Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:25 Page 1
ENVIRONMENTAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA
FOURTH EDITION
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:27 Page 3
E
NVIRONMENTAL
E
NCYCLOPEDIA
FOURTH EDITION
VOLUME
1
A–K
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
VOLUME
2
L–Z
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:28 Page 4
Environmental Encyclopedia Fourth Edition
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Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:29 Page 5
CONTENTS
List of Entries vii
Advisory Board
xxi
Contributors
xxiii
Introduction
xxvii
Entries
Volume 1: A-K 1
Volume 2: L-Z 963
Historical Chronology
1821
Environmental Legislation in the

United States
1849
Organizations
1854
General Index
1867
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
v
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Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 7
LIST OF ENTRIES
A
Abbey, Edward
Absorption
Acclimation
Accounting for nature
Accuracy
Acetone
Acid and base
Acid deposition
Acid mine drainage
Acid rain
Acidification
Activated sludge
Acute effects
Adams, Ansel
Adaptation
Adaptive management
Adirondack Mountai ns
Adsorption

Aeration
Aerobic
Aerobic sludge digestion
Aerobic/anaerobic systems
Aerosol
Aflatoxin
African Wildlife Foundation
Africanized bees
Agency for Toxic Substances and
Disease Registry
Agent Orange
Agglomeration
Agricultural chemicals
Agricultural environmental
management
Agricultural pollution
Agricultural Research Service
Agricultural revolution
Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation Service
Agroecology
Agroforestry
AIDS
Air and Waste Management
Association
Air pollution
Air pollution control
Air pollution index
Air quality
Air quality control region

Air quality criteria
Air-pollutant transport
Airshed
Alar
Alaska Highway
Alaska National Interest Lands
Conservation Act (1980)
Albedo
Algal bloom
Algicide
Allelopathy
Allergen
Alligator, American
Alpha particle
Alternative energy sources
Aluminum
Amazon basin
Ambient air
Amenity value
American box turtle
American Cetacean Society
American Committee for
International Conservation
American Farml and Trust
American Forests
American Indian Environmental
Office
American Oceans Campaign
American Wildlands
Ames test

Amoco Cadiz
Amory, Cleveland
Anaerobic
Anaerobic digestion
Anemia
Animal cancer tests
Animal Legal Defense Fund
Animal rights
Animal waste
Animal Welfare Institute
Antarctic Treaty (1961)
Antarctica
Anthrax
Anthropogenic
Antibiotic resistance
Aquaculture
Aquarium trade
Aquatic chemistry
Aquatic microbiology
Aquatic toxicology
Aquatic weed control
Aquifer
Aquifer depletion
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
vii
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Aquifer restoration
Arable land
Aral Sea

Arco, Idaho
Arctic Council
Arctic haze
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
Arid
Arid landscaping
Army Corps of Engineers
Arrhenius, Svante A.
Arsenic
Arsenic-treated lumber
Artesian well
Asbestos
Asbestos removal
Asbestosis
Asian longhorn beetle
Asian (Pacific) shore crab
Asiatic black bear
Assimilative capacity
Assisi, St. Francis of
Asthma
Aswan High Dam
Atmosphere
Atmospheric (air) pollutants
Atmospheric deposition
Atmospheric inversion
Atomic Energy Commission
Atrazine
Attainment area
Audubon, John James
Australia

Autecology
Automobile
Automobile emissions
Autotroph
Avalanche
B
Bacillus thuringiensis
Background radiation
Bacon, Sir Francis
Baghouse
Balance of nature
Bald eagle
Barrier island
Basel Convention
Bass, Rick
Bats
Battery recycling
Bay of Fundy
Beach renourishment
Beattie, Mollie
Bellwether species
Below Regulatory Concern
Bennet, Hugh Hammond
Benzene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Berry, Wendell E.
Best available control technology
Best management practices
Best practical technology
Beta particle

Beyond Pesticides
Bhopal, India
Bikini atoll
Bioaccumulation
Bioaerosols
Bioassay
Bioassessment
Biochemical oxygen demand
Biodegradable
Biodiversity
Biofilms
Biofiltration
Biofouling
Biogeochemistry
Biogeography
Biohydrometallurgy
Bioindicator
Biological community
Biological fertility
Biological methylat ion
Biological Resources Discipline
Bioluminescence
Biomagnification
Biomass
Biomass fuel
Biome
Biophilia
Bioregionalism
Bioremediation
Biosequence

Biosphere
Biosphere reserve
Biotechnology
Bioterrorism
Biotic community
Biotoxins
Bioventing
BirdLife International
Birth defects
Bison
Black lung disease
Black-footed ferret
Blackout/brownout
Blow-out
Blue-baby syndrome
Bookchin, Murray
Borlaug, Norman E.
Boston Harbor clean up
Botanical garden
Boulding, Kenneth E.
Boundary Waters Canoe Area
Brackish
Bromine
Bronchitis
Brower, David R.
Browner, Carol
Brown, Lester R.
Brown pelican
Brown tree snake
Brundtland, Gro Harlem

Btu
Budyko, Mikhail I.
Buffer
Bulk density
Burden of proof
Bureau of Land Management
Bureau of Oceans and
International Environmental
and Scientific Affairs (OES)
Bureau of Reclamation
Buried soil
Burroughs, John
Bush meat/market
List of Entries
viii
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 9
Bycatch
Bycatch reduction devices
C
Cadmium
Cairo Conference
Calcareous soil
Caldicott, Helen M
Caldwell, Lynton K.
California condor
Callicott, John Baird
Canadian Forest Service
Canadian Parks Service

Canadian Wildlife Service
Cancer
Captive propagation and
reintroduction
Carbon
Carbon cycle
Carbon dioxide
Carbon emissions trading
Carbon monoxide
Carbon offsets (CO
2
-emission
offsets)
Carbon tax
Carcinogen
Carrying capacity
Carson, Rachel L.
Cash crop
Catalytic converter
Catskill Watershed Protection
Plan
Center for Environmental
Philosophy
Center for Respect of Life and
Environment
Center for Rural Affairs
Center for Science in the Public
Interest
Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention

Cesium 137
Chain reaction
Chaparral
Chelate
Chelyabinsk, Russia
Chemical bond
Chemical oxygen demand
Chemical spills
Chemicals
Chemosynthesis
Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station
Chesapeake Bay
Child survival revolution
Chimpanzees
Chipko Andolan movement
Chlordane
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Chlorination
Chlorine
Chlorine monoxide
Chlorofluorocarbons
Cholera
Cholinesterase inhibitor
Chromatography
Chronic effects
Cigarette smoke
Citizen science
Citizens for a Better Environment
Clay minerals
Clay-hard pan

Clean Air Act (1963, 1970, 1990)
Clean coal technology
Clean Water Act (1972, 1977,
1987)
Clear-cutting
Clements, Frederic E.
Climate
Climate change controversies
Climax (ecological)
Clod
Cloning
Cloud chemistry
Club of Rome
C:N ratio
Coal
Coal bed methane
Coal gasification
Coal washing
Coase theorem
Coastal Society, The
Coastal Zone Management Act
(1972)
Co-composting
Coevolution
Cogeneration
Cold fusion
Coliform bacteria
Colorado River
Combined sewer ov erflows
Combustion

Cometabolism
Commensalism
Commercial fish ing
Commission for Environmental
Cooperation
Commoner, Barry
Communicable diseases
Community ecology
Compaction
Competition
Competitive exclusion
Composting
Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA)
Computer disposal
Condensation nuclei
Congo River and basin
Coniferous forest
Conservation
Conservation biology
Conservation easements
Conservation International
Conservation Reserve Program
Conservation tillage
Consultative Group on
International Agricultural
Research
Container deposit legislation
Contaminated soil

Contour plowing
Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (1975)
Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution
(1979)
List of Entries
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
ix
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 10
Convention on the Conservation
of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals (1979)
Convention on the Law of the Sea
(1982)
Convention on the Prevention of
Marine Pollution by Dumping
of Waste and Other Matter
(1972)
Convention on Wetlands of
International Importance (1971)
Conventional pollutant
The Copenhagen Accord
Copper
Coral bleaching
Coral reef
Corporate Average Fuel
Economy Standards

Corrosion and material
degradation
Cost-benefit analysis
Costle, Douglas M.
Council on Environmental
Quality
Cousteau, Jacques-Yves
Cousteau Society, The
Coyote
Criteria pollutant
Critical habitat
Crocodiles
Cross-Florida Barge Canal
Crutzen, Paul J.
Cryptosporidium
Cubata
˜
o, Brazil
Cultural eutrophication
Cuyahoga River
Cyclone collector
D
Dam removal
Dams (environmental effects)
Darling, Jay Norwood "Ding"
Darwin, Charles Robert
Dead zones
Debt for nature swap
Deciduous forest
Decline spiral

Decomposers
Decomposition
Deep ecology
Deep-well injection
Defenders of Wildlife
Defoliation
Deforestation
Delaney Clause
Demographic transition
Denitrification
Deoxyribose nucleic acid
Desalinization
Desert
Desert tortoise
Desertification
Detergents
Detoxification
Detritivores
Detritus
Dew point
Diazinon
Dichlorodiphenyl-
trichloroethane
Dieback
Die-off
Dillard, Annie
Dioxin
Discharge
Disposable diapers
Dissolved oxygen

Dissolved solids
Dodo
Dolphins
Dominance
Dose response
Double-crested cormorants
Douglas, Marjory Stoneman
Drainage
Dredging
Drift nets
Drinking-water supply
Drip irrigation
Drought
Dry alkali injection
Dry cask storage
Dry cleaning
Dry deposition
Dryland farming
Dubos, Rene
´
Jules
Ducks Unlimited
Ducktown, Tennessee
Dunes and dune erosion
Dust bowl
E
Earth Charter
Earth Day
Earth First!
Earth Island Institute

Earth Liberation Front
Earth Pledge Foundation
Earthquake
Earthwatch
Eastern European Pollution
Ebola
Ecocide
Ecofeminism
Ecojustice
Ecological consumers
Ecological economics
Ecological integrity
Ecological productivity
Ecological risk assessment
Ecological Society of America
Ecology
EcoNet
Economic growth and the
environment
Ecosophy
Ecosystem
Ecosystem health
Ecosystem management
Ecoterrorism
Ecotone
Ecotourism
Ecotoxicology
Ecotype
Edaphic
Edaphology

Eelgrass
Effluent
List of Entries
x
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 11
Effluent tax
E
h
Ehrlich, Paul R.
El Nin
˜
o
Electric utilities
Electromagnetic field
Electron acceptor and donor
Electrostatic precipitation
Elemental analysis
Elephants
Elton, Charles S.
Emergency Planning and
Community Right-to-Know Act
(1986)
Emergent diseases (human)
Emergent ecological diseases
Emission
Emission standards
Emphysema
Endangered species

Endangered Species Act (1973)
Endemic species
Endocrine disruptors
Energy and the environment
Energy conservation
Energy efficiency
Energy flow
Energy path, hard vs. soft
Energy policy
Energy recovery
Energy Reorganization Act
(1973)
Energy taxes
Enteric bacteria
Environment
Environment Canada
Environmental accounting
Environmental aesthe tics
Environmental auditing
Environmental chemistry
Environmental Defe nse
Environmental degradation
Environmental design
Environmental dispute resolution
Environmental eco nomics
Environmental education
Environmental enforcement
Environmental engineering
Environmental estro gens
Environmental ethic s

Environmental healt h
Environmental histo ry
Environmental impact assessment
Environmental Impact Statement
Environmental law
Environmental Law Institute
Environmental liability
Environmental literacy and
ecocriticism
Environmental monitoring
Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program
Environmental policy
Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)
Environmental racism
Environmental refuge es
Environmental resourc es
Environmental science
Environmental stress
Environmental Working Group
Environmentalism
Environmentally preferable
purchasing
Environmentally responsible
investing
Enzyme
Ephemeral species
Epidemiology
Erodible

Erosion
Escherichia coli
Essential fish habitat
Estuary
Ethanol
Ethnobotany
Eurasian milfoil
European Union
Eutectic
Evapotranspiration
Everglades
Evolution
Exclusive economic zone
Exotic species
Experimental Lake s Area
Exponential growth
Externality
Extinction
Exxon Valdez
F
Family planning
Famine
Fauna
Fecundity
Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide
and Rodenticide Act (1972)
Federal Land Policy and
Management Act (1976)

Federal Power Com mission
Feedlot runoff
Feedlots
Fertilizer
Fibrosis
Field capacity
Filters
Filtration
Fire ants
First world
Fish and Wildlife Service
Fish kills
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Floatable debris
Flooding
Floodplain
Flora
Florida panther
Flotation
Flu pandemic
Flue gas
Flue-gas scrubbing
Fluidized bed combustion
Fluoridation
Fly ash
Flyway
Food additives
Food and Drug Administration
List of Entries
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4

xi
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 12
Food chain/web
Food irradiation
Food policy
Food waste
Food-borne diseases
Foot and mouth disease
Forbes, Stephen A.
Forel, Francois-Alphonse
Foreman, Dave
Forest and Rangeland
Renewable Resources Planning
Act (1974)
Forest decline
Forest management
Forest Service
Fossey, Dian
Fossil fuels
Fossil water
Four Corners
Fox hunting
Free riders
Freon
Fresh water ecology
Friends of the Earth
Frogs
Frontier economy
Frost heaving

Fuel cells
Fuel switching
Fugitive emissions
Fumigation
Fund for Animals
Fungi
Fungicide
Furans
Future generations
G
Gaia hypothesis
Gala
´
pagos Islands
Galdikas, Birute M.
Game animal
Game preserves
Gamma ray
Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand
Garbage
Garbage Project
Garbology
Gasohol
Gasoline
Gasoline tax
Gastropods
Gene bank
Gene pool
Genetic engineering
Genetic resistance

(or genetic tolerance)
Genetically engineered
organism
Genetically modified
organism
Geodegradable
Geographic information systems
Geological survey
Georges Bank
Geosphere
Geothermal energy
Giant panda
Giardia
Gibbons
Gibbs, Lois M.
Gill nets
Glaciation
Gleason, Henry A.
Glen Canyon Dam
Global Environment Monitoring
System
Global Releaf
Goiter
Golf courses
Good wood
Goodall, Jane
Gore Jr., Albert
Gorillas
Grand Staircase-Escalante
National Monument

Grasslands
Grazing on public lands
Great Barrier Reef
Great Lakes
Great Lakes Water Quality
Agreement (1978)
Great Smoky Mountains
Green advertising and
marketing
Green belt/greenway
Green Cross
Green packaging
Green plans
Green politics
Green products
Green Seal
Green taxes
Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gases
Greenpeace
Greens
Greenwashing
Grinevald, Jacques
Grizzly bear
Groundwater
Groundwater monitoring
Groundwater pollution
Growth curve
Growth limiting factors
Guano

Guinea worm eradication
Gulf oil spill
Gulf War syndrome
Gullied land
Gypsy moth
H
Haagen-Smit, Arie Jan
Habitat
Habitat conservation plans
Habitat fragmentation
Haeckel, Ernst H.
Half-life
Halons
Hanford Nuclear Reservation
Hardin, Garrett
Hawaiian Islands
Hayes, Denis A.
Hazard ranking system
Hazardous material
xii
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
List of Entries
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 13
Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act (1975)
Hazardous Substances Act (1960)
Hazardous waste
Hazardous waste site remediation
Haze

Heat (stress) index
Heavy metals and heavy metal
poisoning
Heavy metals precipi tation
Heilbroner, Robert L.
Hells Canyon
Henderson, Hazel
Herbicide
Heritage Conservation and
Recreation Service
Hetch Hetchy Reservoir
Heterotroph
High-grading
(mining, forestry)
High-level radioactive waste
High-solids reactor
Hiroshima, Japan
Holistic approach
Homeostasis
Homestead Act (1862)
Horizon
Horseshoe crabs
Household waste
Hubbard Brook Experimental
Forest
Hudson River
Human ecology
Humane Society of the
United States
Humanism

Human-powered vehicles
Humus
Hunting and trapping
Hurricane
Hutchinson, George E.
Hybrid vehicles
Hydrocarbons
Hydrochlorofluoro carbons
Hydrogen
Hydrogeology
Hydrologic cycle
Hydrology
Hydroponics
Hydrothermal vents
I
Ice age
Ice age refugia
Impervious material
Improvement cutting
Inbreeding
Incineration
Indicator organism
Indigenous peoples
Indonesian forest fires
Indoor air quality
Industrial waste treatment
Infiltration
INFOTERRA (U.N.
Environment Program)
Injection well

Inoculate
Integrated pest management
Intergenerational justice
Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPC C)
Internalizing costs
International Atomic Energy
Agency
International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling (1946)
International Environmental
Legislation and Treaties
International Geosph ere-
Biosphere Programme (U.N.
Environmental Program me)
International Institute for
Sustainable Development
International Joint Commission
International Primate Protection
League
International Register of
Potentially Toxic Chemicals
(U.N. Environment
Programme)
International Society for
Environmental Ethics
International trade in toxic waste
International Voluntary
Standards
International Wildlife Coalition

Intrinsic value
Introduced specie s
Iodine 131
Ion
Ion exchange
Ionizing radiation
Iron minerals
Irrigation
Island biogeography
ISO 14000: International
Environmental Management
Standards
Isotope
Itai-itai disease
IUCN—The World Conservation
Union
Ivory-billed woodpecker
Izaak Walton League
J
Jackson, Wes
James Bay hydropowe r project
Japanese logging
K
Kapirowitz Plateau
Kennedy Jr., Robert
Kepone
Kesterson Nation al Wildlife
Refuge
Ketones
Keystone species

Kirtland’s warbler
Krakatoa
Krill
Krutch, Joseph W ood
Kudzu
Kwashiorkor
Kyoto Protocol/Treaty
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
xiii
List of Entries
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 14
L
La Nin
˜
a
La Paz Agreement
Lagoon
Lake Baikal
Lake Erie
Lake Tahoe
Lake Washington
Land ethic
Land Institute
Land reform
Land stewardship
Land Stewardship Project
Land trusts
Land use
Landfill

Landscape ecology
Landslide
Land-use control
Latency
Lawn treatment
LD
50
Leaching
Lead
Lead management
Lead shot
Leafy spurge
League of Conservation Voters
Leakey, Louis S.
Leakey, Mary D.
Leakey, Richard E.
Leaking underground stora ge
tank
Leopold, Aldo
Less developed countries
Leukemia
Lichens
Life cycle assessment
Limits to Growth (1972) and
Beyond the Limits (1992)
Limnology
Lindeman, Raymond L.
Liquefied natural gas
Liquid metal fast breeder reactor
Lithology

Littoral zone
Loading
Logging
Logistic growth
Lomborg, Bjørn
Lopez, Barry H.
Los Angeles Basin
Love Canal
Lovelock, Sir James E.
Lovins, Amory B.
Lowest Achi evable Emission Rate
Low-head hydropower
Low-level radioactive waste
Lyell, Sir Charles
Lysimeter
M
MacArthur, Robert Helmer
Mad cow disease
Madagascar
Magnetic separation
Malaria
Male contraceptives
Malthus, Thomas Robert
Manatees
Mangrove swamp
Marasmus
Mariculture
Marine ecology
Marine Mammals Pr otection Act
(1972)

Marine pollution
Marine protected areas
Marine Protection, Research and
Sanctuaries Act (1972)
Marine provinces
Marsh, George Perkins
Marshall, Robert
Mass burn
Mass extinction
Mass spectrometry
Mass transit
Material Safety Data Sheets
Materials balance approach
Maximum permissible
concentration
McHarg, Ian Lennox
McKibben, Bill Ernest
Measurement and sensi ng
Medical waste
Mediterranean fruit fly
Mediterranean Sea
Megawatt (MW)
Mendes, Chico
Mercury
Metabolism
Metals, as contaminants
Meteorology
Methane
Methane digester
Methanol

Methyl tertiary butyl ether
Methylation
Methylmercury seed dressings
Mexico City, Mexico
Microbes (microorganisms)
Microbial pathogens
Microclimate
Migration
Milankovitch weather cycles
Minamata disease
Mine spoil waste
Mineral Leasing Act (1920)
Mining, undersea
Mirex
Mission to Planet Earth (NASA)
Mixing zones
Modeling (computer
applications)
Molina, Mario Jose
´
Monarch butterfly
Monkey-wrenching
Mono Lake
Monoculture
Monsoon
Montreal Protocol on Substances
That Deplete the Ozone Layer
(1987)
More developed country
Mortality

Mount Pinatubo
Mount St. Helens
Muir, John
xiv
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
List of Entries
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 15
Multiple chemical sensitivity
Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act
(1960)
Municipal solid waste
Municipal solid waste composting
Mutagen
Mutation
Mutualism
Mycorrhiza
Mycotoxin
N
Nader, Ralph
Naess, Arne
Nagasaki, Japan
National Academ y of Sciences
National Ambient Air Quality
Standard
National Audubon Society
National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants
National Environme ntal Policy
Act (1969)

National Estuary Program
National forest
National Forest Management Act
(1976)
National Institute for the
Environment
National Institute for
Occupational Safet y and Health
National Institute for Urban
Wildlife
National Institute of
Environmental Heal th Sciences
(Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina)
National lakeshore
National Mining and Minerals
Act (1970)
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA)
National park
National Park Service
National Parks and Conservation
Association
National pollutant discharge
elimination system
National Priorities List
National Recycling Coalition
National Research Council
National seashore

National Wildlife Federation
National wildlife refuge
Native landscaping
Natural gas
Natural resources
Natural Resources Defense
Council
Nature
The Nature Conservancy
Nearing, Scott
Nekton
Neoplasm
Neotropical migrants
Neritic zone
Neurotoxin
Neutron
Nevada Test Site
New Madrid, Missouri
New Source Perform ance
Standard
New York Bight
Niche
Nickel
Nitrates and nitrites
Nitrification
Nitrogen
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen oxides
Nitrogen waste

Nitrous oxide
Noise pollution
Nonattainment area
Noncriteria pollutant
No degradable pollutant
Nongame wildlife
Nongovernmental organization
Nonpoint source
Nonrenewable resources
Non-timber forest products
No-observable-adverse-effect-
level
North American Association for
Environmental Education
North American Free Trade
Agreement
Northern spotted owl
Not In My Backyard
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear power
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Nuclear test ban
Nuclear weapons
Nuclear winter
Nucleic acid
Nutrient
O
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Occupational Safety and Health

Act (1970)
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
Ocean Conservatory, The
Ocean dumping
Ocean Dumping Ban Act (1988)
Ocean farming
Ocean outfalls
Ocean thermal energy conversion
Octane rating
Ode
´
n, Svante
Odor control
Odum, Dr. Eugene P.
Office of Civilian Radioactive
Waste Management
Office of Management and
Budget
Office of Surface Mining
Off-road vehicles
Ogallala Aquifer
Oil drilling
Oil embargo
Oil shale
Oil spills
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
xv
List of Entries
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.

Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 16
Old-growth forest
Oligotrophic
Olmsted Sr., Frederick L.
Open marsh water management
Open system
Opportunistic organism
Orangutan
Order of magnitude
Organic gardening and farming
Organic waste
Organization of Petroleu m
Exporting Countries
Organochloride
Organophosphate
Orr, David W.
Osborn, Henry F.
Osmosis
Our Common Future
(Brundtland Report)
Overburden
Overfishing
Overgrazing
Overhunting
Oxidation reduction reactions
Oxidizing agent
Ozonation
Ozone
Ozone layer depletion
P

Paleoecology/paleolimnology
Parasites
Pareto optimality (Maxi mum
social welfare)
Parrots and parakeets
Particulate
Partnership for Pollution
Prevention
Parts per billion
Parts per million
Parts per trillion
Passenger pigeon
Passive solar design
Passmore, John A.
Pathogen
Patrick, Ruth
Peat soils
Peatlands
Pedology
Pelagic zone
Pentachlorophenol
People for the Ethical Treatment
of Animals
Peptides
Percolation
Peregrine falcon
Perfluorooctane sulfonate
Permaculture
Permafrost
Permanent retrievable storage

Permeable
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
Persian Gulf War
Persistent compound
Persistent organic pollutants
Pest
Pesticide
Pesticide Action Network
Pesticide residue
Pet trade
Peterson, Roger T.
Petrochemical
Petroleum
Pfiesteria
pH
Phosphates
Phosphorus
Phosphorus removal
Photochemical react ion
Photochemical smog
Photodegradable plastic
Photoperiod
Photosynthesis
Photovoltaic cell
Phthalates
Phytoplankton
Phytoremediation
Phytotoxicity
Pinchot, Gifford
Placer mining

Plague
Plankton
Plant pathology
Plasma
Plastics
Plate tectonics
Plow pan
Plume
Plutonium
Poaching
Point source
Poisoning
Pollination
Pollution
Pollution control
Pollution credits
Pollution Prevention Act (1990)
Polunin, Nicholas
Polybrominated biphenyls
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Polycyclic aromatic hyd rocarbons
Polycyclic organic compounds
Polystyrene
Polyvinyl chloride
Population biology
Population growth
Porter, Eliot Furness
Positional goods
Postmodernism and environmen-
tal ethics

Powell, John Wesley
Power plants
Prairie
Prairie dogs
Precision
Precycling
Predator control
Predator-prey interactions
Prescribed burning
Price-Anderson Act (1957)
Primary pollutant
Primary productivity (gross and
net)
Primary standards
Prince William Sound
Priority pollutant
Probability
Propellants
xvi
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
List of Entries
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 17
Public Health Service
Public interest grou p
Public land
Public Lands Counci l
Public trust
Puget Sound/Georgia Basin
International

Task Force
Pulp and paper mills
Purple loosestrife
Q
Quaamen, David
R
Rabbits in Australia
Rachel Carson Council
Radiation exposure
Radiation sickness
Radioactive decay
Radioactive fallout
Radioactive pollution
Radioactive waste
Radioactive waste management
Radioactivity
Radiocarbon dating
Radioisotope
Radiological Emergency
Response Team
Radionuclides
Radiotracer
Radon
Rails-to-Trails Conservancy
Rain forest
Rain shadow
Rainforest Action Network
Rangelands
Raprenox (nitrogen scrubbing)
Rare species

Recharge zone
Reclamation
Record of Decision
Recreation
Recyclables
Recycling
Red tide
Redwoods
Refuse-derived fuels
Regan, Tom
[Thomas Howard]
Regulatory review
Rehabilitation
Reilly, William K.
Relict species
Religion and the environment
Remediation
Renewable energy
Renewable Natural Resources
Foundation
Reserve Mining Corporation
Reservoir
Residence time
Resilience
Resistance (inertia)
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act
Resource recovery
Resources for the Future
Respiration

Respiratory diseases
Restoration ecology
Retention time
Reuse
Rhinoceroses
Ribonucleic acid
Richards, Ellen H.
Right-to-know
Riparian Land
Riparian rights
Risk analysis
Risk assessment (public health)
River basins
River blindness
River dolphins
Rocky Flats nuclear plant
Rocky Mountain Arsenal
Rocky Mountain Institute
Rodale Institute
Rolston, Holmes
Ronsard, Pierre
Roosevelt, Theodore
Roszak, Theodore
Rowland, Frank Sherwood
Ruckleshaus, William Doyle
Runoff
S
Safe Drinking Water
Act (1974)
Sagebrush Rebellion

Sahel
St. Lawrence Seawa y
Sale, Kirkpatrick
Saline soil
Salinity
Salinization
Salinization of soils
Salmon
Salt, Henry S.
Salt (road)
Salt water intrusion
Sand dune ecology
Sanitary sewer overflows
Sanitation
Santa Barbara oil spill
Saprophyte
Savanna
Savannah River site
Save the Whales
Save-the-Redwoods League
Scarcity
Scavenger
Schistosomiasis
Schumacher, Ernst E.
Schweitzer, Albert
Scientific Committee on
Problems of the Environment
Scotch broom
Scrubbers
Sea level change

Sea otter
Sea Shepherd Conservation
Society
Sea turtles
Seabed disposal
Seabrook Nuclear Reactor
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
xvii
List of Entries
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 18
Seals and sea lions
Sears, Paul B.
Seattle, Noah
Secchi disk
Second World
Secondary recovery technique
Secondary standards
Sediment
Sedimentation
Seed bank
Seepage
Selection cutting
Septic tank
Serengeti National Park
Seveso, Italy
Sewage treatment
Shade-grown coffee and cacao
Shadow pricing
Shanty towns

Sharks
Shepard, Paul H.
Shifting cultivation
Shoreline armoring
Sick Building Syndrome
Sierra Club
Silt
Siltation
Silver Bay
Singer, Peter A.
Sinkholes
Site index
Skidding
Slash
Slash and burn agriculture
Sludge
Sludge treatment and disposal
Slurry
Small quantity generator
Smart growth
Smelter
Smith, Robert A.
Smog
Smoke
Snail darter
Snow leopard
Snyder, Gary S.
Social ecology
Socially responsible investing
Society for Conservation

Biology
Society of American Foresters
Sociobiology
Soil
Soil compaction
Soil conservation
Soil Conservation Service
Soil consistency
Soil eluviation
Soil illuviation
Soil liner
Soil loss tolerance
Soil organic matter
Soil profile
Soil survey
Soil texture
Solar constant cycle
Solar detoxification
Solar energy
Solar Energy Research,
Development and
Demonstration Act (1974)
Solid waste
Solid waste incineration
Solid waste landfilling
Solid waste recycling
and recovery
Solid waste volume reduction
Solidification of hazardous
materials

Sonic boom
Sorption
Source separation
South
Spaceship Earth
Spawning aggregations
Special use permit
Species
Speciesism
Spoil
Stability
Stack emissions
Stakeholder analysis
Statistics
Steady-state economy
Stegner, Wallace
Stochastic change
Storage and transport of
hazardous material
Storm King Mountain
Storm runoff
Storm sewer
Strategic Lawsuits Against
Public Participation
Strategic minerals
Stratification
Stratosphere
Stream channelization
Stringfellow Acid Pits
Strip-farming

Strip mining
Strontium 90
Student Environmental Action
Coalition
Styrene
Submerged aquatic vegeta tion
Subsidence
Subsoil
Succession
Sudbury, Ontario
Sulfate ptopics
Sulfur cycle
Sulfur dioxide
Superconductivity
Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization
Act (1986)
Surface mining
Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation
Act (1977)
Survivorship
Suspended solid
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable architecture
Sustainable biosphere
Sustainable development
Sustainable forestry
Swimming advisories
Swordfish

Symbiosis
xviii
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
List of Entries
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 19
Synergism
Synthetic fuels
Systemic
T
Taiga
Tailings
Tailings pond
Takings
Tall stacks
Talloires Declaration
Tansley, Arthur G.
Tar sands
Target species
Taylor Grazing Act (1934)
Tellico Dam
Temperate rain forest
Tennessee Valley Authority
Teratogen
Terracing
Territorial sea
Territoriality
Tetrachloroethylene
Tetraethyl lead
Thermal plume

Thermal pollution
Thermal stratification
(water)
Thermocline
Thermodynamics, Laws of
Thermoplastics
Thermosetting polymers
Third World
Third World pollution
Thomas, Lee M.
Thoreau, Henry David
Three Gorges Dam
Three Mile Island Nuclear
Reactor
Threshold dose
Tidal power
Tigers
Tilth
Timberline
Times Beach
Tipping fee
Tobacco
Toilets
Tolerance level
Toluene
Topography
Topsoil
Tornado and cyclone
Torrey Canyon
Toxaphene

Toxic sludge spill in Hungary
Toxic substance
Toxic Substances Control Act
(1976)
Toxics Release Inven tory
(EPA)
Toxics use reduction legislation
Toxins
Trace element/micr onutrient
Trade in pollution permits
Tragedy of the commons
Trail Smelter arbitration
Train, Russell E.
Trans-Alaska pipeline
Trans-Amazonian highway
Transboundary pollution
Transfer station
Transmission lines
Transpiration
Transportation
Tributyl tin
Trihalomethanes
Trophic level
Tropical rain forest
Tropopause
Troposphere
Tsunamis
Tundra
Turbidity
Turnover time

Turtle excluder device
U
Ultraviolet radiation
Uncertainty in scienc e, statistics
Union of Concerned Scientists
United Nations Conf erence
on the Human Environment
(1972)
United Nations Division for
Sustainable
Development
United Nations Earth Summit
(1992)
United Nations Environment
Programme
Upwellings
Uranium
Urban contamination
Urban design and planning
Urban ecology
Urban heat island
Urban runoff
Urban sprawl
U.S. Department of
Agriculture
U.S. Department of Energy
U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services
U.S. Department of
the Interior

U.S. Public Interest Research
Group
Used oil recycling
Utilitarianism
V
Vadose zone
Valdez Principles
Vapor recovery system
Vascular plant
Vector (mosquito) control
Vegan
Vegetarianism
Victims’ compensation
Vinyl chloride
Virus
Visibility
Vogt, William
Volatile organic compound
Volcano
Vollenweider, Richard A.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
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List of Entries
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:30 Page 20
W
War, environmental effects of
Waste exchange
Waste Isolation Pilot Plan
Waste management

Waste reduction
Waste stream
Wastewater
Water allocation
Water conservation
Water diversion projects
Water Environment Federation
Water hyacinth
Water pollution
Water quality
Water quality standards
Water reclamation
Water resources
Water rights
Water table
Water table draw-down
Water treatment
Waterkeeper Alliance
Waterlogging
Watershed
Watershed management
Watt, James Gaius
Wave power
Weather modification
Weathering
Wells
Werbach, Adam
Wet scrubber
Wetlands
Whale strandings

Whales
Whaling
White, Gilbert
White Jr., Lynn Townsend
Whooping crane
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968)
Wild river
Wilderness
Wilderness Act (1964)
Wilderness Society
Wilderness Study Area
Wildfire
Wildlife
Wildlife management
Wildlife refuge
Wildlife rehabilitation
Wilson, Edward O.
Wind energy
Windscale (Sellafield) plutonium
reactor
Winter range
Wise use movement
Wolman, Abel
Wolves
Woodwell, George M.
World Bank
World Conservation Strategy
World Resources Institute
World Trade Organization
(WTO)

World Wildlife Fund
Wurster, Charles F.
X
X-ray
Xenobiotic
Xylene
Y
Yard waste
Yellowstone National Park
Yokkaichi asthma
Yosemite National Park
Yucca Mountain
Z
Zebra mussel
Zebras
Zero discharge
Zero population growth
Zero risk
Zone of saturation
Zoo
Zooplankton
xx
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
List of Entries
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:37 Page 21
ADVISORY BOARD
Over several editions of the Environmental Encyclopedia, a number of experts in journalism, library science, law,
environmental policy, and environmental science communities have provided invaluable assistance in the development
of topics and content areas related to their expertise. We would like to express our sincere appreciation to:

Dean A brahamson : Hubert H.
Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs,
University of Minnesota, Minneapo-
lis, Minnesota
Joseph Patterson Hyder, J.D.:
Independent scholar. Managing
partner for the Hyder Law Group
in Jacksonville, Florida
Alexander I. Ioffe, Ph.D.: Senior
Scientist, Russian Academy of
Sciences. Moscow, Russia
Maria Jankowska: Library,
University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho
Adrienne Wilmoth Lerner, J.D.:
Independent scholar. Partner, Hyder
Law Group in Jacksonville, Florida
Terry Link: Library, Michigan
State University, East Lansing,
Michigan
Holmes Rolston: Department
of Philosophy, Colorado State Uni-
versity, Fort Collins, Colorado
Frederick W. Stoss: Science
and Engineering Library, State
University of New York—Buffalo,
Buffalo, New York
Hubert J. Thompson: Conrad
Sulzer Regional Library, Chicago,
Illinois
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4

xxi
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:31 Page 23
CONTRIBUTORS
Susan Aldridge: Independent scholar and science
writer, London, United Kingdom
Margaret Alic, Ph.D.: Freelance writer, Eastsound,
Washi ng ton
William G. Ambrose Jr., Ph.D.: Department of
Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North
Carolina
James L. Anderson, Ph.D.: Soil Science Department,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Monica Anderson: Freelance Writer, Hoffman
Estates, Illinois
Bill Asenjo M.S., CRC: Science writer, Iowa City,
Iowa
William Arthur Atkins, M.S.: Independ ent scholar
and science writer, Normal, Illinois
Terence Ball, Ph.D.: Department of Political Science,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Brian R. Barthel, Ph.D.: Department of Health,
Leisure and Sports, The University of West Florida,
Pensacola, Florida
Stuart Batterman, Ph.D.: School of Public Health,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michi gan
Eugene C. Beckham, Ph.D.: Department of Math-
ematics and Science, Northwood Institute, Midland,
Michigan
Milovan S. Beljin, Ph.D.: Department of Civil

Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
Julie Berwald, Ph.D.: Geologist and writer, Austin,
Texas
Heather Bienvenue: Freelance writer, Fremont,
California
Lawrence Biskowski, Ph.D.: Department of Politi-
cal Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
E. K. Black: University of Alberta, Edmonton,
Alberta, Canada
Paul R. Bloom , Ph.D.: Soil Science Department,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Gregory D. Boardman, Ph.D.: Department of
Civil Engineeri ng, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
MarciL.Bortman,Ph.D.:TheNatureConserv-
ancy,Huntington,NewYork
Pat Bounds: Freelance writer
Peter Brimblecombe, Ph.D.: School of Environmen-
tal Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United
Kingdom
Kenneth N. Brooks, Ph.D.: College of Natural
Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Peggy Browning: Freelance writer
Marie Bundy: Freelance Writer, Port Republic,
Maryland
Ted T. Cable, Ph.D.: Department of Horticulture,
Forestry and Recreation Resources, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, Kansas
John Cairns Jr., Ph.D.: University Center for
Environmental and Hazardous Materials Studies,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia
Liane Clorfene Casten: Freelance journalist, Evan-
ston, Illinois
Ann S. Causey: Prescott College, Prescott, Arizona
Ann N. Clarke: Eckenfelder Inc., Nashville, Tennessee
David Clarke: Freelance journalist, Bethesda,
Maryland
Sally Cole-Misch: Freelance writer, Bloornfleld
Hills, Michigan
Edward Cooney: Pa tterson A ssociates, Inc., Chicago,
Illinois
Terence H. Cooper, Ph.D.: Soil Science Depart-
ment, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
xxiii
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:31 Page 24
Gloria Cooksey, C.N.E.: Freelance writer, Sacra-
mento, California
Mark Crawford: Freelance writer, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada
Neil Cumberlidge, Ph.D.: Department of Biology,
Northern Michigan Unive rsity, Marquette, Michigan
John Cunningham: Freelance writer, St. Paul,
Minnesota
Mary Ann Cunningham, Ph.D.: Department of Geol-
ogy and Geography, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New
York
William P. Cunningham, Ph.D.: Department of

Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Minnesota,
St. Paul, Minnesota
Richard K. Dagger, Ph .D.: Department of Political
Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
Tish Davidson, A.M.: Freelance writer, Fremont,
California
Bryan Davies, J.D.: Independent scholar and
writer, Ontario, Canada.
Stephanie Dionne: Freelance journalist, Ann Arbor,
Michigan
Frank M. D’Itri, Ph.D.: Institute of Water Research,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
Teresa C. Donkin: Freelance writer, Minneapolis,
Minnesota
David A. Duffus, Ph.D.: Department of Geogra-
phy, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia,
Canada
Douglas Dupler, M.A.: Freelance writer, Boulder,
Colorado
Cathy M. Falk: Freelance writer, Portland, Oregon
L. Fleming Fallon M.D., Dr.P.H.: Associate pro-
fessor, Public Health, Bowling Green State University,
Bowling Green, Ohio
George M. Fell: Freelance writer, Inver Grove
Heights, Minnesota
Gordon R. Finch, Ph.D.: Department of Civil Engi-
neering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada
Paula Anne Ford-Martin, MA.: Wordcrafts, War-
wick, Rhode Island

Janie Franz: Freelance writer, Grand Forks, North
Dakota
Bill Freedman, Ph.D.: S chool for Resource and
Environmental Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax,
Nova Scotia, Canada
Rebecca J. Frey, Ph.D.: Writer, editor, and edito-
rial Consultant, New Haven, Connecticut
Cynthia Fridgen, Ph.D.: Department of Resource
Development , Michi gan State University, East Lansing,
Michigan
Andrea Gacki: Freelance writer, Bay City, Michigan
Brian Geraghty: Ford Motor Company, Dearborn,
Michigan
Robert B. Giorgis, Jr.: Air Resources Board, Sac-
ramento, California
Debra Glidden: Freelance American Indian inves-
tigative journalist, Syracuse, New York
Eville Gorham, Ph.D.: Department of Ecology,
Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota,
St. Paul, Minnesota
Darrin Gunkel: Freelance writer, Seattle, Washington
Malcolm T. Hepworth, Ph.D.: Department of Civil
and Mineral Engineering, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Katherine Hauswirth: Freelance writer, Roanoke,
Virginia
Richard A. Jeryan: Ford Motor Company, Dear-
born, Michigan
Barbara Kann inen, Ph.D.: Hubert H. Humphrey
Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota,

Minneapolis, Minnesota
Christopher McGro1y Klyza, Ph.D.: Department
of Political Science, Middlebury College, Middlebu ry,
Vermont
John Korstad, Ph.D.: Department of Natural Sci-
ence, Oral Roberts University, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Monique LaBerge, Ph.D.: Research Associate, De-
partment of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Royce Lambert, Ph.D.: Soil Science Department,
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obi-
spo, California
William E. Larson, Ph.D.: Soil Science Department,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Ellen E. Link: Freelance w riter, Laingsburg, Michigan
Sarah Lloyd: Freelance writer, Cambria, Wisconsin
James P. Lodge Jr.: Consultant in Atmospheric
Chemistry, Boulder, Colorado
William S. Lynn, Ph.D.: Department of Geogra-
phy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Alair MacLean: Environmental editor, OMB W atch,
Washington, DC
Contributors
xxiv
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:31 Page 25
Alfred A. Marcus, Ph.D. : Carlson School of
Management, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota

Gregory McCann: Freelance writer, Freeland,
Michigan
Cathryn McCue: Freelance journalist, Roanoke,
Virginia
Mary McNulty: Freelance writer, Illinois
Jennifer L. McGrath: Freelance writer, South
Bend, Indiana
Robert G. McKinnell, Ph.D.: Department of
Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Minnesota,
St. Paul, Minnesota
Nathan H. Meleen, Ph.D.: Engineering and Physics
Department, Oral Roberts University, Tulsa, Oklahoma
Liz Meszaros: Freelance writer, Lakewood, Ohio
Muthena Naseri: Moorpark College, Moorpark,
California
B. R. Niede rlehner, Ph.D. : University Center for
Environmental and Hazardous Materials Studies, Vir-
ginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacks-
burg, Virginia
David E. Newton: Instructional Horizons, Inc.,
San Francisco, California
Robert D. Norris: Eekenfelder Inc., Nashville,
Tennessee
Teresa G. Norris, R.N.: Medical writer, Ute Park,
New Mexico
Karen Oberhauser, Ph.D.: University of Minnesota,
St. Paul, Minnesota
Stephanie Ocko: Freelance journalist, Brookline,
Massachusetts
Kristin Palm: Freelance writer, Royal Oak, Michigan

James W. Patterson: Patterson Associates, Inc.,
Chicago, Illinois
Paul Phifer, Ph.D.: Freelance writer, Portland,
Oregon
Jeffrey L. Pintenich: Eckenfelder Inc., Nashville,
Tennessee
Douglas C. Pratt, Ph.D.: University of Minnesota:
Department of Plant Biology, Scandia Minnesota
Jeremy Pratt: Institute for Human Ecology, Santa
Rosa, California
Klaus Puettman: University of Minnesota, St.
Paul, Minnesota
Stephen Randtke: Department of Civil Engineer-
ing, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas
Lewis G. Regenstein: Author and environmental
writer, Atlanta, Georgia
Linda Rehkopf: Freelance writer, Marietta, Georgia
Paul E. Renaud, Ph.D.: Department of Biology,
East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina
Marike Ri jsberman: Freelance writer, Chicago,
Illinois
L. Carol Ritchie: Environmental journalist, Arling-
ton, Virginia
Linda M. Ross: Freelance w riter, Ferndale, Michigan
Joan Schonbeck: Medical writer, Nursing, Mas-
sachusetts Department of Mental Health, Marlbor-
ough, Massachusetts
Mark W. Seeley: Department of Soil Science,
University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Kim Sharp, M.Ln.: Freelance writer, Richmond,

Texas
James H. Shaw, Ph.D.: Department of Zoology,
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma
Laurel Sheppard: Freelance writer, Columbus,
Ohio
Judith Sims, M.S.:
Utah Water Research Labora-
tory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah
Genevieve Slomski, Ph.D.: Freelance writer, New
Britain, Connecticut
Douglas Smith: Freelance Writer, Dorchester,
Massachusetts
Lawrence H. Smith, Ph.D.: Department of Agronomy
and P lant Genetics, U niversi ty of Minnesota, St. Paul,
Minnesota
Jane E. Spear: Freelance writer, Canton, Ohio
Carol Steinfeld: Freelance writer, Concord,
Massachusetts
Paulette L. Stenzel, Ph.D.: Eli Broad College of
Business, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
Michigan
Les Stone: Freelance writer, Ann Arbor, Michigan
Max Strieb: Freelance writer, Huntington, New
York
Amy Strumolo: Freelance writer, Beverly Hills,
Michigan
Edward Sucoff, Ph.D.: Department of Forestry
Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Contributors
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4

xxv
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:31 Page 26
Deborah L. Swackhammet, Ph.D.: School of Pub-
lic Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota
Liz Swain: Freelance writer, San Diego, California
Ronald D. Taskey, Ph.D.: Soil Science Depart-
ment, California Polytechnic State University, San
Luis Obispo, California
Mary Jane Tenerelli, M.S.: Freelance writer, East
Northport, New York
Usha Vedagiri: IT Corporation, Edison, New Jersey
Donald A. Villeneuve,, Ph.D.: Ventura College,
Ventura, California
Nikola Vrtis: Freelance writer, Kentwood, Michigan
Eugene R. Wahl: Freelance writer, Coon Rapids,
Minnesota
Terry Watkins: Indianapolis, Indiana
Ken R. Wells: Freelance writer, Laguna Hills,
California
Roderick T. White Jr.: Freelance writer, Atlan ta,
Georgia
T. Anderson White, Ph.D.: University of Minne-
sota, St. Paul, Minnesota
Kevin Wolf: Freelance writer, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Angela Woodward: Freelance writer, Madison,
Wisconsin
Gerald L. Young, Ph.D.: Program in Environmen-
tal Science and Regional Planning, Washington State

University, Pullman, Washington
Melanie Barton Zolta
´
n, M.S.: Independent scholar
and science writer, Amherst, Massachusetts
xxvi
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
Contributors
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Environmental Encyclopedia 4, Volume 1 - Finals/ 3/11/2011 21:32 Page 27
INTRODUCTION
The third edition of the Environmental E ncyclope-
dia, edited by William P. Cunningham carried important
thoughts still applicable to this, the fourth edition.
‘‘As you might imagine, choosing what to include
and what to exclude from this collection has been
challenging. Almost everything has some environmen-
tal significance, so our task has been to select a limited
number of topics we think are of greatest importance
in understanding our environment and our relation to
it. Undoubtedly, we have neglected some topics that
interest you and included some you may consider
irrelevant, but we hope that overall you will find this
new edition helpful and worthwhile.’’
‘ ‘The word environment is derived from the French
environ, which me ans t o ‘‘encircle’’ or ‘‘surround.’’
Thus, our environment can be defined as the physical,
chemical, and biological world that envelops us, as well
as the complex of social and cultural conditions affect-
ing an individual or community. This broad definition

includes both the natural world and the ‘‘built’’ or
technological environment, as well as the cultural and
social contexts that shape human lives. You will see that
we have used this comprehensive meaning in choosing
the articles and definitions contained in this volume.’’
‘‘Among some central concerns of environmental
science are:

How did the natural world on which we depend come
to be as it is, and how does it work?

What have we done and what are we now doing to
our environment—both for good and ill?

What can we do to ensure a sustainable future for
ourselves, future generations, and the other species
of organisms on which—although we may not be
aware of it—our lives depend?’’
‘‘‘The articles in this volume attempt to answer
those questions from a variety of different perspectives.
Historically, environmentalism is root ed in natural his-
tory, a search for beauty and meaning in nature. Modern
environmental science expands this concern, drawing on
almost every area of human knowledge including social
sciences, humanities, and the physical sciences. Its stron-
gest roots, however, are in ecology, the study of inter-
relationships among and between organisms and their
physical or nonliving environment. A particula r str ength
of the ecological approach is that it studies systems
holistically; that is, it looks at interconnections that

make the whole greater than the mere sum of its parts.
You will find many of t hose interconnections reflected in
this book. Although the entries are presented individu-
ally so that you can find topics easily , y ou will notic e that
many refer to other topics that, in turn, can lead you on
through the book if you have time to follow their trail.
This series of linkages reflects the multilevel associations
in environmental issues.’ ’
The fourth edition of the Environmental Encyclope-
dia, updated by a team of scientists and scholars,
attempts to preserve the structure and r elationships
established i n the third e d ition with updated infor mation
and r esources that articulate concerns about global
warming, climate change andother environmental perils
that have become overwhelmingly clearer since the pub-
lication of the third edition in 2002.
Accordingly, to this solid foundation and structure,
the fourth edition of the Envi ronmental E ncyclopedia
updates, reinforces, and clarifies essential environmental
science concepts, with an emphasis on topics increas-
ingly the subject o f ec onomic and geopolitical news.
For example, this revision incorporates, highlights, and
further updates some of the most fundamental environ-
mental data and analysis contained in the most recent
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Chang e (IPCC)
report.
In addition to clarification of existing material,
the fourth edition contains information and data
distilled from more than 800 peer reviewed journal
reports published since the last edition. Along with

hundreds of new photos, approximately 5,000 new or
updated references are included.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 4
xxvii
(c) 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.