123 Participle +
noun
NOTE
Try
\()
aVOid
wming sentences
like
this one.
(N
OT
Wt'tlking-ctkmg·
the:
strt!et;-u
[tre-c:rrgine
; dced past.)
ThIs 'hanging participle' mnkes it sOllnd
~s
If
the fire engine was walking, whIch doesn't
make sense. Thf' huhject
of
the main clause
sho
uld
be
the people who
we
re walkmg.
Walking along lhe stree
t,

we saw
a.
fire engine
race
past.
Here the subject
of
the main clause
is
the
same
as the underslOod subject
of
the participle
But this
doe
sn't always have to be so. The
mam
(hing
is
that there should
be
a clear
connection between the
twO
clauses.
Knowing
huw
little
lime

she had, this
new
delay infuriated her.
(= Because she knew how little lime she hud,
she
was mfuriated
by
this new delay )
When
adjusling
lilt?
machine, lhe
eie(.
'triclly
should
be swllchcd of!.
(= When you adjust the machine, you should switch off the electricity )
123
Participle + noun
,.
. A
We
can use an active
or
passive participle before a noun.
The leam was welcomed by cheering crowds.
(= crowds who were cheering)
Boiling water turns
to
steam.

(= water which
is
boiling)
The experiment
must
be done under controlled conditions.
(= conditions which are controlled)
The terrorists used a stolen
car.
(= a car which
hact
been stolen)
In these examples the participle functions rather like
an
adjective.
Co
mpare
clieering
crowdsl
noisy
crowds,
boiling
waleri
hot
water. See also Nute
a.
It
is often
neater
to use a participle +

noun
than
to lise a clause such as
crowds who were cheering. But we
cannot
always usc a participle before a
noun. For example, we can talk
about
a barking dog but NOT -tttt-eati1tg-tiftg.
Sometimes we
use
a participle with a prefix.
a rewritten version underfed children
an overflowing drain
a misspent
youth an unsmiling face
a disconnected teLephone
TIP
Use only those
partkiple
+
noun
combinations
that
you have already
heard
or
seen, like cheering crowds
or
conrroLled conditions, There are no

rules
about
which verbs
can
be
used
in
this way
and
which cannot.
NOTE
a
Some
words with the form of a participle arc regarded as adwctives, c.g. 1Illereslmg,
confused.
:>
187
b For
be +
pa
ssive participle expressing a state or an
acti
G
n
~
>
87E.
TI,e terrorists· car was stolen
~
il

didn
't belong to
them
.
The
c.ar
was stolen
tU){}
days before the incident.
163
Participles
B There are a few past participles
that
we can use
befor
e a
no
un
.
The road
is
blocked by a fallen
tree.
.
(:::
a tree which
has
fallen)
The leaders
of

the failed uprising attempted
to
flee the counlly.
(:::
t
he
uprising
which
had
failed)
Co
mpar
e
the
pa
st a
nd
pa
ssive participles.
Past:
The escaped prisoner was soon
re
ca
ptur
ed.
(:::the
prisoner
w
ho
had

esca
ped
)
Passi
ve:
The
injured
prisoner was treated
in
hospital.
(:::
the
prisoner
w
ho
had been
injured
)
C
Somet
imes
we
put
an
adverb
before the participle.
fanatically cheering crowds
(:::
crowds
who

are
cheer
ing fanatically)
properly trained
slaff
(:::
staff
who
have b
ee
n
properly
trained)
We
can
also form a
compou
nd
by combining
another
el
ement
with
the
participle.
a fast-growing economy
(:::
an
economy
whi

ch
is
growing
fast - verb + adverbial)
earth-moving equipment
(:::
eq
uipment
which
moves
earth
- verb +
ob
ject)
a nice-looking.jacket
(:::
a jacket which
looks
nice
- verb +
comp
l
eme
nt
)
an
oil-fired central heating system
(= a central heating
system
which is fired

by
oil -
verb
+
by
-
agent)
a newly-m
.a
rried couple
(= a
couple
who
have
recently
married
- ye
rb
+ adverbial)
We
do
not
lise l
onger
phrases
hefore the participle.
(NOT ttlfitfen-in peneiHttfies)
(NOT
(ft
-

£he-tfJ~ti
.
btJiees
ehu.
iltg amvds)
Bu
t we
can
sa
y notes written in pencil. > 274
D We can
add
-ed to
some
nouns.
a walled city (= a city with a
wa
ll
)
This ha
ppens
mostly with co
mpounds.
a dark-haired
mall
(= a
man
with dark
hair
)

a short-sleeved shirt (= a shirt with short sleeves)
124 Verb +
participle
A The
pattern
They
stood
watching
1
64
We
can use a participle afler
go,
lie,
run, sit,
ahd
stand
to refer to t
wo
actions
happ
ening al
the
same rime.
125 Verb + object + participle
Everyone stood
watching
the aircraft.
The girl
la

y
trapp
ed
under the wreckage [vr three days.
People
rail screaming for help.
We
can
put
an adverbial between the verb
and
partici
pl
e.
Evel}'one stood there watching the aircraJi.
Karen
sat
at
th
e
tabl
e reading a newspaper.
B Go swimming, do the washing,
etc
We
u
se
go + active participle to talk
about
activities

that
we go
out
to do,
especia
ll
y leisure
act
ivities.
I'd love to
go
swimming
.
We
we
nt
riding
yesterday.
Simon
has gone fishing.
We
use do the + gerund for some types
of
work, especia
ll
y routine housewo
rk
.
I usually
do

the
washing
at
the
weekend.
Someone comes in
lO do
the
cle
aning
for
us.
We
can use do some .

, do a
bit
ofta lot
of
.

, etc for both leisure
and
work
activities.
I once
did
some
s
urfing

in California.
James does a lot
of
cooking, doesn't he?
Luckily
J
hav
en't got
much
ironing
to do.
We
can also use do + gerund.
T can't do sewing. I always
make
a mess
of
il
.
We
did
trampolining
evelY day on holiday.
NOTE
a Wl1h verbs of movement we can also usc the pattern go for a swmliride, etc
I'd
loue
10
go for a swim.
b The expression go

clubbing
is
formed
fr
om the noun club.
Ti
,
ey
spend all Illeir spare lime goillg cl
ubbing
.

-
J
J
~5
Verb + object + participle
A The
pattern
I
saw
you
doing it
We
ca
n use an object + acti
ve
participle after certain verbs.
J
saw

two
men c
utting
down
a
tr
ee.
We
heard
you
arguing
with
your
brother.
Can you smell
something
burning?
We
can use verbs
of
perceptJOn, including: feel, hear, listen
to,
notice, observe,
see,
sme
ll,
walch.
J 65
Participles
B I

saw
you doing it or I
saw
you do it?
After a verb
of
perception there is al
so
a pattern with
an
object + infinitive
without
to
.
I
saw
two
men c
ut
dOWIl
a tree.
We
didn't notice anyone leave the building.
An
infinitive without
to
means
th
e c
omple

te action.
I
saw
lhem
cuI the tree
down
11
didn
't take long.
(l
saw
them
. They cut it dovlm.)
The
participle means that the
action
goes on over a period
of
time.
I
saw
th
em
c
Ulling
the
(re
e
dow"
as J wenl past.

{l
saw th
em
. They were (
utlin
g it
down
.)
When
we talk
abou
t a short action, we
can
li
se eit
he
r form.
They watched
'h
e horse
jump
lj
ll"'ping
the fence.
We
didn't notice anyone leavelleauing the building.
C I saw it being done
and
I
saw

it
done
The patte
rn
s
in
B can be used with a participle clau
se
in the passive.
Cnmpl
elC
action
Active:
I
saw
them c
ut
down
the tree.
We
heard someone fire a shot.
Passive: I
saw
the tree
cut
down.
We
heard a shoe fired.
Action over a peri
od

J
saw
th
em
cutting
dowtl the
cree
.
We heard people firillg s
hOl
s.
I saw the tree being cut down.
We heard shots
being
fired
o The
pattern
I
kept
you
waiting
1
66
We
l:an use
an
object + participle
af
ter
certain verbs. The participle means

action over a period of time.
Tlte
docIOr
is
very slow. He ofJen keeps his
patients
waili"g
.
They
c
aught
a
stude
nt
che
at
ing
in
tile exam.
We
soon got
th
e
ma
ch
in
e
working
again.
The

ve
rbs we can use include: catch, jiud, get, have, keep. leave, need,
sla
rt
.
In
the fo
ll
owing
pattern
have can m
ea
n '
cause
so
meon
e
to
be
doing
something' .
The trainer
had
the players
runn
ing
ro
und
the
field.

Not
ha/le
can
also
mean
'refuse
to
accep
t'.
I won't h
ave
peo/lle treating this
house
like a hotel.
(;:
I won't a
ll
ow people to t
reat
thi
s house like a
hOl
e
l.
)
NO
TE
For olh
cr
pallerns w

uh
luwe and get, e.g. He /lad
til
e players
nm
roulld
tile
fietd
and
We
soo
,t
gOI
tile nUlchlflc to
work
again. > 94A.
126
Conjunct
i
on
+
partic
i
ple
E The
pattern
I
spent
some time waiting
We

can
use
an
active participle after spend, waste, or l
os
e
and
an
expression
of
time
or
mone
y.
I've
spent
half
an
hour
looking Jar that letter.
The c
ompany
wasted millions
of
pounds
investing in
out-oJ-date technology.
F The
pattern
You were seen doing

it
·
We
can
s
ometimes
use
the passive before
an
active participle.
The men were seen
cutti"g
down a tree.
A
student was
caugh
t cheating in the exam.
We
c
an
usc
some
of
the
verbs in
pattern
A (
hear
, observe, se
e)

and
some
of
the
verbs in
pattern
C (catch, find, k
ee
p, leave).
G The
pattern
I
want
it
done
We
can
use
an
object +
pa
ssive participle (or passive to-infinitive) after
certain verbs.
Polly
wanted
the
carpet (to be) cleaned.
I'd like this
map
(to

be) photocopied, please.
We prefer the lights (to
be)
turned
down
.
We c
an
use these verbs:
(w
ould)
hale
, (w
ould
) lik
e,
(would) love, need,
(would)
pref
e
r,
want
.
In informal English
we
can
al
so
use
an

ing-form.
Polly
wanted
the
carpet
cleaning.
I'd like this
map
photocopying, please.
We
can
also
use
an
object + passive participle with
find
,
gee,
hav
e,
and
lea
v
e.
The police
found
a body
buried
in the garden.
We

decided to
have
the
tree
cut
down
.
For have/get
something
dane, > 94B.
126
Conjunction
+
participle
We
can
use
an
active
or
passive participle after
some
conjun
ctions.
You should wear gloves when usin.g
an
electric saw.
(::::

when you use

an
electric saw
.)
Once opened, lhe conlents should be consumed
within
thr
ee
da
ys.
A
lthough
expecting the
new
s, J was greatly shocked by il.
If
not
cla
im
ed
within one
month
, the prize will be
M,b
nated
to
charity.
The
pattern
is used mainly in writing
and

is
common
in
instructions.
We
can
use
the
se conjunctions: although, if, once, unless,
Ulllil
, when,
whenever, while.
]6
7
Participles
.
,.
Conjunction
+
paniciplc
is a
similar
pilu
crn
,
to
prcpo
si
linn
+

gerum!.
>
11
4A
Despite expecting {he news, J was Krearly s
ho
cked
by
it.
I always
haVl
~
a
shower
after
working
ow
in the gym.
127 Participle clauses
of
time
A We
c::Jn
use a clause
of
time
wi
th
an
ac

tive
participle.
Mike
hurt
hi
s
hand
playing
voll
ey
b(,Il.
We were rushing
about
serving
lea to everyone.
The
two
actions
take
pla
ce
at
the
same
time.
Sometimes
the
paniciple
clause
can

come
first.
Coming
up
the
steps, I (ell
over
.
This is
use
d
mor
e in writing
than
in
speech.
It is
more
m
~
lItrill
to
sn.y
1 fell
over
(when J was)
coming
up
lhe
step

s.
B
Vtle
can
also u
sc
a participle
clause
to
!<Ilk
about
t\vo short,
connec
t
ed
actions
which
happen
one
after Ihe
other.
Taking
a
note
from
her
purse
, s
Ite
slammed

il
down
on
the
CO
llnt
er.
Opening
the
file.
the
detective lOok
nut
a
newspaper
cll ttin
g.
This
panern
is rmher literary. It is m
orc
n
eutra
l to
li
se
and.
She cook a nOIC
from
her

purse
and
slarnmed it
down
on
the
l "ou,11ler.
With two short actions,
we
mention
rhe
actions
in
the
order
th
ey
happ
en.
The
part ic
ip
le
lIsually
comes
in
the
first
clau
se,

hut
it
can
some
tim
es
co
me
in the
second.
S
he
took
a
note
from
her
purs
e.
slamming
it
down
on
the
counter.
C When a
short
action comes before
another
c

onne
ct
ed
one, we
can
use
Cl
perfect participle for the first il<:lion,
Having sealed the e
nv
elope/Sealing the
eJ
weiopc
. the
lawy
er locked
il
in
the
safe.
But
when
th
e first
action
is
not
short,
we
mOst

us
e lhe
perf
ec
t.
Having
re
ad
fhe documen/. lhe
fawy
er
locked
il
in
the
safe.
Having
dug
a hole in
the
road.
the
men
jusl
drol
Je
away.
(NO r
fJigg-ing-(;t-hole-i-H
the-roau,

-t.ht:
ml
Ii jt¥.f
f dffit
le
·
aUtfty
)
The
clau
se
with
the
perfect
paniciple
can
co
me
after
the
main
clause.
They
Ie/i. the re.Hell/rrw!.
having
spent
rw~
hour
s oper lunch.
D A p,lssive

participle
can
be
~imp
l
e
.
comilluo.us
or
perfect.
168
The
old
woman
walked slowl)'
to
lhe
flfl
,
assi r;;ted
hy
the
porter.
I don'l
want
CO
SUly
(Jill
here' be
ing

bitten
hy
ins
ec
ts.
A
hol
e
'''wing
bee"
dug
, tile
men
just
tiisuppeareti.
128 Part
ici
ple clauses of reason
E
Compare
these ways of
say
ing that one
thing
happ
ened after another.
1 The
mall
left
{h

e building
alld
(/hen
) hailed a taxi.
2 After
he
IWlll
eft
the building,
the
man
hail
ed a l
ax
i.
3
After
leaving
the buildin
g,
the
man
hail
ed a laxi.
4
After
having
l
eft
the

building,
th
e
man
hail
ed
a taxi.
5
Huving
left the building, the
man
hailed a la
:d.
6 Leavi
ng
the
building
, the
man
hailed
a
taxi
.
.
Senrence
{l} is the sim
pl
est way
of
ex

pre
ss
ing
the idea. (2l
make
s
more
explicit the
order
in which the two
thing
s h
appe
ned.
(3)
is
shorter
and
n
ea
ter
and
a lillie formal.
(4)
is Jess usu
al
be
cause
ther
e is no

Il
eed
to
usc
both
after
and
ha
v
ing
to
expre
ss
the
same
idea. (5)
and
(6) are
both
rather formal. (6)
means
that
the two
actions
h
appened
dose
together
.
128

Participle clauses
of
reason
A A participle clause can express r
cason.
Crowds were waiting
at
Ih
e airport,
hoping
to see
Madonna
arrive.
(;:

becau
se they
hop
ed/they
we
re
hoping
to
see
Madonna
arrive.)
Being
rather
busy
, I

co
mpl
etely forgot the
lim
e.
(;:
Because I
was
ra
ther
busy,

)
Not
feeling
very well,
Emma
decid
ed
to lie down.
Having
lost
my
passport, I
ha
ue
lO
appl
y for a
fl

ew
one.
The
restaurant
having
closed, there was
nOl
v
lr
ere
10
e
at
.
This type
of
participle clause r:an he ra
ther
formal.
NOTE
Fo
r other ways
of
expressing reason,
:>
239
.
B We can use
with
before a participle

clause
wi(h a subj
ec
t.
With
the
res
tauraut
having
closed,
the
re was nowhere to eat.
(=
Because
the res
taurant
had
closed,

)
With
prices
going
up
so
fast
, there's
no
poim
i

l1
trying
co
S
(l.ve
mon
ey.
I can't concentrate
with
you
talking
alltJre
lim
e.
This
pattern
is neutral in style. Wilh
th
e restau.rant hailing closed,

.
is
less
fomlaJ than
Th
e res
taurant
ha
ving closed,


C A passive participle in n clause of rca
so
n
can
be
simple,
co
nti
nu
ous,
or perf
ec
t.
He
di
ed
at
thirty, s
tru
ck
down
by a rare disease.
In
summer
t
he
ducks ha/le it easy, always
being
fed
by

tourists.
Having
been
renovat
ed
at
great expense, lI,e
bu
ilding looks magnificent.
169
Paniciples
129
Other
participle
clauses
A Result
An active participle after
the
main
clause
ca
n exprcss rcsult, whether this
happcns by accident or deliberate
ly
.
They
pumped
waste into the
ri
ve

r.
killing
all
tI

fish.
(=

a
nd
killed
all
the
fi
sh
.)
rile film star
made
a
dramali
c entrance,
attracting
everyone's attelltio,
(=

. and attracted everyone's attcmioll.)
B Conditions
A part
ic
iple clau

se
can express a condition.
We
plan
to
ea
t outside,
weather
permitting
.
(=

if
the weather permits it.)
Taken daily, vitamin pills c
an
impro
ve
yo
ur
hea
lth
.
(=
If
they are taken daily

)
C
With

in a participle clause
These examples ha
ve
with
and
a subject at the b
eg
inning
of
the clause.
There were scen
es
of
celebrat
io
n,
with
people
dancing
in
the
streets.
It
was
a large room,
with
bookshelves covering
most
of
the

wa
lls.
A typical use of this
patt
ern is to add details
to
a description. Co
mpar
e
th
use of with to
ex
pr
ess reas
on
. > 128B
o Following, considering. etc
There are some participle forms which function
rather
lik
e
<I
preposition.
Following the reception, there
will be a
talk
by
the
prof
essor.

(= After the reception

)
Considering/Given
ch
e awful we
ath
er,
our Open Day
was
a
great
succes
(:;:.
In
view of
the
awful weather,

)
No action has
been
tak
en regarding your
comp
lai
nt
.
(=


about
your
comp
laint.)
Judging
by
all the nois
e.
it
must
hal
'"
been a
pr
e
tty
good part
y.
(=
All
the noi
se
makes
me
think that

)
E Idioms
170
We

use a parriciple
cl
ause
in
some idiomatic
phr
ases which
comment
on
statement or relate
it
to a previolls onc.
Stri
ctly
speak
ing,
yo
u can'c come in here
unl
ess you
're
a club me
mb
er.
Thin
gs
don't look good.
Bue
hal
/

ing
said
that
, I'm still optimisitic.
I'm
gO
irlg
on
a computer co
ur
se.
- Talking
a/
co
mput
er
s,
ours are all dow
All
being well,
we
sho
uld
get the
re
about six.
130
Introduction
Nouns
~

30
Introduction
A This news report
contains
a
number
of
nouns.
lO
Y
RIDERS
TREAT
ED TO
SCARE
T
ACT
I
CS
Ten
teenagers
on
a yo
uth
project
owing
stum
bled from their
minibus
lU
be

confronted
by
the sight
of
a horrific car accident. Dehris from the head-on
crash was strewn across the road.
In
jured. people, covered in blood
and
trapped inside the wrecked vehicles, were pleading for help fTom the
polic
e,
fire-fighters,
and
ambulance
crews struggling
to
free them.
But t.he 'crash' was
an
elaborate
stunt
set
up
by the S
outh
Wales Police
and
YOlllh workers to give potential joyr
id

ers
an
idea
of
the
co
nsequenc
es
of
fheir
act
ions. The
'c
rash' was so realistic
that
several
of
che
yo
ung
sters, aged
between
14
and
17, broke down in tears. Yesterday the shock tactic was being
hailed
an
unqualified success after several
of
the youngsters swore never to

travel in stolen vehicles again.
(
from
Tile 'f'lnles)
Nouns have
many
differenL
ki
n
ds
of
meaning.
There
are
conc
r
ete
nouns
like
minibus
and
blood
and
abstract
nouns
like consequences
and
success.
Nouns
can also refer

to
events
like accident
and
to
roles like worker. A
noun
can also
be
a
name
li
ke
WaLe
s.
Some
nouns
can
have a plural en
di
ng, e.g. youngsters, tears.
:>
131
The only
other
ending
that
we
put
on

a
noun
is
the
po
ssessive form
with's
or
s',
e.g. the ambulance crew's task. > 132
NOTE
We
can
SO
metimes add -ed to a noun, e.g. a left-
handed
go/fell/b
.">
1
230
B A
noun
phrase
is so
metimes
a
noun
on
it
s own.

Debris was str
ewn
acro
ss
the road.
Th
e injured people were covered
in
blood.
But
mor
e often a n
oun
comb
ines with
other
words to form a
noun
phrase
.
an
idea the road their actions several
of
the ynungsl.
ers
A
noun
phrase
ca
n

be
the
subject, ohject,
or
comp
l
ement
of
a selllence,
or
it
can c
ome
after a preposition.
The st
unt
was a great success.
It
gave lhem
an
idea
of
the consequences
of
their actions.
1
71
Nou
ns
C These kinds

ur
word
can
l:umb
i
ll
l!
with
ct
HUlin
(0 rorm a
noun
phra
se.
Articles:
Possessive
s:
Demonstratives:
Quantifier
s:
Adjec
ti
ves:
Other
nouns
:
n road acciden l
hi
s
fir

st reaetiull
this project
a
lot
oJ
accide11ls
a
horrific
accident
a
ca
r
accident
the
polic
e>
150
their
milli/JUs > 164
those
s
ho
ck lac
li
cs > J
65
sel1eral
0/
the
y

oun
gs
ter
s>
166- J 73
a clever, very e
laborat
e s
tunt
>
181
a
youth
project o
uting
>
141
1\ phrase or clause
can
come
after the
noun
and
modify il.
Prepositional phrase:
To-
infin
itive clause:
Participle claus
e:

Relative claus
e:
Debris
from
th
e
head
-on
crash
wa
s s
trewn
across the road. > 143
It
was a
plan
to
shock
tile teenagers. > 107 A
It
was a stunt set
up
by the police. > 274
The people
who
were
pleading/or
he
lp
weren't reall)

injured.
> 266
131
The
plural
of
nouns
A Form
A countahle
noun
has hoth a singular
and
a plural form To form the plural
we usua lly
add
-5
or
-e
s.
Singular
Plural
lIU
1 road tlie roads
(j
minibu
s (wo
minibuses
There
are
some

spelling rules for
the
pluraJ with -
sl-
es.
We
add es after a sibilant
sound
, e.g. dish
-+
dishes. > 276A
Y c
hange
s
to
ie,
e.
g.
baby

bab
ies. >
280A
for
the
pronunciation
of
the sles ending, > 27
6B.
But some noullS

ha
ve
an
irregular plura
l,
e.g. rna",

melt. > 281-284
B The plural
of
compound
nouns
172
To form the plur
al
of
a
compollnd
noun
or.
of
lWO
noun
s togethe
r,
we add
-s
l -
e
.

~
to
the enu.
ul
l'
eke
nds
mOlOrways fire-fighters c
ar
crashes shock tactics
We do
th
e s
am
e with a
nOlln
formed from a
ve
rb + adverb.
Ilife-
ups
breakdowns
handouls
When a prepositional
phrase
comes
after the
noun
, \\le
~dd

-s /-
es
io
the
fir
st noun.
Doctors
oJ
Philos
ophy
mothers-in
-law
132
The possessive form
And
vvhen
an
adverb
comes
after a
noun
in ·er, we
add
·s
/·es to
the
nOUll.
passer
s-by
runners-up

In expressions
Wi
lh
man
/
woman
+
noun,
both
parts
c
hange
to
the plural.
women
jockeys
(women
who are jockeys)
C The
use
of
plural nouns
We
use
the singular
to
talk
about
one
thing

.
The
door
was closed.
We
waited
for
a
rl
hour
.
There
was
only
one
passenger. l'I
Je
lost
my
job
.
We
use
the plural to talk abo
ut
more
than
one.
The doors were all closed.
We

waited
for
one
and
a quarter hours.
TIJere
were hundreds Of passengers. I've got
one
or two jobs
to
do.
For a negative
or
unkno
wn
quantity,
we
normally use
the
plural.
There were
no
passengers
on
the
bus
.
H
ave
you

read
any
good
books
lately?
We
can
use
the
singul
ar
after no
meaning
'n
ot
a single
No
passenger(s)
came
to
the driver's help
when
he was attacked.
(=
Not a single
pa
sse
ng
er


)
NOTE
We
can also use an uncounlable noun wuh
110
or
(illy:>
172
l1zere's
no
milk
m
the
frtdge.
Halle
yull
got any money?
k
~;
132
The possessive form
~t;
I"
A Form
This
is
how we form the possessive.
Singular
noun
+

's
my
friend's
name
S-plu
ra
l + '
my
friends'
name
s
Other plurals +
's
the children
's
names
We
add
an
apostrop
he + s to a singular
noun
ifriend's);
we
add
an
apos
t
rophe
to a plural

noun
endi
ng
in -s (jriends1;
and
we
add
an
apostrophe
+ s
to
a
plural NOT ending in
-s
(children's).
Pronouns
ending
in
-one/-body
and
the
pronouns
Olle
, each other,
and
one
another can be
pos
sess
iv

e.
I
found
someo
ne's coat h
ere.
111ey
looked
into
each other's eyes.
For
pronunciation
of
the
po
ssessive
endi
n
g.
> 276B.
NOTE
a After a surname cnding in
s,

e can
add'
s
or
we can just add an apostrophe.
Mr

Perkins's ronmlMr Perkins' room Yeats's poetryfYeats' poelry
\o\
(
hcn
we
ju
sl ,Idd an <lposlrophe.
we
do
not need
10
pronounce
an
eX
Ira
sy
llable.
We
eRn
pronounce
Yeats
'f
jclIsf
or
l'jellSlzl
173
Nouns
b Jf
there
IS a s

hort
phrase
before
the
nOun, then
the
p
osse
ssive e
ndin
g
comcs
after
til!
phrase.
the people
next
door
's
CDt
You
!lIay
hear
IhlS in inro
rmal
speech, but it
is
ralher awkward. Mort: n
eutra
l is the

ca
belongb'g to tlte people next door.
c
We
can add an apostrophe + S to a phrase
Wil
h alUi.
nid
)1011
go
to Tom
arul/ulie
's
party7 {= the
pany
given
b}
'
Tom
and Julie}
This
is
much
morc
usual
than
Tum
's
and lulie's party.
B Use

We
use the possessive form
to
express a conneCtion, often
the
fact
that
someone has something or that something belongs to s
omeone.
Sam's coal Lucy's idea
my
brother's friend people's jobs
The possessive usually
has
a definite meaning. Sam's coat
means
'
the
coat
that belongs to Sam'.
So
we do not put the before a singular name.
(NOT the S tlll
'S
coat)
Rut
we
can say a
COal
of

Sam's. > 164D
We
can leave
out
the
noun
after the possessive if the meaning is clear.
Is this your umbrella?

No, I
think
it
's
Peter's.
We
can sometimes use two
po
ssessive forms together.
Anita is m
jl
cousin -
my
mother's brother's daughter.
133
Possessive
form
or
of?
A These two structures have
the

same
meaning.
Possessive form: my friend's
name
Of-structure: the
name
of
my
friend
So
metimes
we
can use either rorm. But often
on
ly
one
form is possiblc.
your father's car
(Nor
,
th~j
o{)8Ur
father)
the beginning
of
the term (NOT {he felOn's
h~j""int)
B We normally use the possessive with people and
anima
l

s.
my u/lcle's address
the
dog's bed
the
Atkillsons'
car
The of·structure is sometimes possible
for
relations between people.
the
young
man
'5
mother
/
the
mother
of
the
young
man
When there
is
a long phrase
or
clause describing the person, we
li
se the
of

·s
tructurc.
It
's
the house
of
a wealthy businessman
from
Saudi
Arabia.
[
was
looking after the
co
alS
of
all
the people
attending
the reception.
C
We
generally use the of-structure with things.
174
the middle
of
the night the colollr
of
th
e walls

the results
of
the inquiry
che
size
of
the problem
134 Some other uses of
the
possessive
But we can
use
both
Slructures with
nouns
that
do
not refer directly to p
eop
le
bUI
suggest
human
activity
or
organization, for
examp
le
noun
s refernng

10
places,
compan
ies
or
newspapers.
Scot
land
's rivers
tlte rivers
oJ
Scotland
t
lt
e
co
mp
any's
It
ead office tlte head office
of
the
co
mpa
ll
y
th
e m
ag
azine's political views lhe political views

of
the
ma
gazine
But Ihere are no
abso
l
ute
rules
about
when
to
use which
pa
ttern.
We
c
an
s
omet
imes use the
po
ssessive form with things even
when
there is
no
human
connectio
n.
the water

's
temperature
the
me
teor
's
speed
~
T
IP
the
temperature
of
the
wate
r
tfte speed
of
th
e meteor
U
se
the
possess
ive form wi
th
people
and
the
of·st

ructure
with
th
ings. Say
~
my
friend's address
but
the address
of
the
website.
,1
34
Some
other
uses
of
the
possessive
We
often
use
the
po
ssessive form to ex
pres
s
the
idea that

something
be
l
ong
s
to so
meone
> 1328. Here are
some
olher
uses
of
the possessi
ve
form.
Sometimes the
of
-
structu
re
is
also
possib
l
e.
A Who
so
meth
ing is
intend

ed
for
You can lise the customers' car park.
(0:::
(he
car
park for customers)
There's a children
's
pl
ayg
ro
un
d
in
th
e
park
.
(;:
a playground for children)
B
Cla
ssi
fy
i
ng
We
found
a bird's nest

in
the hedge.
(=
the kind
of
nest ma
de
by a bird)
It was a
man
's voice lhat I heard.
(;:
a
male
voice)
C
Th
e pers
on
do
ing
the
ac
ti
on
The
man's
r
ep
ly surp

ri
se
d
u.s.
n '
he
ma
n replied
.)
The teacher's
action
s I T
lt
e
ac
ti
ons
of
I.he teacher were criticIZed.
(The t
eac
h
er
acted.)
D The pers
on
who
the
action is
dire

c
ted
at
Em
ma
's promotio
n.
is certainly well deserved.
(They
are
promoting
Emma.)
The prisoner
's
re
lease I T
il
e release
of
tile prisoner has been welcomed.
(
The
y have relea
sed
the
pris
on
er
.)
175

Nouns
N
Ull::
WlIh things
we
!;enerally
usc
lhe
of-stnJ(
;
lllr{'
The relt'asc
of
tI,('
in/ormation
',as
(;W(),lld
a
wll.la/ion
[
:'\0
1
the-irrjrwmrIliOJ(j
Jt:IerNr-)
EQualities
The
mall's
stupidity
I The
stupidity

of
tire
man
is
unbeliev£l/;lt
~.
(The
man
is
stupid.)
There an! douhts
about
the
player's fit1less.
(Is the player fit?)
:-:01"1::
For
more
cx

mplp
~
like
lhose
in C-E,
wlwl!;!
a n0
1.l11
phrase has a
similar

lTlt!anlng
to
il
clause,
:>
257
135 Today's weather,
an
hour's
journey,
etc
A
The
posses~iv
e
form
can
express lime.
Have
we
slill got yesterday's newspaper?
Next
mOllth
'5
ligures are
expecwd
to
show
an
improvement.

Next
month's
figures
means
'the
figures
for
next
month',
'the
ligures relating
to next
month'
.
We
cannOI usc a time
of
day.
tIle
three o'clock race {NUT three
{j
'el
tJe/t
's
.ll£e)
NOTE
SUI/day's
newspaper
IS
tI

llCWSP<1JlDr
on
one
speci
fi
c
SUlidil
Y,
such
as
IdSI
Sunday"
Sw/t/(ty
lWl/J),paper
(V
.
.'IthOlll
UI1
npo!>lrophe)
IS
a n'pe
ur
ncw~pilper
.
one
thai
appear
s
Oil
Sunctay~

.
B The possessive form
can
also
express
length
of
timl~
.
176
The coast is
half
an
hour's
drive
away.
There's a
whole
year's
work
on
this disk
W~
some
times
use
a plural
nOlln
in
the

posse:,sive form.
1'
.uouZ
d like a
few
minUles'
rest.
We
get
just
three weeks'
holiday
a year.
NO
II:
.l
PI
~
uplc
whose
first
langua~c
I~
English sometimes leilvt' (lut
the
aposlrophc. espeual1y.
wuh
plural nouns,
e.g
. a

[CUllIIllIutes
rest, three
lVet'}.;~
1101/(Jay
. Bill
SOllie
people
regard
[Ill
s
olS
a
mi
stake, so
II
is
~

rcr
10
w
nte
the
apos~rophl"
h
We
can also
~y
a [our·
hour

JOllmey
136
At
Sophie's.
to
the doctor's, etc
r
136
At
Sophie's, to the doctor's, etc
We
can
li
se the possess
ive
form without a fo
ll
ow
ing nOun when we talk about
s
omeon
c's
home
or
about
a particular kind
of
s
hop
or office.

We
're all meeting
at
Dave
's
(house/flat).
Ther
e's
a police car outside rhe Hardil1gs' (housel/laL
).
1s
the
re
a baker's
(sh
op) nea r here?
I was sitti
ng
in the waiting-room at
the
dentist's.
We
can also use
compan
y names.
I'm.
just
going into resea's
to
buy

same
milk.
But
many
c
ompani
es leave out the
apostroph
e from Ihe
ir
name
s.
There's a Barclays
Bank
on
the
un
iversity campus.
'.
137
Countable and
uncountable
nouns
A Countable nouns can be singular or plural: boat!s), book
!s)
, bus
!es)
, day!s),
friend(s),
man

/
men
, photo
es),
problem
(s)
, le
am
(
s)
, tDwn
(s).
We use countable
nouns for se
parate
, individual things
that
we c
an
co
unt
a boat,
so
me books,
three
bu
ses,
etc. Many countable
nouns
ar

e co
ncr
ete, e.g. car(s), chair
(s),
shop(
s).
But
some
art~
abstracl, e.g. idea
(s),
silUation(
s).
Uncountable nouns are neither Singular nor plural:
air
, butler, electricity,
health, money, music, pea
ce
, water.
We
u
sc
uncounr
able
noun
s for things
th
ai
do not naturally divide into separate units. Many
uncount

a
bl
e
nouns
are
abstract, e.
g.
violence, happiness, security.
BUI
some
are concrete. e.g.
sa
nd
,
glue.
An
uncountabl
e
noun
takes a singul
ar
verb,
and
we u
se
thi
sl
t/wt
and
il. not

these/ those
or
they.
This
milk
is
off
I'll pOllr
it
down
the
sink.
Many
nouns
can
be
either countable
or
uncountable
, depending
on
ho
w they
are used,
e.g.
Is ice-dancing a sport?
/I
Uke
sporl
. > 140

B There are grammatical differences betwe
en
countable
and
uncountable
nouns.
For
example, we can use
an
uncountable
noun
on
it
s
own
, but a
singular
noun
has to have a word like a
or
the.
Uncountable: Water is essential for life.
Countable: The
boat
leaves
al
len o'clock.
(
NOT
IlO"

t-
letwes-aH~
.)
Some words
go
with both countable
and
uncount
ab
le noun
s:
the boal or
th
e
wal
er.
But some wo rds go with only
one
kind
01
nOlln: a boa! but
NOT-
a-
waler
,
h
ow
many
boar
s,

but
how
ml~
c
h
wate
r.
1
77
Nouns
These are the possible combinations.
Countable
Uncoumablc
Singular
PIUJa
l
che
the boat the
boacs
the
water
no
no boat no hoats
no
water
Possessives our boat
our
boats
our
water

alan
a boat
one
one hoat
each/every
each/every boat
t
ll
ese/ those
these/those boats
few
few
boats
many
many
boars
Plural numbers twolthree boats
much
much
waler
lillie
litt
le water
so
me
(> I72F) some boats some water
any
(> 172E) any boats
any
waler

a lot
of
a lot
of
boa
IS
a lot
of
water
all
all
boats all water
this!
that
this/that boat this/t
hat
waler
NOTE
a
We
can usc a plural
or
uncountable
noun
on its own wllhout a
determiner
.
Boals are
su
ppo

sed to float
on
wate
r.
Rut we do not use a singular
noun
on its
0\\11
except in special cases such
as
news headlines.
Boat sinks m storm.
For
othe
r cOnlexts where we use a singular noun
on
us own, > 1
59
.
b
We
orlCn use all with
another
determiner
such as tile, e.
g.
(iii tile boats, >
169
.
138 The

of-structure
expressing
quantity
A Here are some examples of the of-structure.
a packet
of
flour two pieces
of
wood
178
a box
of
matches a kilo of tomatoes
We
u
se
lhis pattern to say how much flour or wood or how many matches
or
tomatoes. We cannUl leave au(
of
(NOT
t4
packe
t
jlvt4J)
.
We
use the of-structure with uncountable nouns
(j1our.
wood) because

we
cannot say a-jlotff
or~.
We
use it with plural nouns (matches,
tomatoes) because
it
is
more convenient
(0
express the
quant
ity in boxes
or kilos.
NOTE
A
hoI
ofmatc
ll
es
means
so
mellung different frorn a matcllbox. >
142B
139
Information,
news,
et
c
B Before

of
+
um.
:
oun
tabl
e/
plural
nuun
we
can
use
these rypes
of
noun
Containers: a
cup
of
coffee, a
carlon
of
milk
, a bottle
of
wine,
a
jar
of
honey, a
tin

of
biscuits, a bag
of
pOlato
es
Measurements: three metres
of
mat
er
ial,
thousands
of
lUres
of
waler,
a
pint
of
beer, two kilos
of
apples
C Before
of
+
uncountable
noun we
can
also
use
piece

and
nouns of similar
meaning.
a piece
of
land a slzeetJpiece/bit
of
paper a
lump
/piece
of
earth/coal
a drop
of
water/milk/oil no
tra
ce
of
blood
For more
examp
les wi
rh
piece, bit, and item, > 139.
ffWJ
' , .
~.


a piece

/s
Lice
of
bread
a
loaHof
bread) a bar
of
chocolate
a piece
of
chocoLate
NOTE
For a
bit
0[.
>
16
7C
,
and
for
all
1I111OWIl
0[.
> 166
D There are a
number
of
nouns we

can
use with
of
+ plural
noun
but not with
oJ
+
uncountable
noun.
a c
row
d
of
people
a
bun
ch
of
flowers
a group
of
tourists
a se
ri
es
of
concerts
~
)

9
Information,
news, etc
A It is
nO[
always clear from the
meaning
whet
her
a
noun
is
countab
le or
unco
unt
ab
l
e.
Fo
r example, information, news,
and
furniture are
uncountab
l
e.
I've
found
oUl
some

information
for you. (!';lOT
ftt'i: infMtnalitm
)
There was no news
of
the missing child. (NOT
TI1t!If
u.ele
/U'
-
ne~)
They
had
very little
furn
i
tu.re.
(
NOT
uery-/etrr{ttf'nfttxfa)
179
Nouns
B
IHO
But
we can often use pleces(s) of, iJil(s)
oJ;
and
item

(
s)
U/Wilh
sUl:h
lIoun
s.
ti
le
found
OUl
a piece
of
information
for
YOIi.
Tiley
had
ve
T
}'
few
items
of
funriture
.
Here are
some
uncountable nouns whose equivalents may be countable
in
other languages.

So
metimes there is an alternati
ve
countable expression.
Uncoumable
CO
llnl~lblc

- -
accommodatIOn looking
for
l
ooking
for
a place to
accommodation
stay/lille
advice
I
gOI
some
advice
{
gOl
a piece
of
adllice
baggage' luggage
we lost
some

baggage
/
we lost
some
bagslcases
luggage
we losl
some
items
Clf
baggage/luggage
cash!
money
1
had
some
cash/money
I
had
some
nOlcs/coins
cloching
tak
e s
om
e
warm
clothing
take
some

warm
clothes
> No
te
a
cou
ntry
/
through lovely cor.tntry/
through a lovely
bit
of
countrysidel
countryside/scenery
cau n t rylco
II
n tl)'s ide/scenery
scenery
>
Note
b
damage/harm
it
did
some
damagellwrm
> Note c
equipment
we needed
some

equipment
we
needed
II
piece
of
eqUipme
nt
English
l1
e speaks good English
(t
he
language)
elJidence
they
found
some
evidence
they
found
a piece
of
evidence
fUI!
have
some
fun
ha
ve

a good
lime
furniture
we
bought
sortie
fumilure
we bough!
some
piecesl
items
of
furniture
health
I
enjoy
good
healtl!
homework
s
tudent
s will!
homework
to
students
with
a task!
do
a project
to do

housework
doing
housework
all
da
y .
doing
cho
r
es
all
day
long
10llg
jewdlcry
J
bought
some!
jewell
ery
J
boughl
some
pieces
of
jewellery
land
we
own
some

land
>
NOll
! d
we
own
a piece/
bil
of
land
leisure
J
hU!Je
hule
leisure
'39
Information
, news,
etc

-
-
-
-:-:-
:-:-

-=-
:-
:
-

~
Uncountable Countable
liller/ rubbish
lightning
luck
machinery
news
permission
pollution
progress
publicity
rain
research
stuff
thunder
traffic
travel
weacher
work
NOTE
he
dropped some
litter
!
he
dropped
l4
bitlpiel.:e
rubbish
of

litter/rubbish
there was
lightning
1here
U/Q
_' a flash
of
I
had
some good
luck
ins
calling
some
machinery
I heard some
news
they left
without
permission
increasing
pollution
I've
made
some
progress
receiving lots
of
publicity
we've had some rain

doing research
my
stuff
is
in the car
there
was
thunder
a
queue
of
traffic
work involving travel
around
the country
we
had
nice
weather
do
some
work>
Note e
lightning
I
had
a piecelbitlstroke
of
luck
installing a machinela

piece
of
machinery
I heard
one
piece!bit/item
of
news
seei
ng
lots
of
adverts
we've
had
a shower
(of
rain)
doing a piece
of
research
my
things are in the car
there
was
a cfap
o/thunder
a queue
of
co.rslvehicles

work
imJO/fJing
journeys!
trips around the country
do a
job
a We cannot use clothes
in
the singular
or
With
a number.
We
can
say
some
clothes but
NOT
-[ottr-dtJthes. We
say
four
items
of
clothing or
four
gnrmcnts.
b
Coumry
is countable when
It

means 'nation', e.g.
all
th
e countries
o/the
world.
c
Damages
m the plural means 'money paid
in
compen
sa
tion
'.
He
received
damages
of
£500,000 fur
his
injunes.
d
Land
can
be used as a countable
nOun
meaning a country or region.
For the lmmigranrs, America
was
(J

lanel
of
0PlJOrtunity.
ThiS
usc
is
rather literary.
e Work can
be
countable
in
cenain meaning
s,
e.g.
a
work
of
art, the uJorks
of
Shakespeare.
Works can also mean ·faclory', e
ga
s
lt.>elllJOrks
. >
147C
181
No
uns
140 Nouns

that
can be
either
countable
or
uncountable
A Some no
un
s arc countable when they mean something separate and
individual,
but
they are un
countab
le when they mean a kind of material or
substance.
Co
unt
a
bl
e
They had a nice carpet in
lhe living-room.
The
mob
threw stones
at
lhe poli
ce.
Uncountable
We

bought ten square metres
of
carpet.
The
c
hur
ch was rebuilt
in
slOne.
B Animal
s,
vegetables, and fruit are uncountable when we cut or divide them.
Co
unt
able
buy
a (w
hol
e)
c
hicken
pick three lOmato
es
Uncountable
put so
me
chicken in the sandwiches
a pizza with
tomato
C The fo

ll
owing
nouns
can be co
unt
able or
un
countable depending
on
the
meaning.
The
coun
table
no
un
often
m
eans
a specific example,
but
the
uncounlab
le
noun
has
a
more
ge
neral meanjng.

182
Countable
a
sma
ll
busin
ess (= a co
mp
an
y)
ha
ving an interesting conversation
The
US
is a democracy.
a
draw
ing/
painting
(= a picture)
a girl in a red
dr
ess
an
interesting experience
(=
some
thing
that
h

appens
to
you)
a glass/some glasses
of
wa ler
glasses for reading > 148
a
hair
/s
ome
hair
s 0
11
your sweat
er
an
iron (for pressing
c1o
lhes)
He led a good life
a bedside light
(=
a lamp)
J
ju
st heard a nois
e.
Uncountable
Busin

ess
is booming.
(= economic activity)
lhe art
of
co
nv
ersation
the idea
of
de
mo
cracy
good
at draWing/painting
(the activity)
wearing evening
dr
ess
havi
ng
some
experience in
the
job
(=
having
done
the
job

for a
time
)
some glass for the window.
co
mb
your
hair
tablet
s
co
ntaining iron
(a
metal)
Life just isn't jair,
is
it?
at
ti
le
speed
of
light
Noise can cause s
tre
ss.
140 Nouns
that
can
be

either
countable
or
uncountable
Countable
a daily
paper
(= a newspaper)
my
pape
rs
(:;;;-
documents)
a property
(=
a building)
Chess
is
a game,
not
a sport.
The.
meeting
was a success.
a
tin
of
beans
Uncountable
some writing

pap
er
some
property
(:;;;-
what you
Dvm
)
There's always
sport
on television.
I'm longing for
fame
and
success.
where tin
was
mined
(a
metal)
rve
been here lots
of
times
befo
re.
It was a long
and
bloody war.
I'm busy. I haven't

gOl
much
time
.
rue
always been against war.
NUrE
We
can use
alan
with knuwledge and educatwn when (he meaning is specific.
Spec
ifi
c:
A knowledge
of
compu
rer
s
would.
be
IL~eful.
1 had
an
excellent education.
Ge
neral: Knowledge
is
power. The government should spend mure on education.
Bur

knowledge and educalion cannot be plural.
D Nouns for feelings
are
usually
uncountable
.
. The
animal
was trembling with
fear
,
Mlere
there's life, there's hope.
But
some
can
be countable. especia
ll
y
when
the
feeling is
about
someth
ing
specific.
a
fear
of
dogs

our
hopes for the
future
having
doubts
about
the decision
all
incense
dislike
of
qf,tiz shows a
longing
to
get
away
Some
nouns
for feelings are singular as
complement.
Thanks very much.
,
/t"
's a pleasure.
It
seemed a
pity
to break
up
the party.

These
nouns
are
delight, pity, pleasure, relief, shame,
and
wonder.
E
Some
abstract
noun
s
can
be used after
alan
or
in
the
plural, but they
can
also
be used as
uncountable
nouns
after some, any, a lot of, much,
or
little.
We
should
have
a choice /

some
choice in the matter.
I haven't noticed
any
changes /
any
change in lhe situation.
There haue been
some
criticisms. / There's been
some
criticism
of
the behaviour
of
the officials.
We didn.'t get
many
responses
I
much
re
spo
nse
to
the questionnaire.
The story failed
to
make
an

impact I
made
little
impact
on public
opinion
Such
nouns
include: advantage, benefic, dlance, choice, change, commenc,
criticism,
detail, difference, difficulty, effect, effort, idea.
impa
c
t,
paim, reason,
response.
18
3
Nouns
F When we
order
food
or
drink
or
talk
about
portions, we can use phrases like a .
juice
and

three coffees.
I'll have
an
orange juice.
(::::
a glass of orange juice)
Three coffees, please. (= three
cups
of
coffee)
Two sugars for me.
(;:
two spoonfuls
of
sugar)
Some nouns
can
be
countable
with
the
meaning
'kind{s)
of
.
This
is a cheese I really like.
(=
a kind
of

cheese)
There are lots
of
different grasses. (= kinds
of
grass)
141
Two
nouns
together
A
We
often use
one
noun
before another.
a tennis club money problems a microwave oven
The
first
noun
modifies
the
second.
It
te
ll
s us
something
about it - what kind
it is

or
wh
at
it is for.
a tennis club
vitamin pills
a pho"e bill
a (min journey
a club where you
can
play
tennis
pills
containing
vitamins
a
bill for using the
phone
a journey by train
For more details
about
meanings, > 142.
For combinations with
the
possessive form, e.g. the train's speed, > 133-134.
B When two
nouns
come
together,
there

are three different ways
of
writing
them.
As
two
separate
words: address book, television programme
With a hyphen: waste-bin, water-batik
As
one
word: armchair, website
There are no exact rules
about
whether
we
join
the
words
or
not
or
whether
we
put
a hyphen.
C The stress is usually on the first
noun.
-+
Audio

the 'tennis club a ma'ch;ne gun the 'car park the 'fire alarm
But there are also
combinations
where the stress
is
on
the
second
noun.
a cardboard 'box the lOwn
'hall
There
are no exact rules about stress, but for
more
details, > 142.
D
The
first
nOun
is usuaJly singular, even if it refers to
more
than
one.
a vegetable garden a picture gallery an eye test a bookcase
A vegetable garden
is
a garden
where
vegetabl
es

are grown.
But there are exceptions.
careers
illformation the sales
office
a sports shop
184
142
More
detai
ls
about
two
nouns
together
These include
nouns
w
it
h a plural-only form. >
14
7A
an
arms dealer a clothes-brush customs regulations a goods train
E There are
more
complex structures with nouns. For example
we
can
use

more t
han
two n
ou
n
s.
credit card charges
a
motorway
service station
the Customer Helpline
number
We
can
bu
il
d
up
phrases
li
ke
this.
an
air accident (=
an
accident in the air)
an
investigation team (= a
team
that

investigates)
an
air accident investigation team (= a
team
that
investigates accidents in
the
air)
Here air accident modifies investigation team.
We
can
use adjectives
in
complex
noun
structures.
a com
prehe
nsive road atlas
ha
n
dy
keyboard shortcuts
a 'Sun user' solar heating system domestic violence statistics
142
More
details
about
two
nouns

together
A Here are
some
examples of different kinds of
meaning
with
noun
+
noun
combinations.
Purpose:
a
milk
bottle
(=
a
bottl
e
for
putting
milk
in)
a car park a coffee table security cameras
hand
cream
Means: a car journey (= a journey by car)
a petrol engine (=
an
eng
i

ne
that
uses petrol)
a
fax
message
an
oil
lamp
a coal fire a
phone
link
Topi
c:
a war
film
(= a film
about
'war)
a crime story peace lalks a computer magazine science fiction
Objec
t:
a chess player (=
someone
who plays chess)
a taxi driver music lovers a professional dog walker
a food mixer
(::
a
machine

that
mixes food)
a lawnrnower a
bOUle
opener a bread
maker
car theft
(=
the stealing of car
s)
steel production
home
contents insurance
With these kinds of meaning the stress is usually
on
the
first noun:
a 'm
ilk
bottle.
-+
Audio
NOTE
We
can use a gerund before a
noun
to express purpose.
a sleeping bag
washi
ng powder

b Compare these
C\vo
phrases.
Noun
+ noun: an 'English teacher (=somcone
who
teaches English)
Adjective + noun:
all
English 'teac
1l
er (=a teacher who is English)
185
Nouns
B There is a difference in meaning be(\.veen a
milk
boule
and
a bOllle
of
milk.
a
milk
bottle
A
milk
bottle is a bottle for putting
milk
in.
Here are

some
more
examples.
a bottle
of
milk
A barrie
of
milk
is
a bottle
full
of
milk.
an empty wine glass
an
old
jam
jar
a teapot
a nice glass
of
wine a
jar
of
strawberry
jam
a pot
of
tea

C Here are
some
more
noun
+
noun
combinations.
Time:
Place:
a summer holiday (= a holiday in summer)
the morning rush a future
dace
breakfast television
an
evening paper
a country cottage
(
;:
a cottage in the country)
a motorway bridge Swindoll station a world recession
Material: a plastic bag (= a bag
made
of plastic)
a paper cup a brick wall a glass vase a cardboard box
With these kinds of meaning the stress is usually
on
the
seco
nd
noun: a

su
mmer
'holiday.
-+
Audio
But there are
many
exceptions.
'evening classes a 'Glasgow woman
We
stress the first
noun
when
it
is
more
important in the context. For
example. we talk about an evening class to djstinguish it from a class in
the daytime.
o
We
also use the noun +
noun
pattern
to refer to
so
mething
which
is
part

of
something else.
18
6
the
ca
r door (=
the
door
of
the car)
a bicycle
wh.eel
the 1Y screen the town centre the river
bank
The stress
is
often
on
the
second noun: the car 'door. But s
ometimes
we
stress the first noun:
a 'bicycle wheel. We can talk
about
th.
e river '
bank
or

the
'river bank. It
depends
which word is more important in
the
context.
143 Phrases
after
a
nou
n
With
lOp,
botlOm, side, bade, and
end
we normally u
sc
the
of-s
tructur
e.
the
end
of
the
mowrway
(NOT
-the
mot(ff~ntl)
the side

of
the house
(N
or Ihe-ltotiff!
'S
id
e)
NOTE
There arc
some
comblllations with
noun
+ top, noun + botlom,
ciC.
"I1l£j'
st
ood
by
the
rOlUls
i
de
lt
lr
(! side
of
the
Wild
Th
ese

com
binations include: a cigarette e
n.d
, along the cl
iff
top, on a hillside,
by
the
roadside, OUI!/" tile rooftops,
'he
va
lley
bottom
,
at
tile watersid
e.
profits
al
lI,e year e
n.d
.
I
43
Phrases
after
a
noun
A
We

can u
sc
a
phra
se after a no
un
(0 modify it.
all these papers here every day
of
the
w
ee
k a meal
for
two
We
can
use
these kinds of phrase.
Prepositional phrase: When
willI
me
et
the girl
of
my
dreams
?
Adverb
phra

s
e:
We d
on'
t talk
to
the
people upstairs.
Adjective phrase: The police
found
parcels
full
of
(:
ocaine
.
Noun
phra
se: The weather
that
day
was awful.
The
prepo
sitional
phrase
is the
mo
st co
mmon.

The period
just
after
lunch
is
al
ways quiet.
I'd love
an
apartment
on Fifth
Ave
nu
e.
The idea
of
spa
ce travel has always fascinated me.
What
are the prospects
for
a
peaceful
so
lution
?
For
noun
+
pr

epOS
ition, c.g. prospects
for,
> 226.
B \¥e
can
s
ometim
es u
sc
two or
more
phra
ses together a
ft
er a noun. Here are
s
om
e examples from newspapers.
Passengers
on
so
me
services
from
King's Cross,
fuston
,
an
d Paddington

will
need
a boarding pass.
Th
ey
meet
the Turkish
champions
Gaiatasa
ry,
haIli
ng
drawn three-all
in
th
e first
leg
of
their secu
nd
round
tie
at
Old Trafford.
The ideas
for
c
hanging
the ilfestyle
of

the Br
it
ish soldier were developed at a
brai
n-st
orming
conference
between
an
army
team
and
exper
ts
from
the
H
en
ley Centre
think-tank
in
Berkshire.
We
can
abo
use a mixture of
phra
ses
and
clauses.

The ba.ffling case
of
a teenage girl
who
vanish
ed e
xactly
twenty
yea
rs
ago
has been
re
-ope
ned
by
police
1
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