502
18
ECONOMIC
ANALYSIS
OF
ASSEMBLY
SYSTEMS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
S
9
10
11
77-
13
14
15
16
T7~
18
T9—
2U
21
22
23
24

25
-26—
27
-28—
29
"SC-
SI
32
33
34
•35-
•35-
37
•38"
A
| B | C | D | E | F
7
fEAR
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
/EAR
0
1

2
3
4
4
Nb
1
PHEStNT
VALUE
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS
YEARS
ECONOMIC LIFE
EXPENSE FORECAST
RATIO
100.00%
INCOME
($400)
$100
$181
$198
$150
$83
SALVAGE
VALUE
N
YEAR
4
3ROSS
INCOME
slET
INCOME

;
$713
$313
TAX
RATE
34.00%
DEPRECIATION
$38
$65
$47
$33
$0
$183
$183
0%
DEPRECIABLE
66.67%
G
| H
SALVAGE
VALUE
% OF
COST
AT END OF
ECONOMIC LIFE
INCOME FORECAST
SAVINGS
$100
$181
$198

$150
TOTAL
INVESTMENT
DEPRECIABLE INVESTMENT
INTERNAL RATE
OF
RETURN
PRO
FORMA CASH FLOW
TAXES
($45)
$21
$39
$51
$40
$0
$152
$106
CREDITS
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
DEPRECIATION
14.29%
24.49%

17.49%
12.49%
8.92%
8.92%
8.92%
4.46%
$400
$267
18.41%
GOAL
SEEK
ON
CELL
G38 = 0
NET
($355)
$79
$142
$147
$110
$83
$561
$206
TAX
RATE
34.00%
34.00%
34.00%
34.00%
34.00%

CREDIT
SUM
OF
UNUSED
YRS
DEPR=
31
.22%
USED
FOR
SALVAGE
VALUI
I
OF
REMAINING DEPRECIABLE INVESTMEN
RESULT
OF
DISC
NET
($355)
$67
$101
$88
$56
$42
$355
($0)
TAX
CREDIT
IN YR 0 ON

UNDEPRECIATED INVESTMEN
FIGURE
18-11.
Spreadsheet
for
Performing
Net
Present
Value
Calculation.
This
sheet
is set up to
find
the
IRoR
that
yields
zero
net
present
value.
It
does
so
using
the
Goal
Seek
feature,

seeking
the
rate
of
return
in
cell
F21
that
drives
the
discounted
return
in
cell
G38 to
zero.
TABLE
18-3.
Explanation
of
Terms
in
Pro-Forma
Cash
Flow
in
Figure
18-11
Term

Ratio
Depreciable
Savings
Depreciation
(difference
between
A and B)
Tax
rate
Net
income
NI
(difference
between
A and
B)
Disc
net
Gross income
Net
income
How
much
of the
investment occurs
in
year
0
What
fraction

of the
investment
is
depreciated over several years;
the
rest
is
taken
as an
expense
in
year
0.
The
ratio
of
total cost
to
depreciable cost
is
called
p.
Undepreciable expenses include engineering
and
installation
of the
system. They generate
a tax
credit
in

year
0.
The
difference between (revenues minus costs)
of
alternatives
A and B
during each time period
The
amount
of the
depreciable
part
of the
investment that
is
deducted each year.
The
pattern
is
mandated
by
U.S.
tax
laws.
If the
horizon
of the
investment
is

less than
the
eight years shown,
the
investment
is
assumed
to
have
a
salvage value equal
to the sum of the
unused depreciation.
This
is
approximately
34% by
U.S.
tax
law. Taxes
are
paid
on
income (savings) less depreciation.
NI,
= (1
—
T,)S
t
+

T,D
t
,
where
S, =
savings,
D,
=
depreciation,
r
t
— tax
rate
in
period
t
Net
income discounted
to
year
0
using
the
IRoR
shown
in
cell
F21
Sum
of

rows
28-32
Sum
of
rows
27-32
Meaning
(a)
(b)
1
2
3
4
-5-
b
/
B
9
10
•11
12
-re-
14
15
-T6-
T7~
IF"
~W
2U
21

22
23
24
25
26
27
28
'&)
30
31
32
ay
34
3b
3b
3/
38
A
7
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
B
Years
Econo
C
| D | E
Net
Present
Value
Cash
Flow
Analysis
mic
Life
ExpenseForecast

Ratio
100.00%
Tax
Rate
34.00%
0%
Depreciable
25.00%
F
Salvage Value
% Of
Cost
At
E
1
IncomeForecast
Savings
0
0
0
$400
$600
$800
$800
$800
$1,000
$1
,000
$1,000
$1,500

$1
.son
$1
r
500
$1.500
$1
,500
$1.500
$1,750
$2,100
$2,100
$2,100
$2,400
$2,400
$3,000
$3,000
Total
In
vestment
Depreciablelnvestment
Depreciation
14.29%
24.49%
17.49%
12.49%
8.92%
8.92%
8.92%
4.46%

0
0
($10,500)
($2,625)
Internal Rate
Of
Return
\
11.33%
(Goal
Seek
bnCellG71=0
G
H
nd Of
Economic Life
Tax
Rate
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%

50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
Credit
I
Tax
Credit
In YrO On
Undepreciated
Investment
39
40
41
42
43
44
4b
46
47

48
49
bO
51
b'2
b3
b4
bb
56
b/
by
by
50
61
b2
63
64
65
66
b/
68
69
i
70
71
Year
0
1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
a
ross Income
Met
Income
Income
($3,500)
-3500
-2500

-1000
$400
$600
$800
$800
$800
$1
,000
$1
,000
$1
,000
$1,500
$1
,500
$1
,500
$1,500
$1
,500
$1
,500
$1
,750
$2,100
$2,100
$2,100
$2,400
$2,400
$3,000

$3,000
$34,250
$23,750
Pro
Forma
Cash
Flow
Depreciation
($375)
($643)
($459)
($328)
($234)
($234)
($234)
($117)
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
($2,624)
($2,624)
Taxes
($3,937.50)

($1,562.44)
($928.57)
($270.44)
$363.93
$417.08
$517.08
$517.08
$458.54
$500.00
$500.00
$500.00
$750.00
$750.00
$750.00
$750.00
$750.00
$750.00
$875.00
$1
,050.00
$1
,050.00
$1
,050.00
$1
,200.00
$1,200.00
$1
,500.00
$1,500.00

$14.937
$1
1
,000
Credits
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
Net
Income
$438
($1,938)
($1,571)
($730)
$36
$183
$283
$283
$341
$500
$500
$500
$750
$750
$750

$750
$750
$750
$875
$1
,050
$1
,050
$1
,050
$1
,200
$1,200
$1
,500
$1
,500
$12,313
$12,750
Disc
Net
$438
($1
,740)
($1
,268)
($529)
$23
$107
$283

$133
$145
$190
$171
$154
$207
$186
$167
$150
$135
$121
$127
$137
$123
$110
$113
$102
$114
$103
$0
$0
Sum
Of
Undisc
Net
Inc
$438
($1
,500)
($3,071)

($3,801^
($3,765)
($3,582)
($3,299)
($3,016)
($2,675)
($2,175)
($1
,675)
($1,175)
($425)
$325
$1
,075
$1
,825
$2,575
$3,325
$4,200
$5,250
$6,300
$7,350
$8,550
$9,750
$11,250
$12,750
$438
($1,303)
($2,571)
($3,099)

($3,076)
($2,969)
($2,686)
($2,553)
($2,408)
($2,218)
($2,047)
($1
,893)
($1,686)
($1
,500)
($1,333)
($1,184)
($1
,049)
($928)
($801)
($664)
($542)
($431)
($318)
($217)
($103)
$0
FIGURE 18-12. Example
Net
Present Value Calculation
for a
Large Passenger

Aircraft,
(a) Net
present value cash flow
analysis,
(b)
Pro-forma cash flow.
503
504
18
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
OF
ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS
FIGURE
18-13.
NPV for
Large Passenger
Aircraft.
NPV is
positive
for
interest rates less than
11.33%,
not a
very
attractive
investment
on
economic grounds alone.
18.G.7.
Remarks

The
pattern
of
cash
flows
shown
in
Figure
18-4,
in
which
there
is one
large negative
flow at the
beginning fol-
lowed
by
numerous smaller positive
and
negative
flows
thereafter,
is
typical
in the
kinds
of
problems studied
here. This kind

of
cash
flow
pattern gives rise
to the
pattern
of PV
versus discount rate behavior shown
in
Figure
18-13.
The
methods
of
comparing investments
discussed above
are
valid when
the
pattern
of PV
ver-
sus
discount rate looks like this
but may
give
the
wrong
answer
if it

does not.
The NPV
method
has its
critics
and
there
are
many
ways
to
interpret
the
results. Note that
the
goal
of a
com-
pany
is to
make money,
not to
earn
a
particular rate
of
interest. Suppose
the
company
has

$100 million
to
invest
and has two
choices:
to
invest
$90
million
for an
IRoR
of
15%
or to
invest
$15
million
for an
IRoR
of
20%.
One in-
vestment earns
a
higher rate
of
return
but the
other makes
much more money. Thus

the
results
of the
calculations
must
be
judged carefully
and a
decision rule should
not
be
followed blindly.
Another criticism
of the NPV
method
is
that
it
favors
short term results
and
tends
not to
select projects that will
mature over
a
longer period. While this
is
true, there
are

other reasons
why a
short term view
is
often
taken, even
if
they
are not
always
good
reasons.
Capital
costs
money,
and
that cost
is
certain.
Profits
are in the
future
and
they
are
uncertain. Discounting
is the
main
way to
compensate

for
the
differences
in
uncertainty.
Another
way to
take uncertainty into account
is to
imag-
ine
different
scenarios
for
future
cash
flows.
Perhaps
one
can
assign
a
most likely value,
a
most optimistic value,
and
a
most pessimistic value. Then
it is
possible

to
calcu-
late
the
mean
and
standard deviation
of the
IRoR
and
PV.
Investments with
a
larger mean
and
smaller standard devi-
ation might
be
more
attractive.
In
practice,
the
mean
and
standard deviation
of
returns
are
usually

correlated,
and
one
will
not find the
lowest standard deviation together
with
the
highest mean.
18.H. CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter
and the two
before
it
comprise
a way of
look-
ing at
assembly
(or
other
manufacturing)
systems
in a
combined
economic-technical
way.
This
process
begins

with
the
requirement
to
produce
a
product
or
family
of
products
at a
certain rate
for a
certain period
of
time using
some
mix of
resources. Investments
and
ongoing costs
are
involved.
A
simplified diagram
of
this process appears
in
Figure 18-14.

It
shows that product design (including
de-
sign simplification), assembly
sequence,
alternate
assem-
bly
technologies,
and
macro-
and
microeconomic factors
all
must
be
considered.
18.J. FURTHER READING
505
FIGURE
18-14.
Logic Diagram
for the
Cre-
ation
of
Economically-Technically Effective
Systems. Most
of the
factors

discussed
in
earlier chapters
are
involved
in
this diagram.
"General
economic
conditions"
affect many
blocks
in the
chart,
so
this block
is not
linked
by
arrows
to
other blocks
in the
interest
of
simplicity.
18.1.
PROBLEMS
AND
THOUGHT

QUESTIONS
1.
Prove that
the
payback period method
of
annualizing
fixed
costs
is
equivalent
to the
annual
recovery method with
r = 0.
Note
that this cannot
be
proven
by
substituting
r = 0 in
Equa-
tion (18-4). Instead,
L'Hopital's
Rule must
be
used.
2.
In

Figure
18-6
and
Figure
18-8
the
unit cost versus production
volume
plot
falls
and
then rises suddenly, then repeats
this
pattern
several
times. However,
in
Figure
18-7
no
such
behavior
can be
seen.
Explain
why the
sudden rises happen
in two of the figures
but
not in the

third.
3.
Discuss
the
various terms
in
Equation (18-10).
In
particular,
discuss
possible
tradeoffs
between robot speed, represented
by
T,
robot cost, represented
by S$, and
tool cost, represented
by
T$.
For
example,
a
more costly
robot
could
be
afforded
if
some

of the
cost
were devoted
to
versatility that required
fewer
tools.
4. The NPV
analysis
of
large passenger
aircraft
in
Fig-
ure
18-13
utilizes
a tax
rate
of
50%, appropriate
for
Europe.
If
34% is
used, appropriate
for the
United States,
one finds
that

the
NPV is
considerably smaller. Explain
why
this
is so.
18.J.
FURTHER
READING
[Cooper
and
Kaplan] Cooper,
R.,
and
Kaplan,
R. S.,
"Measure
Costs
Right: Make
the
Right Decisions," Harvard Business
Review,
September-October,
pp.
96-103,
1988.
[Lynch] Lynch,
P. M.,
"Economic-Technological Modeling
and

Design Criteria
for
Programmable Assembly Machines,"
Ph.D. thesis,
MIT
Mechanical Engineering Department,
June 1976.
[Mishina]
Mishina,
K.,
"Beyond Flexibility: Toyota's Robust
Process-Flow Architecture,"
in
Coping with
Variety:
Flexible
Productive Systems
for
Product
Variety
in the
Auto Industry,
Lung,
Y.,
Chanaron, J J., Fujimoto,
T.,
and
Raff,
D.,
editors,

Aldershot,
UK:
Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 1999.
[Nevins
and
Whitney] Nevins,
J. L., and
Whitney,
D. E.,
Concur-
rent
Design
of
Products
and
Processes,
New
York: McGraw-
Hill,
1989.
[Peschard
and
Whitney]
Peschard,
G., and
Whitney,
D.
E.,
"Cost
and

Efficiency
Performance
of
Automobile Engine
Plants," available
at
/>papers.html.
[Thuesen
and
Fabrycky]
Thuesen,
G.
J.,
and
Fabrycky,
W
J.,
Engineering Economy, Upper Saddle River,
NJ:
Prentice-
Hall,
2001.
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
INDEX
Index Terms Links
A
Accommodation method 257
Activities in a simulation 447
Activity-based-costing 490
Activity cycle diagram 448

Acyclic graph 215
Additive processes 134
Adept Technology 478
Adhesive bonding 167
Adhesives 318 338 384 401
Adjustment 167 168 318 328
388 396 428
of an assembly 23
of a sewing machine 9
Airbus 365 461
Airbus A380 365 461 501
Airbus A380 wing
product architecture example 367
Aircraft assembly 213
Aircraft engines 400
Aircraft fuselage
DFC example 240
Aircraft product family example 365
Aircraft structures 70 105
Aircraft wing 344 346 349
Aircraft wing subassembly 251
Aladdin 351
American National Standards Institute 114
AND/OR tree 188 194
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms Links
Angular error 152 198 255 256 265 266
269
influence on wedging 271
Angular stiffness 267

Angular velocity vector 80
Annual recovery method 494
ANSI Y 14.5-M 114
APOS vibratory part feeding system 472 481
Archimedes system 194
Architectural flow 367
Architecture 348
attributes 345
desktop stapler 3
of fixed automation assembly
machine 429
product 3 8
of product family 10
of products and companies 345
Architectures for automobile bodies 346
Array product structure 392
Artificial constraints 259
ASDP 457
Assembleability 380
Assembleability problems 86
Assemblies
improperly constrained 64
overconstrained 86
perform many functions 2
properly constrained 64 86
as systems 16 348
types 34
underconstrained 86
Assembly
definition of 64

design process 1
feature 3 6
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms Links
Assembly (cont)
high volume 11
history 12
importance 1
integrative nature 1 317 329
low volume 11
main activities 11
nominal 19
supports business processes 2 6
time available 421 467 479 484
time required 421 467 479
Assembly approach direction 44
Assembly cost 190 396 479
increased by rework 437
Assembly cost analysis 382 489
Assembly cycle times short 443
Assembly design intent 1 21 34 211 215 221
Assembly difficulty 328 389 396 422
Assembly efficiency 382 395
low-cost staple gun example 414
related to assembly reliability 401
rugged staple gun example 413
Assembly errors 254 263 479
Assembly feature 34 42 44 62 112 141
142 213 214 245 342 384
chosen to achieve KCs 217

constructed from basic surface contacts 89
in a DFC 216
Screw Theory model of 78
toolkit of 78 90 107
Assembly fitup 243
Assembly fixtures 65 77 407 410
Assembly forces 253
Assembly instructions 425
Assembly interface 354
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms Links
Assembly in the large 2 253 317 379
influenced by product architecture 341
steps in 321
Assembly in the small 2 253 379
steps in 329
Assembly line 13 388 432 443 499
Assembly method 396 426 465
Assembly mistakes 329 390 424 432 445 467
468
six kinds 436
Assembly model 34 213
including product variety 362
Assembly modeling in CAD systems 213
Assembly motion 253
Assembly operations 420
Assembly process capability 152 244
Assembly processes 383
Assembly process requirements 323
Assembly requirements 468

Assembly resource 422 470
Assembly resource choice 13 423 449 465 470 479
Assembly robots 13 431
Assembly sequence 2 180 221 246 330 393
396 420 431 436 449 457
465 499
algorithms 181
of automobile alternator 195
of automobile transmission 229
counting how many 202
criteria 180 189 197 205
disassembly questions 184
feasible 182 187 190
igniter 484
infeasible 183
influence on assembly system design 423
of juicer 55 199
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms Links
Assembly sequence (Cont.)
KCs and DFC of 232
Linear 183 190
of missile seeker head 53
of rear axle assembly 201
official 330
precedence relations 188
questions 183 184 187 191 199
related to decoupling point 358
related to delayed commitment 360
relation to DFC 214

to remove KC conflict 236 241
of sheet metal parts 167
state 189 202 203
transitions 189 205
two-handed 194
Assembly sequence analysis 211
Assembly sequence design 183 186
Assembly sequence editing 186 189
Assembly sequence method
Bourjault 184 190 207
cut set 184 192
exploded view 182
onion skin 184
subset rule 186
superset rule 186
Assembly sequence software
Archimedes (Sandia) 194
Draper/MIT 194
Assembly simulation software 188
Assembly success 265 389
Assembly system 253
Assembly system capacity 426
Assembly system design 317 327 420 465
basic factors 420
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms Links
Assembly system design methods 425
heuristic design method 449
systematic 426 454
Assembly system performance 447

Assembly task network 454
Assembly technology. See Assembly resource
Assembly time 497
Actual 395
ideal minimum 395
Assembly time and cost 420
Assembly time available 426
Assembly time estimate
low-cost staple gun example 414
rugged staple gun example 413
Assembly time required 427 449 451 454
Assembly tree(s) 205
Assembly workstation 253
design methods 477
Assembly workstation design 317 327 420 465
Assembly-driven manufacturing 364
AT&T Bell Laboratories 338
Automatic assembly 55 198 322 332 370 380
383 396 436
Igniter 484
Automatic assembly machines 13
Automatic guided vehicles 469
Automatic screw insertion machines 401
Automatic transmission 72
cellular assembly 434
truck 472
See also Automobile transmission
Automobile air-fuel intake systems
product architecture example 370
Automobile alternators 396

robot assembly 195
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms Links
Automobile axle and wheel
DFC example 217
Automobile body 344
product architecture example 368
Automobile body platform 352
Automobile cigarette lighters 430
Automobile cockpits
product architecture example 371
Automobile door. See Car door
Automobile engine 76 342 349 353 476
KCs 116
product architecture example 370
selective assembly 168
valves inserted by chamferless assembly device 278
valve train 117
Automobile engine plant 422 491
Automobile transmission 399 484
DFC example 227
Availability 421
Average of a sum derivation 140
B
Balance
of assembly system 440
Ball-head 320
Bandwidth
of fine motions 260
of gross motions 254

Bar code 469
Base coordinate frame 36
Base part 182 197 215 396
Basic dimensions 121 122
Batch processing 444
Batch sizes 420 421
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Index Terms Links
Bearing 333
self-aligning 226
Belts
elastic 263
Best fit assembly 166
Bin-picking 471
Black and Decker 369 370
Blame the last part 16
Blocked workstations 441
Body on frame
automobile body architecture 368
Boeing 134 365 461
Boeing 747 365
Boeing 747 fuselage 213
Boeing 777 115 134 461
Boeing Sonic Cruiser 366 501
Bolt circle 120
Boothroyd Dewhurst, Inc. 381
Boothroyd method for DFA 385 393 396 399
Bottleneck 448
Bottleneck station 442
Bottom-up design 20

Bourjault 182
Brushes
motor 333
Budd Company 8
Buffer 428 440 447 451 452
Buffer size calculation 441
heuristic 442
Buffer sizes 449
Build to order 356
Build to print 114 115 169 170
Build to stock 356
Business context for assembly in the large 321
Business goals drivers of modular architecture 347
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Business issues
influence of assembly 321
in product development 319
Butt joints 166 219 221
C
CAD systems 20 34 45 68 75 213
215
calibration 330 440
Cambridge Process Selector 396
Canon camera
Example 338
Capacity 421 432 436
reduced by rework 422 437
Capacity planning 421
Capital

cost component 382
Car body sheet metal 25 169
Car door 27 116 235 353
KC conflict in 29 236
KC flowdown 24
variation 157 237
Car door mounting
Ford method 31 237
GM method 29 237
Car floor pan 221
Car hood 166
Carrier strip for part presentation 472 473
Car seat 69 76 104 113 245 386
445
Case-hardened armor plate 71
Cash flows 493 500 504
comparing 499
Cellular assembly system 434 444 499
Cellular telephones 353 355 386 396
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Index Terms Links
Central Limit Theorem 136
Chain of mates 217 221 239 245
including fixture 221 222
Chamfer 152 263 272 304 388 409
alternate shapes 276
influence on assembly 275
Chamfer crossing 265 268 285
Chamferless assembly 263 276
Change 354 355

Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. 195
Chevrolet 353
China 335
Chinese puzzle 208
Choice tree for configuring a product family member 362
Clamshell architecture 370
Classification and coding 380 381 388
for design for recycling 403
Clearance 112
in form closures 75
in hydraulic valve parts 276
to relax two-sided constraint 96
small 74
Clearance between feature surfaces 147
Clearance between parts 263 329 334
Clearance ratio 154 270 271 288 332
effect on assembly time 388
Closed-loop assembly system architecture 433
Clutches 227 484
Coach joint 221
Coke-bottle aircraft shape 366
Combinatoric method 6 460
Commonality 359
Complexity 348
addressed by architecture 343
of injection molded parts 397
Complex products 16
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Index Terms Links
Compliance center 267 273 285 293

influence of location on assembly 269
location when RCC is used 274
Compliance matrix 267
Compliance of parts
influence on assembly mechanics 265
Compliant parts 165 253 263 293
design goals 296
Compliant support of mating parts 266
Compliant supports 263
Composite aircraft parts 366
Compound assembly feature 49 143
representation of car door hinges 157
Concept design
DFA during 391
Concept generation 320
Concurrent engineering 253 317 318 321 382
Cone point screws 279
Connective assembly model 42 46 47 62 112 141
including fixtures 155
of nominal assembly 48 142
nominal assembly examples 48
of varied assemblies 48 142
varied assembly examples 152
with variation, for compound features 144
with variation, for simple features 142
Connector pins manufacturing method 474
Connectors electrical 263
Constant Force 297
Constraint 34 113 141 180 193 199
246 247

applied by assembly feature 46 62 76
and datum surfaces 121
delivery by DFC 221
DFC role in providing 214
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Index Terms Links
Constraint (Cont.)
one-sided and two-sided 73
overconstraint 62
proper 214
proper, kinematic, exact 62
proper, necessary for validity of
DFC 245
provided by fixtures 155
single-part 152
two-sided 96
underconstraint 62
Constraint analysis 86
graphical technique for 98
results 87
Constraint analysis phase 245
Constraint and mobility distinguished 68
Constraint between parts 62
Constraint mistakes 63 68
Constraint plan 211 245 352
Constraint rule 244
algorithm for 251
Constraint situations
summarized 75
Contact force 265 295 297

during assembly 268
effect on part motion 269
in electrical connectors 295
engineered compliance and 266 274
equations for 285
in wedging 271
Contact rule 244
algorithm for 251
Contacts 5 73 212 217
in aircraft assembly 213
in automobile transmission 230
in car doors 239
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Index Terms Links
Contacts (Cont.)
in Cuisinart 231
in sheet metal example 219
Continuous improvement 443
Conveyor 424 445 447 469
Conveyor belts 353
Cooprider, Curt 454
Coordinate frame 36 62 79 142 147 152
of basic surfaces 87
for calculating twist 80
for calculating twist intersection 87
for calculating wrench 82
in a chain of frames 41
on desktop stapler 36
element of connective model 57
expressed by matrix transformation 37

on a feature 44 47 107
global 83
on a hand or gripper 256
local 83
for motion analysis 91 97
on a part 44 45 47 91
world 45
Coordinate frames
chain of 64
Coordination 172
of dimensions 136
in tolerancing 141
Copy exactly 323
Cordless appliances 338
Cordless screwdriver 338
Cost 489
of assembly 322 382 454
of an assembly resource 455
of capital 494 501
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Cost (Cont.)
to disassemble 403
of labor 322
of materials 322
of a product 26
Cost Drivers 492
Cost-performance tradeoff 22
Costs of accommodating variety 354
C

p
129
C
p
and C
pk
126
C
pk
128 129 132 152 163
for assembly workstation 476
Cross-threading 278
Cuisinart
DFC example 231
Custom products 2
Cut set method for finding assembly sequences 184
Cycle time 427 441 451 477 479
D
Daimler-Chrysler 492
Data model of assembly 51
Datum 147 213
Datum A 120
Datum B 120
Datum C 120
Datum coordination 113
Datum feature 120 218 226
Datum flow chain (DFC) 6 36 185 211 342 348
360 384
for aircraft wing subassembly 251
for assembly workstation 476

as a carrier of specifications in a supply chain 322
to deliver each KC 216 245
examples 217
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Index Terms Links
Datum flow chain (DFC) (Cont.)
of a product family 361
segment inside a part 227
Datum hierarchy 119
Datum shift 156 242
Datum surfaces 66 119
DC-3 airplane 345
Decoupling point 356 357 358 374
Defining ribs 70
Degree of freedom (dof) 62 65 68 73 78 89
148 215 224 320 342 484
in assembly workstation 476
of flexible automation 431
of hand or gripper motion 256
in a product platform 370
Delayed commitment 180 358 359 374
Delivery schedules for parts 452
Dell 322 356 365 432
Delta wing aircraft shape 366
Demand, unpredictable 354
Demand pull 319
Demand uncertainty 364
Deming, W. E. 124
Denso 6 330 381 471
Denso alternator assembly line 458

Denso DFA method 406
Denso manufacturing technology
roadmap 460
Denso panel meter 7 356 360 361 364 365
396 422 424 431 445 458
Denso roving robot line 460
Denso variable capacity assembly
system 459
Depreciation 445 500
Derivative products 350
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Index Terms Links
Design decoupling point 356
Design for assembly (DFA) 70 182 253 317 324 327
365 379 422
factors affecting assembly 381
general approach 383
goals 380
history 380
two phases 382
Design for disassembly 327
Design for manufacturing (DFM) 379 396
Design improvements 324 327 329
Designing quality in 435
Design of assembly 324
Design procedure for assemblies 245
Design simplification 15 380
Desktop copier 68 105
Desktop stapler 2 212 417
assembly features 44

degrees of freedom and constraint 63
KC delivery chain 5
matrix transform model 36
variations 123
DFx 379
DFx in the large 379 392 415
DFx in the small 379 385
Direct cost 490
Directed graph 215
Disassembly difficulty 403
Disassembly sequence 183 205 403
Disassembly to repair 318
Discounting to present value 493 500
Discrete event simulation 442 447 452
Disk drives 349
Displacement vector 37 83
Distribution 358
Distribution chain 11 392
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Index Terms Links
Distributive system 34
Division of labor 498
Documentation 12
Dog point screw 279 281
Dominant design 344 345
Dot matrix 320
Downtime 420 425 432 452
scheduled 421
unscheduled 422
Draft angle 43

Draper 194 195 199 201 206
Dual in-line packages 305
E
EADS
successor to Airbus 367
Economic analysis 253 317 420 424 449 453
489 492
of assembly workstation 465
Edge-following 258
Effector 73
Efficiency
of assembly station 475
contrasted with flexibility 347
Electrical connectors 293 295 302 305 349
Electric circuit diagram analogy to DFC 216
Electric drill 331 370 395 400 417
Electric range 9
Electric screwdrivers 396
Engine block 371
Engineered compliance 266
Entities in a simulation 447
Equipment cost 423 479
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Index Terms Links
Error
distinguished from mistake 422
random cause 124
repeatable cause 124
Error accumulation
rate of, if mean shift is zero 130

rate of, in worst case tolerancing 125
Error analysis
of assembly workstation 465 476
Escape direction 190 194
Escort memory 469
Expert systems
for DFA 381
Exploded view drawings 391
Exploded view method for finding assembly sequences 182
Exploratory phase of an industry 344
F
Fabrication 423
features 43 44
operations 420
of parts at assembly station 476
Fabrication-driven manufacturing 364
Facets 102
Facility constraints 323 423
Factory performance 323
Factory’s defect fraction 402
Failure rate of different part presentation methods 473
Fan motor
DFC example 226
Fastener 182 193 194 318 324 328
335 384 387 395 400 409
Fastener method for finding assembly sequences 182
Fastening alternatives 401
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Fastening techniques

relation to recycling 403
Fatigue
effect on assembly time 388
Feasibility technical or economic 330
Feature 329
assembly 4 6 180 187 193 199
cost of molding 398
fabrication 43
functional 199
in GD&T 120
as objects 43
operating or functional 4
Feature-based design 43
Feature control frame 121
Feature interface transform 47
Feature of size 120 149
Feature recognition 43
Feedback gain 257
Fine motion 120 181 205 253 334 407
409 477
Fishbone assembly line 432
Fitting 114
Fixed automation 13 420 422 423 431 443
449 451 455 497
cost model 495
economic characteristics 430
technical characteristics 429
Fixed cost 428 430 489 494
Fixture 112 116 142 152 184 197
198 215 216 245 332 465

for aircraft assembly 240
for automobile body assembly 352
for car door assembly 239
contribution to variation 155
cost 190
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Fixture (Cont.)
for mounting car doors 238
needed for Type 2 assemblies 211
part of transport system 424
powered 186
to provide missing constraint 221
providing constraint for sheet metal parts 167
for sheet metal part assembly 165
sources of variation in Type 2 assemblies 224
Fixturing features 112 232
Fixturing surface 328 329
Flash
molding338
Flexibility 15 322 341 343 425 431
465
assembly enabled by architecture 354
contrasted with efficiency 347
provided by platforms 350
Flexibility requirements 420
Flexible automation 420 423 449 497
cost model 495
economic characteristics 431
technical characteristics 431

Flexible parts 216 390
Floor layout 423 451
Flowdown
of key characteristics 23 113 141 321
of requirements 16
Force closure 74
Force feedback algorithm 256
Force feedback matrix 258
Force feedback strategy 255
Forces
during compliant part mating 297
in fine motion 255 256 265 274 285
Force-torque sensor 274
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Ford 113 169 236 352 432
Ford, Henry 12 114 380 385
443 490
Ford Model T 345 353
Ford process for car doors 239
Form closure 74
Four bar linkage
constraint and mobility analysis of 67
Friction 65 74 154 273 297
305 329
in fine motions 255
in force feedback 256
influence on assembly mechanics 265
influence on assembly mechanics of
compliant parts 293

influence on jamming 273
Friction cone 301
involved in wedging 272
Friction force 295 304
during assembly 268
role in jamming 266
role in wedging 270
Friction stir welding 346
Front wheel drive 342
Fujitsu 381
Functional build 116 168 169 170
Functions
of assembly, subassembly, or part 327
FX-1 assembly system 458
G
Gages 113
go and no-go 118
Gage tolerances 120
Galileo 74