153
s. 31 153
s. 32 153
s. 37 7, 74
s. 37(1)–(2) 361

s. 41 361
s. 61 294
s. 65 362
s. 65(1) 362
s. 66 362
s. 66(2)(b) 362
s. 66(4) 297
s. 80 33, 54
s. 80(3) 38
s. 81 54
Crime (Sentences) Act 1997 32, 52, 60,
66, 81, 98, 207, 211, 281
s. 3 207
s. 4 134, 208
s. 45 376
Criminal Damage Act 1971 51
Criminal Injuries Compensation Act
1995 298
Criminal Justice Act 1948 183
Criminal Justice Act 1967 183
Criminal Justice Act 1972 293, 298
Criminal Justice Act 1982 293, 298, 360
Criminal Justice Act 1988 334
s. 36 40
s. 104 298
Criminal Justice Act 1991 2, 73, 74, 95,
98, 99, 102, 133, 183, 214, 281,
293, 294, 298, 303, 304, 305, 312,
313, 322, 348, 360
s. 1(2)(a) 271

s. 2(2)(a) 100
s. 2(2)(b) 183
s. 4 290, 377
s. 6 322
s. 29(2) 153
s. 95(1)(b) 224
Criminal Justice Act 1993 98, 193, 294,
305
xi
xii Table of statutes
Criminal Justice Act 2003 2, 4, 6, 25,
27, 32, 33, 35, 38, 39, 46, 57, 62,
63, 66, 81, 95, 97, 99, 103, 111,
122, 148, 151, 153, 172, 191–201,
207–13, 217, 230, 234, 247, 281–5,
288, 292, 293, 295, 297, 303, 314,
315, 350, 352, 362, 365, 367, 374,
384, 385
part 12 368
Chapter 5 210
s. 23 25
s. 31(3) 214
s. 142 74, 99, 102, 138–9, 221, 323
s. 142(1) 74
s. 142(1)(d) 80
s. 142(2)(a) 362
s. 143 74
s. 143(1) 74, 99, 102, 103, 198
s. 143(2) 75, 191, 195, 196, 197, 198,
199, 202, 203, 205, 214, 217, 315

s. 143(2)(a) 197
s. 143(2)(b) 197
s. 143(3) 153, 246
s. 144 27, 29, 164
s. 144(1) 163, 164
s. 144(2) 163, 164, 207
s. 145 96
s. 145(2) 153
s. 146 96, 155
s. 146(3) 155
s. 147(1) 99
s. 148 4
s. 148(1) 99, 103, 247, 313, 314
s. 148(2) 321–2, 324
s. 148(2)(a) 322
s. 148(2)(b) 322
s. 151 203, 314, 323
s. 152(2) 5, 99, 103, 203, 247, 271,
272, 274, 277, 280, 309, 313
s. 153(2) 5, 6, 99, 100, 103, 247, 283
s. 154 279
s. 156 349
s. 157 290, 377
s. 157(2) 290, 377
s. 161 322
s. 162 307
s. 163 309
s. 164 4
s. 164(1) 307
s. 164(2) 306, 310

s. 164(3) 306, 310
s. 164(4) 307, 309, 310
s. 166 151, 179, 248
s. 166(1) 160
s. 166(5) 290, 377
s. 167(9) 55
s. 169 54
s. 170 34, 41, 54
s. 170(2) 34
s. 170(5) 34
s. 170(5)(c) 96
s. 170(8) 34
s. 170(9) 34
s. 171 33
s. 171(1) 34
s. 171(4) 34
s. 172 57, 341
s. 172(1) 34
s. 174 352
s. 174(1) 341
s. 174(2) 151, 341, 342
s. 174(2)(a) 34, 37, 341
s. 174(2)(d) 164
s. 174(2)(e) 181
s. 177 315
s. 177(3)(b) 318
s. 177(4) 318
s. 177(6) 324
s. 178 325
s. 179 325

s. 181 5, 114
s. 181(3)(b) 279
s. 182 5
s. 183 5, 277
s. 189 5, 275
s. 190 275
Table of statutes xiii
s. 191 275
s. 192 275
s. 199 315
s. 200(1) 315
s. 201 317
s. 201(2) 317
s. 202 317
s. 203 317
s. 204 318
s. 205 319
s. 206 319
s. 207 319, 372
s. 208 319, 372
s. 209 319
s. 210 319
s. 211 319
s. 212 320
s. 213 320
s. 214 321
s. 215(2) 318
s. 218(4) 318
s. 224 210
s. 225 210, 377

s. 225(1)(a) 211
s. 225(1)(b) 214
s. 225(2)(b) 211
s. 226 211, 368, 377
s. 226(1)(b) 214
s. 226(3) 212, 368
s. 227 377
s. 227(1)(b) 214
s. 227(2) 213
s. 227(2)(b) 213
s. 227(4) 213
s. 228 368, 377
s. 228(1)(b)(i) 214
s. 229 210, 214, 387
s. 229(2) 215
s. 238 282
s. 247(3) 213
s. 269 32, 52, 117
s. 269(3) 117
s. 278 326
s. 285 122
s. 287 6, 164
Sch. 8 325
Sch. 12 275
Sch. 15 212, 214
Sch. 16 214
Sch. 17 214
Sch. 18 212
Sch. 21 32, 37, 117
Sch. 22 37, 117

Sch. 23 172, 326
Sch. 32
para. 38 377
Sch. 37 34
Criminal Justice and Court Services
Act 2000 295
s. 28 336
s. 41 140
Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001
s. 33 338
Criminal Justice and Public Order Act
1994
s. 48 163, 167
Criminal Law Act 1977 1
Criminal Procedure and Investigations
Act 1996
s. 49 29
Criminal Procedure (Insanity and
Unfitness to Plead) Act 1991 370
Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims
Act 2004 299, 352
s. 17 241
s. 19 241
s. 32 299
ss. 35–44 299
ss. 48–51 299
s. 55 299
Drug Trafficking Act 1986 333, 334,
337
s. 38(4) 333

Firearms Act 1968 242
s. 51A 377
s. 51A(2) 164
xiv Table of statutes
Football (Disorder) Act 2000 338
Football Spectators Act 1989
s. 14A 338
Human Rights Act 1998 50, 53, 66, 92,
203, 219, 340
s. 6 259
Justices of the Peace Act 1361 4, 297
Licensed Premises (Exclusion of
Certain Persons) Act 1980
338
Mental Health Act 1983 290, 378
s. 1 372
s. 13 373
s. 35 372
s. 36 372
s. 37 373, 374, 376
s. 38 372
s. 39 374
s. 41 374–5, 376
s. 136 371
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 124
Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty)
Act 1969 116
Powers of Criminal Courts Act 1973
298
s. 43 298

Powers of Criminal Courts
(Sentencing) Act 2000 2, 32, 295,
361, 365
s. 1 172, 326
s. 2 172, 326
s. 12 3, 295, 296
s. 13 3, 295, 296
s. 14 3, 295, 296
s. 15 3, 295, 296
s. 16 7, 363
s. 53(2) 368
s. 59 203, 315
s. 85 213
s. 91 367, 368
s. 100 8, 367
s. 101 8, 367
s. 102 8
s. 103 8
s. 104 8
s. 105 8
s. 106 8
s. 107 8
s. 110 6, 207, 377
s. 111 6, 208, 377
s. 130 3, 298, 299, 300
s. 131 3, 298
s. 132 3, 298
s. 133 3, 298
s. 134 3, 298
s. 143 334

s. 146 335
s. 147 335
s. 148 334
s. 151 153
s. 161(a)-(b) 248
Sch. 1 3
Prevention of Crime Act 1908 182
Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 32, 39, 91,
124, 335
s. 6 335
s. 7 335
s. 9 335
s. 10 335
s. 18 335
s. 75 335
Prosecution of Offences Act 1985 27
Race Relations Act 1965 223
Race Relations Act 1976 223
Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000
219, 223
Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974
197
Road Traffic Act 1988 335
Sex Offenders Act 1997 334
Sexual Offences Act 2003 39, 51, 62,
127–8, 129, 169
s. 2 129
ss. 9–12 213
s. 104 337
s. 107 337

Table of statutes xv
s. 114 337
s. 123 337
s. 134 295, 296
Theft Act 1968 51
s. 9(1)(a) 244
s. 9(1)(b) 244
s. 10 242
s. 28 298
Yo uth Justice and Criminal Evidence
Act 1999 32, 361
s. 8(1) 362
Foreign legislation
Australia
Community Protection Act 1994
(New South Wales) 53
Sentencing Act 1991 (Victoria)
s. 16 245
Finland
Penal Code
Art. 6 103
Germany
Penal Code
s. 52 252
NewZealand
Children, Young Persons and their
Families Act 1989 89
Sweden
Criminal Code
Chapter 29 103

para. 5 174
United States
Sentencing Reform Act 1984 56, 73
Table of cases
A and B [1999] 1 Cr App R (S) 52 172
Afonso [2005] Crim LR 73 39
Ahmed (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 286 351–2
Al-Banna (1984) 6 Cr App R (S) 426 115, 118
Al-Buhairi [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 496 284
Ambrose (1973) 57 Cr App R 538 240
Anderson [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 421 344, 345
Anglian Water Services Ltd [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 374 310
Apprendi v.New Jersey (2000) 120 S Ct 2348 346
Aramah (1982) 4 Cr App R (S) 407 33, 124
Archer [1998] 2 Cr App R (S) 76 165
Aroyewumi (1994) 16 Cr App R (S) 211 124
Arrowsmith [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 301 338
AS [2001] 1 Cr App R (S) 62 367
Attorney General’s Reference No. 91 of 2002 [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 55 100
Attorney General’s Reference No. 1 of 1990 (1990) 12 Cr App R (S) 246
Attorney General’s Reference No. 3 of 2004 (Akuffo) [2005] Cr App R (S) 230 211
Attorney General’s Reference No. 7 of 1989 (Thornton) (1990) 12 Cr App R (S) 1
36
Attorney General’s Reference No. 7 of 1991 (Khan) (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 122
131
Attorney General’s Reference No. 7 of 1997 (Fearon) [1998] 1 Cr App R (S) 268
347
Attorney General’s Reference No. 14 of 2000 [2001] 1 Cr App R (S) 55 127
Attorney General’s Reference No. 18 of 1993 (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 800 356
Attorney General’s Reference No. 23 of 1992 (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 759 340

Attorney General’s Reference No. 28 of 2001 [2001] EWCA Crim 1373 320
Attorney General’s Reference No. 31 of 1993 (1995) 16 Cr App R (S) 90 253
Attorney General’s Reference No. 32 of 1996 [1997] 1 Cr App R (S) 261 210
Attorney General’s Reference No. 33 of 1996 (Latham) [1997] 2 Cr App R (S) 10
120
Attorney General’s Reference No. 34 of 1992 (1993) 15 Cr App R (S) 167 372
xvi
Table of cases xvii
Attorney General’s Reference No. 35 of 1995 (Hartley) [1996] 1 Cr App R (S) 413
159
Attorney General’s Reference No. 37 of 2004 (Dawson) [2005] 1 Cr App R (S) 295
162, 319, 373
Attorney General’s Reference No. 41 of 1994 (1995) 16 Cr App R (S) 792 127
Attorney General’s Reference No. 46 of 1997 [1998] 2 Cr App R (S) 338 246
Attorney General’s Reference No. 60 of 2003 [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 376 344
Attorney General’s Reference No. 70 of 2003 [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 254 344
Attorney General’s Reference No. 77 of 2002 (Scotney) [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 564
357
Attorney General’s Reference No. 83 of 2001 (Fidler) [2002] 1 Cr App R (S) 588
162
Attorney General’s Reference No. 85 of 2003 (Evesham) [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 371
123
Attorney General’s Reference No. 89 of 1998 [2000] 1 Cr App R (S) 49 245
Attorney General’s Reference No. 89 of 1999 (Farrow) [2000] 2 Cr App R (S) 382
131
Attorney General’s Reference No. 99 of 2003 (Vidler) [2005] 1 Cr App R (S) 150
159
Attorney General’s Reference No. 104 of 2004 (Garvey) [2005] Crim LR 150 129
Attorney General’s Reference No. 108 of 2001 (Tullius) [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 294
156

Attorney General’s References Nos. 4 and 7 of 2002 [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 345 38,
100, 130, 132, 270
Attorney General’s References Nos. 37, 38 and others of 2003 [2004] 1 Cr App R
(S) 499 37, 129
Attorney General’s References Nos. 38 and 39 of 2004 (Randall and Donaghue)
[2005] 1 Cr App R (S) 267 156
Attorney General’s References Nos. 48, 49, 50 and 51 of 2002 (Paulssen and
others) [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 192 137
Attorney General’s References Nos. 74, 95 and 118 of 2002 (Suratan and others)
[2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 273 120, 121
Attorney General’s References Nos. 150 and 151 of 2002 [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 658
132
Attuh-Benson [2005] Crim LR 243 149, 381
Avon Lippiatt Hobbs (Contractors) Ltd [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 427 310
B v.Chief Constable of Avon and Somerset [2001] 1 WLR 340 337
Bailey (1988) 10 Cr App R (S) 231 190–1
Ball (1981) 3 Cr App R (S) 283 231, 304
Ball [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 92 334
Barbery (1975) 62 Cr App R 248 174
Barney (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 448 299
xviii Table of cases
Barrick (1985) 7 Cr App R (S) 142 136, 175
Barton (1972) 249
Baverstock (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 471 271, 314
Beaumont (1987) 9 Cr App R (S) 342 177
Bedford (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 336 118, 119
Begum Bibi (1980) 2 Cr App R (S) 177 40
Belli [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 490 198
Bernard [1997] 1 Cr App R (S) 135 176
Beswick [1996] 1 Cr App R (S) 343 344

Betson [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 270 131
Billam (1986) 82 Cr App R 347 128
Birch (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 202 375
Blake [1962] 2 QB 377 251
Blakely v.Washington (2004) 124 S Ct 2531 56, 57, 66, 346
Bleasdale (1984) 6 Cr App R (S) 177 197
Bond v.Chief Constable of Kent (1982) 4 Cr App R (S) 314 300
Bosanquet (1991) 12 Cr App R (S) 646 251
Boswell (1982) 4 Cr App R (S) 317 156
Boswell (1984) 6 Cr App R (S) 257 122
Bowden [1998] 2 Cr App R (S) 7 177
Bradbourn (1985) 7 Cr App R (S) 180 272
Braid [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 509 123
Braxton [2005] 1 Cr App R (S) 167 205, 339
Brewster (1980) 2 Cr App R (S) 191 202
Brewster [1998] 1 Cr App R (S) 181 112, 134, 135, 202
Broad (1979) 68 Cr App R 281 240
Broderick (1993) 15 Cr App R (S) 476 345
Buchanan (1980) 2 Cr App R (S) 13 356
Buffery (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 511 163
Byrne [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 338 344
C(John Francis) (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 562 176
C v.Sunderland Youth Court [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 443 204, 339
Caird et al. (1970) 54 Cr App R 499 157
Canavan and Kidd [1998] 1 Cr App R (S) 243 240, 241
Cargill [1913] 2 KB 671 233
Casati [1981] ECR 2595 148
Cawthorne [1996] 2 Cr App R (S) 445 343
Celaire and Poulton [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 610 246
Chalcraft and Campbell [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 172 139, 162

Chambers (1983) 5 Cr App R (S) 190 119
Chapman [1999] 2 Cr App R (S) 374 157
Chapman [2000] 1 Cr App R (S) 377 211
Cheetham and Baker [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 278 122
Table of cases xix
Chelmsford Crown Court, ex parte Birchall (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 510 252
Chesterman (1984) 6 Cr App R (S) 151 127
Chief Constable of Lancashire v.Potter [2003] EWHC 2272 204
Clark [1998] 2 Cr App R (S) 95 136, 175
Clark [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 6 339
Clarke (1975) 61 Cr App R 320 203
Clarke (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 15 131
Claydon (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 526 171
Clingham v.Kensington and Chelsea Royal LBC [2003] AC 787 204
Clugston (1992) 13 Cr App R (S) 165 253
Coleman (1991) 13 Cr App R (S) 508 121
Cooksley [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 1 122, 123, 124, 158, 159, 161, 174
Copeland and Hegarty (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 601 131
Copley (1979) 1 Cr App R (S) 55 231, 301
Corran et al. [2005] Crim LR 404 38, 130
Costley (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 357 345
Cox (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 479 272, 273
Crawford (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 782 248
Crosby and Hayes (1974) 60 Cr App R 234 173
CrownCourt at Manchester, ex parte McCann [2003] 1 AC 787 204
Cunningham (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 444 99, 101, 147, 148
Cutlan [1998] 1 Cr App R (S) 119
Darvill (1987) 9 Cr App R (S) 225 356
Davies (1986) 8 Cr App R (S) 97 127
Dawson (1987) 9 Cr App R (S) 248 158

De Haan [1968] 2 QB 108 163, 165
De Salvador Torres v. Spain (1997) 23 EHRR 601 343
Delazarus v.UKApp. No. 17525/1990 260
Dixon [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 18 139
Doick [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 203 336
DPP v.Anderson [1978] AC 964 241
Dunn [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 535 158
Ebanks [1998] 2 Cr App R (S) 339 253
Edwards [1998] 2 Cr App R (S) 213 336
Edwards [2001] 2 Cr App R (S) 540 121
Elder and Pyle (1993) 15 Cr App R (S) 514 125
Ellis and Avis [2000] 1 Cr App R (S) 38 125
Evans (1974) unreported 162
Fairbairn (1980) 2 Cr App R (S) 284 231, 232
Faulkner (1972) Cr App R 594 245–6
Fell [1963] Crim LR 207 233
xx Table of cases
Field and Young [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 175 336
Finch (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 226 343
Firth Vickers Centrispinning Ltd [1998] 1 Cr App R (S) 293 158
Fleming (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 151 375
Fox (1980) 2 Cr App R (S) 188 197
Fraser (1982) 4 Cr App R (S) 254 165
Freeman (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 398 138, 157, 201
French (1982) 4 Cr App R (S) 57 245
Gardner (1992) 14 Cr App R (S) 364 121
Gardener (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 667 352
George (1984) 6 Cr App R (S) 211 327
Ghafoor [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 428 94
Gibson [1997] 2 Cr App R (S) 292 118

Gillam (1980) 2 Cr App R (S) 267 348
Gillespie [199] 2 Cr App R (S) 61 344
Glide (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 319 201
Godfrey (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 804 271, 314
Godfrey (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 536 300
Gough v.Chief Constable of Derbyshire [2002] QB 459 338
Grad [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 218 122
Grady (1990) 12 Cr App R (S) 152 338
Graham and Whatley [2005] Crim LR 247 39
Grainger [1997] 1 Cr App R (S) 369 121
Grant (1990) 12 Cr App R (S) 441 177
Graves (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 790 300
Gray [1983] Crim LR 691 211
Gumbs (1926) 19 Cr App R 74 36
Guppy and Marsh (1995) 16 Cr App R (S) 25 345
Gwillim-Jones [2002] 1 Cr App R (S) 19 138, 201
Gwyer [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 246 139
Haleth (1982) 4 Cr App R (S) 178 177
Hall [2005] Crim LR 152 339
Harrison (1909) 2 Cr App R 94 36
Hartrey [1993] Crim LR 230 36
Hashman and Harrup v.UK(2000) 30 EHRR 24 297
Hassall [2000] 1 Cr App R (S) 67 166
Hickson [2002] 1 Cr App R (S) 298 207
Highbury Corner Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte DiMatteo (1990) 12 Cr App R
(S) 263 334
Hindawi (1988) 10 Cr App R (S) 104 115, 118
Hoare [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 261 208
Table of cases xxi
Hobstaff (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 605 354

Hodgson (1967) 52 Cr App R 113 210
Holah (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 282 300
Holderness 249
Home Secretary, ex parte Anderson [2003] 1 AC 837 53, 93, 116
Home Secretary, ex parte Doody [1994] 1 AC 531 116
Home Secretary, ex parte Duggan [1994] 3 All ER 271 256
Home Secretary, ex parte Hindley [2001] 1 AC 410 116
Home Secretary, ex parte Uttley [2004] UKHL 38 35, 117
Horsham Justices, ex parte Richards (1985) 7 Cr App R (S) 158 300
Howe (F) & Son (Engineers) Ltd [1999] 2 Cr App R (S) 37 310
Howell (1985) 7 Cr App R (S) 360 375
Howell [1998] 1 Cr App R (S) 229 121
Howells [1999] 1 Cr App R (S) 335 272
Hurley [1998] 1 Cr App R (S) 299 125
Hussain [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 497 121
Ibbotson v.UK(1999) 27 EHRR CD 332 94, 333
Ingham (1980) 2 Cr App R (S) 184 173
Inwood (1974) 60 Cr App R 70 301
Ireland (1988) 10 Cr App R (S) 474 352
Isaac [1998] Cr App R (S) 266 162
James [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 574 300
Jarrett [2003] 1 CR App R (S) 159 100
Jenkins [2002] 1 Cr App R (S) 22 135, 202
Jerome [2001] 1 Cr App R (S) 316 309
Johnson (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 827 37, 42
Jordan [2005] CLW/05/08/1 164
Jorge [1999] 2 Cr App R (S) 1 301
Joyce (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 253 91
K [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 22 115, 126
Kable (1996) 189 CLR 51 53

Kastercum (1972) 56 Cr App R 298 246
Kearney [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 85 374
Kefford [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 495 40, 269, 270, 272
Keightley [1972] Crim LR 272 173
Kelly [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 472 198
Kelly and Donnelly [2001] 2 Cr App R (S) 341 33, 154, 155, 342
Kent [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 367 246
Kerrigan (1993) 14 Cr App R (S) 179 345
Keys and Sween (1986) 8 Cr App R (S) 444 157
xxii Table of cases
King [2000] Cr App R (S) 105 245
Knight (1980) 2 Cr App R (S) 82 310
Kolawole [2005] Crim LR 245 39
Komsta and Murphy (1990) 12 CR App R (S) 63 36, 347
Landy (1995) 16 Cr App R (S) 908 166
Laskey v.UK(1997) 24 EHRR 39 94
Lester (1975) 63 Cr App R 144 344
Lockyer v.Andrade (2003) 123 S Ct 1166 209
Looseley [2001] 1 WLR 2060 162
Lovett [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 319 167
Lowe (1977) 66 Cr App R 122 172
Lychniak and Pyrah [2002] UKHL 47 116
M (1995) 16 Cr App R (S) 770 129
McCourt v.UK(1993) 15 EHRR CD 110 357–8
McDonnell [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 117 156
McGhee and Hughes [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 399 138
McGlade (1990) 12 Cr App R (S) 105 343
McGowan [1975] Crim LR 111 304
McGrath and Casey (1983) 5 Cr App R (S) 460 345
McGuire (1992) 13 Cr App R (S) 332 300

McInerney and Keating [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 240 55, 134, 159, 161, 199, 208,
250, 270, 283, 324
Main and Johnston [1997] 2 Cr App R (S) 63 125, 126
March [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 448 167
Marcus [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 258 156
Marklew and Lambert [1999] 1 Cr App R (S) 6 211
Markwick (1953) 37 Cr App R 125 96, 231, 304
Martin (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 424 300
Masagh (1990) 12 Cr App R (S) 568 101, 157
Mashaollahi [2001] 1 Cr App R (S) 330 125
Mee [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 434 338
Milberry et al. [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 142 33, 128, 129, 191
Milford Haven Port Authority [2000] 2 Cr App R (S) 423 310
Millard (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 445 336
Mills [1998] 1 Cr App R (S) 128 368
Mills [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 229 40, 269, 270, 272, 286–7, 288
Mills [2005] 1 Cr App R (S) 180 158
Mistretta v.US(1989) 109 S Ct 647 56, 66
Mitchell [1997] 1 Cr App R (S) 90 375
Myers [1980] Crim LR 191 231
Table of cases xxiii
Nafei [2005] Crim LR 409 373
Nall-Cain (Lord Brocket) [1998] 2 Cr App R (S) 145 177
Napier v.Scottish Executive [2004] UKHRR 881 93, 260, 291
Nazir [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 671 158
Nelson [2002] 1 Cr App R (S) 565 35, 213
Newman, Newman and Myers (1979) 1 Cr App R (S) 252 340
Newsome and Browne [1970] 2 QB 711 62
Newton (1982) 4 Cr App R (S) 388 345
Noble [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 312 123

Nottingham Crown Court, ex parte DPP [1996] 1 Cr App R (S) 283 344
Nunn (1983) 5 Cr App R (S) 203 310
Nunn [1996] 2 Cr App R (S) 136 356
O [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 130 171
O’Brien [2002] 2 Cr App R (S) 560 156–7
O’Brien [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 390 37
Offen (No. 2) [2001] 2 Cr App R (S) 44 53, 93, 118
Okee and West [1998] 2 Cr App R (S) 199 166
O’Keefe [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 404 338
Oldham JJ, ex parte Crawley [1996] 1 All ER 464 311
Oliver, Hartrey and Baldwin [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 64 33, 159, 274
Oliver [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 64 140
Ollerenshaw [1999] 1 Cr App R (S) 65 40
Olliver and Olliver (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 10 177, 229, 231, 300, 309, 310
Omari [2004] 2 Cr App R (S) 514 100
O’Rourke (1994) 15 Cr App R (S) 650 201
Pace [2005] 1 Cr App R (S) 370 39
Page et al. unreported 8 December 2004 39, 198, 274
Palling v.Corfield (1970) 123 CLR 52 52
Panayioutou (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 535 37, 300
Pardue [2004] 1 Cr App R (S) 105 241
Parkinson [2003] 2 Cr App R (S) 160 131
Patel and Varshney [1994] Crim LR 772 124
Pearce [2005] 1 Cr App R (S) 364 208
Pearson (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 391 175
Perks [2001] 1 Cr App R (S) 66 356
Pettipher (1989) 11 Cr App R (S) 321 124
Pieck [1980] ECR 2171 148
Pilgrim (1983) 5 Cr App R (S) 140 157
Pittendrigh [1996] 1 Cr App R (S) 65 120

Pope [2003] 1 Cr App R (S) 299 35