Kent, Donald M. “Managing Global Wetlands”
Applied Wetlands Science and Technology
Editor Donald M. Kent
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2001

©2001 CRC Press LLC

CHAPTER

13
MANAGING GLOBAL WETLANDS

Annette M. Paulin and Donald M. Kent

CONTENTS

The Ramsar Convention
Membership
Wetland Definition and Classification
Management
Additional Support
Case Studies
Florida Everglades
Functions and Values
Threats and Impacts
Conservation Effort
The Mekong Delta
Functions and Values
Threats and Impacts
Conservation Efforts
The Pantanal

Functions and Values
Threats and Impacts
Conservation Efforts
The Wadden Sea
Functions and Values
Threats and Values
Conservation Efforts
References

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Historically, a significant amount of wetland management effort has been focused
on individual wetlands. Commonly, individual wetlands are encompassed and reg-
ulated by a single authoritative unit, such as a town or city. With the advent of
watershed management, the focus has broadened to include simultaneous consider-
ation of multiple wetlands. Watershed management typically requires cooperation
and coordination among several authoritative units, such as municipalities, counties,
and states. Managing wetlands that cross international boundaries or wetlands within
a single country, but that are of international importance, poses additional challenges.
Managing wetlands that cross international boundaries requires cooperation and
coordination among countries. This may be accomplished informally by communi-
cation between respective government environmental agencies, or formally by estab-
lishment of joint proclamations or management plans. Understanding that an indi-
vidual country’s best interests are served by ensuring protection of shared wetland
resources is fundamental to effective management.
In some instances, wetland function and value, even those contained with a single
country, may be of global importance. For example, a wetland may function as flood
storage for downstream, transboundary communities. Continued wetland function
would ensure that downstream communities have adequate irrigation for agriculture
and are protected from catastrophic floods. Alternatively, a wetland may be a critical

breeding or wintering area for migratory fish and wildlife.
Managing wetlands at the global level could be self-regulating. That is, resource
users, whether governments or private entities, would recognize the value of wetlands
and protect their investment. The World Trade Organization might be a model or a
vehicle for this type of management. Success would require sustainable use of
resources, an accurate valuation of all wetland values, and a mediation process.
Lending institutions might also effect management. Funding of significant develop-
ment projects would require conduct of a cost–benefit based environmental impact
assessment. The perspectives of both the applicant country and the international
community would need to be considered. Some international lending institutions
require an impact assessment, but the process does not appear to adequately value
wetland resources.
Presently, the United Nations through the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
effects management of global wetlands. Participation in the Ramsar Convention is
voluntary, and there is no enforcement authority. Wetland protection is effected
through education and management assistance. The first part of this chapter describes
the approach and operation of the Ramsar Convention. The balance of the chapter
describes four wetlands of international significance. The wetlands illustrate a range
of challenges and the conservation efforts being enacted to protect wetland functions
and values.

THE RAMSAR CONVENTION

The primary instrument for the protection and management of wetlands on a
global scale is the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
(Ramsar Convention, 1999). As of 1999, there were 114 contracting nations and 975

©2001 CRC Press LLC

wetlands totaling 70.7 million ha. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and

Cultural Organization serves as the depository for information, and funds the Con-
vention. The Ramsar Convention recognized that wetlands have great economic,
ecological, and cultural value, and that encroachment and loss of wetlands must be
reduced. Because water resources for wetlands often cross political boundaries, the
Ramsar Convention now provides a framework for intergovernmental cooperation
in the conservation and wise use of wetlands.

Membership

A nation must have one listed wetland to become a participating member of the
Ramsar Convention. A wetland can be listed if it satisfies at least one of several
criteria. Geographical and ecological criteria include being representative of a natural
or near natural wetland, common to more than one biogeographical region, repre-
sentative of a wetland that plays an important role in the natural connection of a
major river basin or coastal system (especially where located in a transborder
position), or unique as a rare or unusual type of wetland in the biogeographical
region. A wetland may also satisfy listing criteria by playing a role in plant or animal
species integrity. For example, the wetland may support rare, vulnerable, or endan-
gered species by maintaining genetic and ecological diversity of the flora or fauna
of a region, by providing habitat for plants or animals at a critical stage of their
biological cycle, or by containing one or more endemic plant or animal species or
communities. The final criteria for listing are related to biological value and are
based on supporting regulatory waterfowl communities of 20,000 or more individ-
uals, a substantial number of a particular group of waterfowl, or 1 percent of the
individuals in a population of a species or subspecies of waterfowl.
If a wetland satisfies at least one criterion, it will be listed as a wetland of
international importance. If a wetland fails to satisfy the criteria, measures may be
taken to restore or enhance its values and function in order to meet one of the criteria.
If these measures fail, the site will be not be listed.
Dues are paid based on a sliding scale determined by Gross National Product

of the member nation. Members of the Ramsar Convention have certain obligations.
These include considering wetland conservation within the framework of land-use
planning, promoting conservation of wetlands throughout their region, and estab-
lishing wetland reserves. Members must also provide in-country training in the fields
of wetland research and management, and exchange information and data with other
members of the Convention. Finally, members must consult with the Ramsar Con-
vention regarding management implementation, especially when it involves trans-
boundary wetlands, shared water resources, or shared development aid for projects.

Wetland Definition and Classification

The Ramsar Convention has a definition and classification system for identifying
wetlands of international importance. Wetlands are defined as “areas of marsh, fen,
peatland, or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water
that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the

©2001 CRC Press LLC

depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters … and may incorporate
riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetland, and islands or bodies of marine
water deeper than six meters at low tide lying within the wetlands” (Davis, 1994).
The definition incorporates ecosystems that are an integral part of a major water
system and is broader than many other operational wetland definitions (see
Chapter 1).
The Ramsar Convention (Davis, 1994) recognizes four major types of wetlands.
Marine wetlands are coastal wetlands including rocky shores and coral reefs. Estu-
arine wetlands are located between salt water and fresh water bodies, or dry land
including deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps. Lacustrine wetlands are
wetlands associated with lakes. Palustrine wetlands are isolated marshes, swamps,
or bogs. Wetlands are classified when listed as wetlands of international importance

by the Ramsar Convention.

Management

The Convention assists members with plans of action for management of their
wetlands by sharing information and through the activities of a Scientific and Tech-
nical Review Panel. The Panel is comprised of experts in the field of wetland
management. They provide members with expert opinions and assist with the design
of management plans.
The management planning process has three steps: description of the site, form-
ing evaluations and objectives, and designing an action plan or prescription. Descrip-
tion of the site includes identifying the wetland type(s) and creating an inventory of
the flora and fauna. This first step is used to establish criteria for listing the site.
The evaluation provides a detailed report of the site, including information on
biological diversity, integrity, rarity, fragility, history, cultural and aesthetic value,
social and economic value, education and research opportunities, and potential uses
for recreation. In evaluating the site, concise objectives are formed for best man-
agement practices. These objectives are based strictly on the evaluation of the site,
and are intended to fully protect its characteristics. After the objectives are outlined,
any factors that may hinder their achievement, including both natural and human-
induced, are identified. Considering the objectives and mitigating factors, operational
objectives are developed. Management strategies are established based on the best
possible alternatives under the given circumstances. A limit of acceptable change is
established to meet protection obligations.
Finally, a plan of action is outlined which may include zoning, habitat manage-
ment, species management, contextual uses, education, and research initiatives.
Specific projects and work programs are designed to implement these actions. Over
time, reviews of progress at the site are presented to the Ramsar Convention to
ensure operational success, or to facilitate changes in objectives and action plans.


Additional Support

The Ramsar Convention provides additional assistance to member nations
through three documents: the Montreux Record and Monitoring Procedure (Davis,

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1994), Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands (Davis, 1993), and the Economic Valuation
of Wetlands (Barbier et al., 1997). The Montreux Record lists priority sites that are
undergoing ecological changes owing to human activities. The Scientific and Tech-
nical Review Panel supports a procedure for monitoring site changes and imple-
menting management strategies.
National management strategies are encouraged to comply with guidelines
described in Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands (Davis, 1993). The Ramsar Con-
vention defines the wise use of wetlands as “sustainable utilization for the benefit
of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of
the ecosystem” (Davis, 1993). Guidelines include establishing an integrated
approach to policy making using coordinated efforts of national, regional, and local
institutions, and providing policies that promote wetland protection in land-use
planning, environmental audits, financial incentives, and permit processes.
Wise Use provides examples of management strategies by describing wetland
inventories, monitoring techniques, research on identifying values, wetland use, and
landscape function. The management strategies include establishment of training
programs and promotion of public awareness (Davis, 1993). Actions outlined by
Wise Use include maintaining ecological integrity, sustainable use, balancing restric-
tions with cultural uses, and integrating wetland management with development
plans. The latter seeks to achieve a balance between conservation and the use of
wetland resources. Wise Use also provides 17 case studies to illustrate management
issues and lessons learned from the implementation of the Wise Use guidelines.
The Ramsar Convention developed a guide,


Economic Valuation of Wetlands

(Barbier et al. 1997), to facilitate the economic valuation of wetland resources.
Developed in conjunction with the Department of Environmental Economics and
Environmental Management at the University of York, the Institute of Hydrology,
and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the document outlines several
approaches to valuate the economic value of wetlands and weigh the benefit of
development strategies with the degradation it may cause to wetland resources. One
somewhat unique aspect of the document is the emphasis on social, cultural, and
political values for decision-making. This is accomplished by addressing not only
the valuation of direct economic benefits from wetlands (e.g., timber and food
resources), but also indirect economic benefits (e.g., biological functions such as
flood attenuation and future uses and benefits) and nonuse values (e.g., biodiversity
and cultural heritage).
The framework provided in

Economic Valuation of Wetlands

includes seven steps
(Table 1). In practice, the valuation requires an interdisciplinary approach and the
cooperative effort of specialists, including economists, hydrologists, fishery and
wetland biologists, and sociologists.
The first step in the valuation is selecting the appropriate approach. There are
three assessment approaches, impact analysis, partial valuation, and total valuation,
available based on the type of development and degree of impact to the wetland’s
integrity. An impact analysis assesses the external costs of off-site development or
activities such as discharges from industries or mining activities. This analysis would
compare the benefit of the activity to the losses in specific wetland resources from
off-site impacts. A partial valuation is used to evaluate changes in the allocation or


©2001 CRC Press LLC

the alternative uses of wetland resources. An example is the diversion of floodwater
for irrigation. While not all of the wetland resources may be impacted, valuation of
the benefits lost is compared to benefits gained from the irrigation project. In addition,
evaluation of the alternative uses of the floodwater would be considered. Such alter-
natives may be the use of floodplains for fish farming or agricultural benefits from
nutrient loading of floodwaters. The third approach, total valuation, is used to evaluate
a wetland’s contribution to society as a whole. This valuation may be applied in
wetland preservation strategies and regional natural resource assessments.
The second step in the framework is to define the wetland area, time scale, and
analytical boundaries of the assessment. The defined parameters will differ based
on the assessment approach. An impact assessment may only require a short time
scale such as the time discharge flows from an industry and small analytical bound-
aries such as the area of the water resources impacted. A total valuation may require
consideration of all wetland resources, a large analytical boundary, and an extended
time scale.
Step three identifies the corresponding functions and attributes of the wetland.
This step requires review of previous research and may require additional research
to ensure thorough identification of the functions and attributes to be considered in
the valuation. This critical stage will also require the collaborative teamwork of
specialists in differing fields.
Step four in the valuation defines and prioritizes the values of the identified
wetland functions and attributes (see Chapter 3). Functions and values may be use
(e.g., direct, indirect, and option or quasi-option) or nonuse. Direct uses are values
most often used in economic valuation studies because these activities are directly
marketed. Examples of direct use include agricultural resources, fuelwood, recreation,
harvesting, and transportation uses. In many instances, these activities are used for
subsistence purposes and appropriate evaluation techniques must be applied. How-

ever, either as marketed or subsistence resources direct use can be quantified based
on a marketed economic value. Indirect use values are primarily ecological functions
that protect or support direct uses. These values include flood attenuation, erosion
control, nutrient retention, and groundwater recharge. Option and quasi-option values
are potential future uses (both direct and indirect) and future information use. Value
accrues by delaying development or exploitation. Option and quasi-option values
may change with changes in economic, social, and scientific circumstances.
Nonuse value is the wetland’s intrinsic existence value. The most difficult to
quantify, nonuse value includes biodiversity, cultural heritage, and preservation for

Table 1 Framework for the Economic Valuation of Wetlands

(Barbier et al., 1997)

1. Select an assessment approach
2. Define the wetland boundary and system boundary
3. Identify and rank wetland components, functions, and attributes
4. Relate components, functions, and attributes to type of use value
5. Identify information required to assess uses
6. Quantify economic values
7. Implement the appraisal method

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future generations. Contributions to conservation campaigns are one indicator of the
value society places on these uses.
Step five in the valuation process is to obtain detailed information about the
identified values. This information includes scientific data, statistical data on human
uses, economic inputs and outputs of activities, and survey results, and is critical to
the valuation process. For example, scientific data will provide details on indirect

use values such as flood retention capacity, degree of erosion protection, populations
of harvested species, and growth rates of forests. Statistical data on human uses and
economic inputs—outputs of activities, including agricultural and fishery yields and
tourism revenues—provide detail on direct marketable uses. Information from sur-
veys may provide valuable information on option based or intrinsic values that are
otherwise difficult to quantify.
Once an appropriate assessment approach is chosen, and values are identified,
classified, and defined statistically, the actual valuation is conducted. Most critical
in this sixth step is choosing the proper technique for valuating resources and their
use.

Economic Valuation for Wetlands

does not detail the methods for each technique,
although it provides a list of advantages and disadvantages. For example, market
prices may be applied to direct market uses, while surrogate market price may be
applied to a wetland resource that is not marketed but is closely related to a marketed
good or service. Another direct use method is indirect substitute, where the cost of
an alternative source of resources is applied to the wetland resource such as water
imported from the outside vs. water used from the wetland.
For indirect uses, approaches such as the value in changes in productivity and
damage costs avoided can be used to determine the impact of ecological degradation.
To determine option values and nonuse values, the contingent valuation method is
most widely used. Because of its context in nonuse valuation, this method is con-
troversial. However, it does provide an assessment of an individual’s or society’s
willingness to pay for the value, or how much compensation they would require
upon loss of the use. Another approach to determining option and nonuse values is
to determine the sustainable yield of current activities and alternative or compen-
sating projects that could be offered. If current activities are not sustainable, alter-
native scenarios that offer higher social returns are offered. Compensating projects

offer mitigation for environmental degradation, while maintaining long-term sus-
tainability in the overall natural system and ensuring nonuse values.
The final step in the valuation framework is to implement the appropriate
appraisal method. Again,

Economic Valuation of Wetlands

does not detail methods
but lists advantages, disadvantages, and most appropriate cases for implementation.
These methods include cost–benefit analysis, multiple criteria analysis, land suit-
ability/classification models, environmental impact assessments, and cost-effective-
ness analysis. Upon implementation of appraisal methods,

Economic Valuation of
Wetlands

stresses the importance of applying the economic valuation methods within
social, political, and cultural contexts. In addition, this valuation should be conducted
with interdisciplinary collaboration and provide effective institutional capacity build-
ing upon decision making. This capacity is based on the training and information
provided by those conducting the valuation to those involved in decision making.
Thus, the valuation should be founded on thorough information and appropriate

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evaluation techniques. As stated by Delmar Blasco, Secretary General for the Ramsar
Convention Bureau, “It is important to stress that economic valuation is not a panacea
for all decisions, that it represents just one input into the decision-making process,
along with important political, social, cultural and other considerations. The goal of
this text is to assist planners and decision-makers in increasing the input from

economic valuation in order to take the best possible road towards a sustainable
future” (Barbier et al., 1997).

CASE STUDIES

Four case studies illustrate the types of management issues confronting countries
with wetlands of international importance (Table 2). Both freshwater and coastal
wetland systems in developed and developing countries are represented. The types
of threats and impacts include excessive resource extraction, altered hydrology, and
pollution. Conservation efforts include restoration, international agreements, protec-
tion of critical areas, education, and use restrictions.
The Everglades is contained wholly within the United States. The Everglades
supports many threatened and endangered species and migratory bird populations.
Groundwater recharge and surface water flow are critical to the social and economic
well-being of burgeoning South Florida. The other case studies illustrate issues
associated with transboundary wetlands. The Mekong Delta is a major coastal
system. The Delta has recovered from wartime impacts but is now threatened by
unsustainable subsistence use and upstream hydropower projects. The Pantanal is a
significant contributor to regional biodiversity. In some ways, the situation in the
Pantanal mirrors that of the Everglades in the early 20th century—a large, relatively
pristine and productive wetland is threatened by a proposal to alter regional hydrol-
ogy to accommodate economic growth. The Wadden Sea is a major coastal and
shallow marine system in northern Europe. Located in a developed region of the
world, the Wadden Sea is subjected to coastal armament and pollution.

Florida Everglades

Known as the River of Grass, the Florida Everglades is one of the largest
freshwater marshes in the world, historically encompassing about 3.5 million ha
(Figure 1). It extends from Lake Okeechobee in south central Florida to the southern

tip of Florida where its wide mouth empties into Florida Bay and other smaller bays
and estuaries. The headwaters of the Everglades begin as small streams and lakes
in central Florida and flow through the Kissimmee Lakes and River system. This
system leads to Lake Okeechobee, a 300 ha natural reservoir formed in the center
of the state when sea levels fell during the last ice age. Water historically flowed
over the southern edge of Lake Okeechobee and into the Everglades. From here the
water flowed to the Gulf of Mexico via the Caloosahatchee River and to the Atlantic
Ocean via the St. Lucie River (Robinson et al., 1996).

Table 2 Characteristics of Case Study Wetlands
Location Size (ha) Habitat
Function and
Value
Threats and
Impacts Conservation Efforts

Florida Everglades United States 3,500,000 Freshwater marsh,
mangrove, swamp,
slough, estuary,
shallow bay
Fish and wildlife
habitat, recreation,
tourism,
agriculture,
drinking water,
cultural heritage
Agriculture, altered
hydrology,
pollution, exotic
vegetation

Protected areas,
restoration plan,
stormwater treatment
areas, agricultural
BMPs
Mekong Delta Laos, Myanmar,
Thailand,
Cambodia,
Vietnam
3,900,000 Melaleuca forest,
mangrove, tidal
mudflat
Fisheries,
agriculture, forest
resources,
transportation
Deforestation,
pollution,
hydropower
Protected areas,
education,
Commission toward
Sustainable
Development
Pantanal Brazil, Bolivia,
Paraguay
11,000,000 Swamp, forest,
savannah, lake
margin scrub,
gallery forest

Flood control, fish
and wildlife habitat,
fisheries, cattle
ranching, tourism
Cattle ranching,
agriculture,
overfishing,
hunting, Hydrovia
project
Protected areas,
education,
Intergovernmental
Committee on
Hydrovia
Wadden Sea Denmark,
Germany,
Netherlands
1,350,500 Tidal channel, mud
flat, salt marsh,
beach, dune
Primary
productivity, fish
and wildlife habitat,
tourism, recreation
Infrastructure
development,
pollution, shellfish
harvesting
Joint Declaration on
the Protection,

protected areas,
prohibited shoreline
armoring
©2001 CRC Press LLC

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Functions and Values

Small elevation differences within the Everglades contribute to the formation of
many distinct ecosystems including swampy cypress domes, hydric hardwood ham-
mocks, pinewoods, freshwater sloughs, brackish estuaries, shallow shorelines and
embayments, and deeper gulf waters (Frazier, 1996; World Conservation Monitoring
Centre, 1990). These diverse ecosystems are habitat for 25 terrestrial and 2 aquatic
mammals including the endangered Florida black bear (

Ursus americanus

), Florida
panther (

Felis concolor

), and West Indian manatee (

Trichechus manatus

). Over 300
species of birds have been observed, many of which use the area as a stop on their
migration to and from Central and South America. Many of North America’s water-

fowl and shore birds can be found using the Everglades as a seasonal home. Some,
like the wood stork (

Mycteria americana

), sandhill crane (

Grus canadensis

), glossy

Figure 1

The Florida Everglades; the shaded area represents the remnant Everglades–Flor-
ida Bay ecosystem; WCAs are water conservation areas. (Modified from South
Florida Water Management District, 1999.)
Florida
Lake
Okeechobee
EAA
WCA-1
WCA-2
WCA-3
Miami
Everglades
National
Park
Florida Bay

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ibis (

Plegadis falcinellus

), and roseate spoonbill (

Ajaia ajaja

), are threatened or
endangered. The threatened or endangered American crocodile (

Crocodylus acutus

),
American alligator (

Alligator mississippiensis

), indigo snake (

Drymarchon corais

),
loggerhead turtle (

Caretta caretta

), hawksbill turtle (


Eretmochelys imbricata

), and
green sea turtle (

Chelonia mydas

) are among the more than 50 species of reptiles
inhabiting the Everglades.
The flora of the Everglades is as varied as its ecosystems, with 10,000 species
of seed-bearing plants and 120 species of trees. Plant types range from the charac-
teristic sawgrass (

Cladium jamaicensis

), to bromeliads and epiphytic orchids, to
tropical (e.g., gumbo limbo,

Bursera simaruba

) and temperate (oaks,

Quercu

s spp.)
trees. Over 60 plant species found in the Everglades are endemic to South Florida.
Periphyton is an important component of the Everglades ecosystem. High in calcite
and dominated by filamentous blue-green algae, the periphyton community helps
build marl, a soil overlying the limestone foundation of the Everglades, and supports
an intricate food web.

In the transition from fresh to salt water, the Everglades estuarine systems provide
a nursery for the Florida Bay’s fishing industry. In 1989, harvesting of lobster
(

Panulirus argus

), stone crab (

Menippe mercenaria

), and pink shrimp (

Penaeus
duorarum

) brought in revenue of US $61 million (Redfield et al., 1999). One county
alone made over $35 million in 1992, making the Everglades and Florida Bay an
important economic resource (Robinson et al., 1996). In addition, Everglades
National Park is an economic center for tourism with over 250 thousand visitors a
year (World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1990).
Another economic interest operating within the Everglades historic boundary is
agriculture. Based mainly on sugarcane crops, this multibillion dollar industry relies
on the rich soils of drained portions of the Everglades. Unfortunately, the develop-
ment of this industry has had profound direct and indirect effects on the integrity
of the Everglades ecosystem.
The Everglades also has important social and cultural values. Demand for fresh-
water resources increased markedly with the development of South Florida. The
porous nature of the limestone baserock recharges an underlying aquifer. A total of
90 percent of the regional population receives its potable water from this aquifer.
Freshwater recharge into the southern part of the Everglades prevents saltwater

intrusion into the aquifer. The Everglades also protects South Florida residents from
heavy surf associated with hurricanes and high tides. Mangrove forests and barrier
islands along the coastal edges serve as protective barriers.
The Everglades cultural value derives from historic and continued habitation by
indigenous peoples (Robinson et al., 1996). The Calusa and Tequesta arrived in
Florida 11,000 years ago and thrived until the early 1800s when they succumbed to
diseases and war accompanying European settlers. Remnants of the Calusa and
Tequesta remain in the form of shell mounds and artifacts. Other Native Americans,
the Seminoles, fled to Florida in the early 18th century when tribes were pressured
west and south by colonial expansion. A small, non-Christian faction of the Semi-
noles, the Miccosukee, lives in the Everglades today.

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Threats and Impacts

Impacts to the Everglades are related to a long history of cultural and economic
development. The earliest records of the first ecological changes to the system are
from the late 19th century (Robinson et al., 1996). In 1881, one of the first devel-
opers, Hamilton Disston, began draining wetlands around Lake Okeechobee to create
farmland. In addition, canals were built within the northern part of the watershed.
While these drainage efforts had little effect on Lake Okeechobee and its overflows
into the Everglades, it opened the door to reclaiming the Everglades for civilization
(Derr, 1993). With mild year-round weather and fertile soils, the area quickly became
an agricultural center.
To support development, the State of Florida encouraged drainage. The Ever-
glades Drainage District excavated 700 km of canals by 1927. The Hoover Dike
was built along the southern shore of Lake Okeechobee in the late 1920s in response
to flood disasters caused by several hurricanes. In large part, the dike separated the
lake from the Everglades. During this same time period, the Tamiami Trail was

built, linking Miami with the Gulf Coast. This roadway, built through the middle
of the Everglades, separated the northern and southern Everglades disrupting the
natural hydroperiod.
Construction of the canals, Hoover Dike, and the Tamiami Trail had a quick and
obvious impact on the hydrology of the Everglades. Models indicate that the first
four canals removed 1.5 million acre-feet of water per year from the system. Impacts
to wildlife, especially waterfowl, were evident. In addition, a 1.2 m decrease in
groundwater levels caused soils to oxidize and subside. By 1940, 1.8 to 2.1 m of
soil was lost and the slope of the land became concave, reversing the direction of
flow in the northern part of the Everglades toward Lake Okeechobee (Robinson
et al., 1996; Redfield et al., 1999).
In 1948, in response to concerns about droughts and floods in the northern part
of the Everglades, Congress authorized an expansion of the canal system (McLean
and Bush, 1999). The US $208 million Central and South Florida Project consisted
of 1250 km of flood control canals. The Central and South Florida Flood Control
District was established to manage the project and to allocate water resources through
the system of canals, levees, locks, and dams. Additional levees were built south of
Lake Okeechobee to block sheet flow to the increasingly populated Atlantic Coast.
The levees were also used to create Water Conservation Areas that would retain the
waters of the Everglades.
During this same time period, the southernmost 5 percent of the historic Ever-
glades was designated as a National Park. However, this designation would not
protect the Everglade’s fragile and valuable ecosystem. By the 1960s, degradation
of the Everglades was a sensitive issue throughout the United States. Congress
enacted the Water Resource Development Act in 1970, mandating a minimum water
delivery to the Everglades. In 1972, the Water Resources Act was passed, mandating
the protection of the Everglades through improvements in water quantity and quality.
The Central and South Florida Flood Control District was renamed the South Florida
Water Management District (one of five newly formed districts in the state), with a
new mission of protecting water quality and preserving environmental values


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(Robinson et al., 1996). The new District was required to balance the water resource
needs of urban, agricultural, and natural areas. Areas in the northern and central part
of the Everglades, between the Everglades Agricultural Areas and Everglades
National Park, were placed under protection and designated as the Everglades Pro-
tection Area. During the next 20 years, studies would indicate that the Everglades
continued to be impacted. Despite new water discharge requirements, the quality
and quantity of water resources delivered to the park were inadequate to maintain
ecosystem health.
For decades, the most obvious change to the ecosystem was alteration of the
hydrologic flow. Conversion of more than 50 percent of the historic Everglades to
agricultural and urban areas resulted in a decrease in regional water storage. The
construction of canals, drainage ditches, and dikes to control floodwaters dramati-
cally changed natural sheet flow and hydroperiod. Sudden releases from the water
control structures inundated areas that that had been abnormally dry for extended
periods, disrupting foraging and nesting habits of wading birds and herpetofauna.
In addition, changes in water depth altered macrophyte and algal community com-
position, disrupting primary production processes.
The disruption in natural sheet flow to the Everglades has impacted areas as far
south as the Florida Bay, and possibly the coral reefs of the Florida Keys (Robinson
et al., 1996). Because freshwater flow has decreased, salinity levels have risen
stressing aquatic organisms adapted to narrower salinity ranges. In addition, waters
of Florida Bay have warmed, altering current exchange patterns with the Atlantic
Ocean. Reduction in freshwater flows to the Everglades has also impacted mangrove
and upland communities of the Atlantic Coast as groundwater recharge decreased
and saltwater intrusion increased.
The loss in groundwater recharge has also impacted the supply of potable water
to the region (Robinson et al., 1996). Groundwater resources, the primary source of

South Florida’s water supply, are used at a rate exceeding recharge rates. Freshwater
has become scarcer, and potable water must be imported to large parts of the region.
Research indicates that the water reaching the Everglades is of poor quality
(McCormack et al., 1999). Stormwater runoff diverted by canals to the Everglades
Protection Area contains high levels of nutrients from agricultural areas. Once an
oligotrophic system, the Everglades now exhibits signs of eutrophication. Natural
surface water total phosphorus concentrations are between 4 to 10 ppb, while agri-
cultural runoff concentrations range between 50 to 200 ppb total phosphorus. Natural
soil total phosphorus concentrations are between 200 to 500 ppb, whereas soil
concentrations downstream of agricultural areas reach 1000 ppb total phosphorus.
Elevated concentrations of total phosphorus are linked to shifts in algae species better
adapted to high nutrient loading. Sudden algal blooms cause low water column
dissolved oxygen levels threatening invertebrate organisms. In Lake Okeechobee,
algal blooms cause fish kills. Florida Bay has experienced low dissolved oxygen
levels with subsequent impacts to seagrass communities vital to fisheries.
High nutrient loading has also contributed to a shift from diverse wetland plant
species to a monoculture of cattails in some parts of the Everglades. Under high
nutrient conditions, cattails are able to out compete sawgrass and other macrophytes,
especially when accompanied by hydrologic changes.

©2001 CRC Press LLC

Hydrologic and other disturbances have created opportunities for the establish-
ment of exotic vegetation (Ferriter et al., 1999). Brazilian pepper (

Schinus terebin-
thifolius

), Australian pine (


Casuarina litorea

), and especially melaluca (

Melaleuca
quinquenervia

), are of primary concern. Melaluca is the dominant exotic in some
parts of the Everglades. It thrives in lower water levels and produces thousands of
seeds per plant. Melaleuca was introduced to the Everglades in the belief that its
high evapotranspiration rate would dry out wet areas (Derr, 1993; Robinson
et al., 1996).
The latest threat to the Everglades is the accumulation of mercury in sediments
(Fink et al., 1999). Mercury is deposited from the atmosphere and converted to
highly toxic methylmercury by sulfate bacteria. Methylmercury bioaccumulates and
has the potential for affecting wildlife at all levels of the food web. Top predators
may accumulate up to 10 million times the concentration in water. Mercury also
presents a human health risk, and fish consumption in the Everglades, eastern Florida
Bay, and the Big Cypress Conservation Area is either prohibited or restricted.
Although the accumulation of methylmercury has not been observed to affect repro-
ductive rates in waterbirds, it may affect eating and foraging habits (Frederick et al.,
1999; Bouton et al., 1999). Mercury poisoning is the suggested cause of several
Florida panther deaths and reduced litter sizes (Florida Panther Interagency Com-
mittee, 1989).

Conservation Efforts

In 1988, the United States government sued the Florida Department of Environ-
mental Regulation and the South Florida Water Management District for failing to
maintain high water quality in waters flowing to the Everglades National Park and

the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge. In 1991, a settlement was reached and
the defendants agreed to guarantee water quality and water quantity needed to
preserve and restore the unique flora and fauna of the Park and the Refuge (Robinson
et al., 1996). With a July 2002 deadline to meet these agreements, the state of Florida
passed the Everglades Forever Act in 1994. Strategies outlined in the Act are designed
to achieve water quality standards by December 31, 2006. The Everglades Forever
Act mandated a fair share of restoration costs be borne by agricultural interests. In
addition, the Act recognized that urban development encroached upon the natural
system and authorized the South Florida Water Management District to impose a
homeowner’s tax of an average of US $10 a year (Robinson et al., 1996).
Initial management efforts focused on reducing nutrient loading from agricultural
area stormwater runoff to the Everglades Protection Area (Chimney et al., 1999).
The Everglades Nutrient Removal Project purchased agricultural land and converted
it to wetland stormwater treatment areas (STAs). The STAs are macrophyte-based
systems designed to remove phosphorus from agricultural stormwater runoff. The
original goal of the STAs was to reduce total phosphorus in agricultural runoff to
50 ppb or less and to discharge the treated water to the Everglades Protection Area.
To date, the STAs have reduced total phosphorus concentrations to an average of
22 ppb, an 82 percent load reduction (Redfield et al., 1999). A total of 63 metric

©2001 CRC Press LLC

tons of phosphorus have been removed that would have been discharged to the
Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge.
Best Management Practices (BMPs) are being implemented in the Everglades
Agricultural Area (Whalen et al., 1999). A total of 16 BMPs have been identified
and implemented through regulatory and educational initiatives. The BMPs include
increased water detention for settling of nutrients, fertilizer application controls (e.g.,
direct root application by banding or split application), sediment controls (e.g., ditch
improvements and sump installation), pasture management, xeriscaping, and vege-

tative filtering. During the first 3 years of BMP implementation (1995 to 1998), the
total phosphorus load was reduced by 55 percent (Redfield et al., 1999).
Additional management initiatives are focused on mercury, supplemental treat-
ment technologies, and a Central and South Florida restudy. Mercury studies will
provide information about the complex interactions between phosphorus, sulfate,
and other water quality parameters and methylmercury. Other studies and modeling
will estimate the no observable adverse effect level for Everglades fish and wildlife.
Other research is underway to identify supplemental technologies for reducing
nutrient loads to the EPA. Recent studies have suggested that optimal total phos-
phorus concentrations should not exceed 10 ppb. STA performance must be supple-
mented to achieve this level. Currently, nine technologies, ranging from chemical
treatment to improved treatment wetland design, are being evaluated. Submerged
aquatic vegetation and periphyton-based wetland treatment systems appear promis-
ing. Successful technologies may be integrated into the existing STAs or imple-
mented as an additional treatment system. However, certain guidelines must be met,
including technical feasibility, local acceptability, and large-scale applicability. The
most effective technology(s) will be implemented by December 2003.
The largest conservation effort is a restudy of the Central and South Florida
Project (McLean and Bush, 1999). The main objective of the study is to create
additional storage and increase water flowing to the Everglades Protection Area
(Redfield et al., 1999). The study will include intensive modeling of hydrologic
regimes, ecosystem dynamics, and water storage. Implementation will cost an esti-
mated US $7.8 billion and may include modification of existing flood control
structures, optimization of hydrologic regimes, and waterway restoration. Plans to
return the Kissimmee River to its natural state are being developed and implemented.
This project alone will be one of the largest restoration projects in the world.

The Mekong Delta

The Mekong River flows from the Himalayan Mountains of China 4200 km to

the South China Sea. During its course, the river travels through the countries of
Laos, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam (Figure 2). The river
drops its sediment load upon reaching the calm waters of the China Sea, creating
shallow plateaus where vegetation grows. This is the Mekong Delta. The Mekong
Delta encompasses 3.9 million ha of mangrove and melaleuca forests, tidal mudflats,
and shrimp and fish ponds (Frazier, 1996).

©2001 CRC Press LLC

Functions and Values

The many wetlands of the Mekong Delta are habitat for breeding colonies of
native waterfowl (Frazier, 1996). Over 50 species of migratory birds use the wetlands
during the migratory period. The coastal wetlands also provide protection to the
coastline, reducing erosion from wave action. The majority of the coastal wetlands
are mangrove forests that act as a sediment filter, reducing turbidity and increasing
water quality. The inland wetlands are comprised mainly of melaleuca forests. These
seasonally flooded wetlands reduce the acidity and sulfur content of underlying soils.

Figure 2

The Mekong Delta.
INDIA
BURMA
L A O S
C H I N A
V I E T N A M
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
ANDAMAN

SEA
G U L F O F S I A M
S O U T H C H I N A S E A
Bangkok
Phnom
Penh
Ho Chi Minh
Rangoon
Hanoi
Vientiane
Mekong
Delta
GULF
OF
TONKIN

©2001 CRC Press LLC

The Mekong Delta plays a critical role in the economy of Vietnam (Khoa and
Roth-Nelson, 1994; Frazier, 1996). Vietnamese rely heavily on the Delta for food,
fuelwood, timber, and water resources. Much of the land area is used for agriculture,
especially rice production, and aquaculture including fish, crab, and shrimp nurseries.
Timber from both mangrove and melaleuca forests are used for firewood, furniture,
home construction, and tannin. Other goods from the Delta include paper, glue,
synthetic fiber, sugar wine, and salt. In addition, the Delta's waterways are transpor-
tation routes between economic centers. Because of its economic significance, the
Mekong Delta has become a cultural center of over 14 million inhabitants (20 percent
of Vietnam’s population), with a density of 300 to 500 people per km

2


.

Threats and Impacts

The Vietnam War contributed heavily to the initial degradation of the Mekong
Delta (Khoa and Roth-Nelson, 1994; Frazier, 1996). Napalm bombs and defoliants
destroyed much of the vegetation, including nearly half of the mangrove forests. A
large section of the Delta, the Plain of Reeds, was drained for combat. Many people
were left homeless when the war ended. In an effort to survive and to rebuild their
nation, the people of Vietnam exploited what little resources remained.
The Mekong Delta has recovered significantly from the war, although the area
still suffers from unsustainable uses of resources (Duc, 1993; Khoa and Roth-Nelson,
1994). Inland, melaleuca forests are used as a fuelwood resource and are areas of
agricultural and aquacultural activities. Due to the highly acidic soils, production is
low, and the farms are often abandoned. Thus, there is a continuous cycle of forest
clearing as subsistence farmers move to new plots of forest. As the melaleuca timber
resources are depleted, wood from coastal mangroves is exported inland. Mangrove
deforestation increases coastal erosion; up to 70 m of land is lost to the sea per year
(Bentham et al., 1997). The loss of coastal mangroves also leads to salt water
intrusion, disrupting the delicate balance of fresh and salt water to which many
organisms have become adapted.
Another impact to water quality is pollution from human activities both within
the Delta and the upper Mekong River Basin (Mekong River Commission, 1995).
Sewage is regularly disposed of directly into the water. Upstream, agricultural
activities contribute both nutrients and chemicals into the Delta's water source.
These pollutants decrease water quality and compromise the integrity of the wet-
land ecosystems.
Additional threats to the Delta’s integrity arise from the development of the upper
Mekong River Basin (Lohmann, 1990). Planned at high water velocity points along

the Mekong River are 6 to 50 hydropower projects. The diversion of fresh water may
alter the Delta’s hydrologic regime and salinity, reduce organic matter inputs, increase
pollution, and decrease fish populations (Lanza, 1996; Wegner, 1997).
The hydropower projects are of international importance. In an area of great
economic instability, countries have much to gain from reliable and relatively
inexpensive energy (Tu, 1996; Osborne, 1996; Chape and Inthavong, 1996). For
example, much of the Mekong lies along Cambodia’s border. Presently, Cambodia's

©2001 CRC Press LLC

development needs are minimal because its population is small and its economy is
restrained by a socialist political system. However, dams constructed in Cambodia's
part of the Mekong River could harness large amounts of energy and be sold to
more developed countries, such as Thailand, where populations are booming and
economic opportunities are growing due to capitalistic industrialization and a dem-
ocratic political system. Conflicts in water resource allocation could arise as
Mekong River Basin nations achieve economic development at the expense of the
economic and cultural stability of the Vietnamese living in the Delta. In a region
of historical conflict and instability, cooperation between countries of the Mekong
River basin is necessary to maintain current peaceful conditions.

Conservation Efforts

Although the Mekong Delta is not a site listed under the Ramsar Convention,
Vietnam is a participating member (with one listed site). As a member, it must meet
obligations outlined by the Convention. These include promoting wetland conser-
vation throughout the region, establishing wetland reserves, considering wetland
conservation within the context of land use planning, and promoting training in the
management of wetland resources.
Through the Ministry of Water Resources and the Ministry of Agriculture, the

Vietnam Government has established six protected wetland regions within the
Mekong Delta (Khoa and Roth-Nelson, 1994; Beilfuss and Barzen, 1994). They are
the Tram Chin Crane Reserve at Dong Thap Muoi, the Nam Can Mangrove Reserve,
Vo Doi Melaleuca Protected Forest, and three waterfowl breeding colonies in Bac
Lieu, Cai Nuoc, and Dam Doi. Management within these sites includes protection
of waterfowl, the reestablishment of mangrove and melaleuca forests, and the res-
toration of hydrologic regimes. The State Program on the Rational Utilization of
Natural Resources and Environmental Protection designs management plans,
research studies, and training programs to be implemented in the reserves.
The Vietnam government is also promoting community awareness and cooper-
ation (Duc, 1993; Bentham et al., 1997). In promoting sustainable use of mangrove
and melaleuca forests, the government is issuing long-term leases of land resources
(owned by a socialist political system) to farmers and fishermen. Under the rental
agreement, farmers and fisherman gain use rights while promising to restore and
conserve resources. In mangrove forests, 5 to 10 ha are leased and 20 to 30 percent
of the area may be used for aquaculture. The remainder of the area must be reforested
or preserved. At melaleuca forest sites, 10 ha plots are leased; 7.5 ha must be
preserved or replanted and 2.5 ha will be used for permanent agriculture.
In addition to the leasing plan, community education is provided to facilitate
local participation in the plan. The Soil Science Department of Hanoi State Univer-
sity has provided a plan for sustainable agriculture. The plan outlines a system of
rotating crops and intercropping using key native flora species. This system reduces
the acids and sulfates in the soils that make cultivation unproductive. Also outlined
is a proposed land-use plan that designates areas of protection and human activities
(Khoa and Roth-Nelson, 1994).

©2001 CRC Press LLC

To address the potential conflicts with the implementation of hydropower
projects, the five countries in the Mekong River basin have formed the Mekong

River Commission toward Sustainable Development (Tu, 1996). The Commission
has conducted a detailed diagnostic study to assess the development projects in
context with socioeconomic structures, political frameworks, and ecological
resources. From this study, the Commission has outlined a basic plan of action
(Mekong River Commission, 1997). The plan addresses the need to build institutional
frameworks for environmental management and policy making, establishing basin-
wide environmental standards, and strengthening environmental regulatory and
enforcement mechanisms. To provide critical support to environmental agencies,
training programs will be developed to diversify the workforce. Also, information
systems will be improved to provide data on basin ecosystems and resources, and
pollution and degradation sources. With this additional support, the development of
project plans will incorporate environmental concerns and protection. In an initiative
to promote community participation, environmental protection will include programs
for land tenure and poverty alleviation. The Commission hopes to approach problems
with an adaptive and responsive attitude.

The Pantanal

The Pantanal encompasses 11 million ha and is the world’s largest freshwater
wetland. Much of the Pantanal is in the states of Matto Grosso and Matto Grosse
de Sol, Brazil, with lesser parts in the countries of Bolivia and Paraguay (Figure 3).
The Pantanal is 100 m above sea level, and situated between the Plateau of Matto
Grosso (to the east) and the savannas of Bolivia (to the west). Erosional material is
deposited at the bottom of the plateau, making the Pantanal an inland alluvial fan.
As a broad, flat basin, the Pantanal acts as a reservoir for water flowing from the
east to west and is the headwaters for the Paraguay River. Further downstream, the
Parana River meets the Paraguay forming a large waterway that flows through five
countries. The final destination of this waterway is the Rio De La Plata at Buenos
Aires, Argentina.
Annual rainfall in the region averages between 100 to 130 cm, with most rainfall

occurring between December and June. The Pantanal helps to regulate water flowing
to the Paraguay by acting as a sponge for floodwaters. Over a 6-month period, flood
waters are slowly released, maintaining dry season flow. The slow release of flood-
waters also creates a lag between the high peaks of both the Paraguay and Parana
Rivers, preventing catastrophic floods.

Functions and Values

As noted above, the Pantanal provides flood control for the Paraguay-Parana
river system. In addition, the Pantanal enhances water quality because suspended
sediments settle in its calm waters before entering the Paraguay. The Pantanal also
has high ecological value in its diverse ecosystems and wildlife (Mittermeier et al.,
1990; Gottgens et al., 1998). Habitats include swamp, deciduous forest, savannah,
lake margin scrub, and gallery forest. The fauna of the Pantanal includes 230 species

©2001 CRC Press LLC

of fish, 80 species of mammals, and 50 species of reptiles. Residing in small
populations are threatened and endangered species such as the giant otter (

Pteronura
brasiliensis

), giant anteater (

Myrmecophaga tridactyla

), maned wolf (

Chrysocyon

brachyurus

), and the jaguar (

Panthera onca

). Over 650 species of birds have been

Figure 3

The Pantanal.
CARIBBEAN
SEA
WESTINDIES
VENEZUELA
COLOMBIA
ECUADOR
PERU
BOLIVIA
BRAZIL
CHILE
ARGENTINA
FALKLAND
ISLANDS
U
R
U
G
U
A

Y
G
U
Y
A
N
A
SU
RINAM
E
FRENCH
GUYANE
PACIFIC OCEAN
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Barranquilla Maracaibo
Caracas
Medellin
Bogota
Cali
Quito
Guayaquil
Lima
La Paz
Sucre
Iquiqui
Asuncion
Curtiba
Porto
Alegre

Mendoza
La Plata
Santiago
Buenos
Aires
Montevideo
Stanley
San
Paulo
Rio de Janeiro
Belo Horizonte
Aracatuba
Brasilia
Salvador
Recife
The
Pantanal
De
Mato Grosso
Manaus
Belem
Fortaleza
Cayenne
Paramaribo
Georgetown
Cordoba
PARAGUAY
Strait of Magellan
Amazon
Gulf

of
Panama
PA
NAM
A
Gulf
of
Venezuela

©2001 CRC Press LLC

observed, including the hyacinth macaw (

Anodorhynchus hyancinthinus

), the rhea
(

Rhea americana

), and the jabiru stork (

Jabiru mycteria

). The Pantanal is also a
significant staging area for three bird migration routes.
Economic activities in the Pantanal include fishing, cattle ranching, and tourism.
Cattle ranching is the significant activity, with more than 10,000 ha of grazing land
and 10 million cattle. The region has its own cultural heritage based around this
industry, with unique music, clothing, language, and food. In part because of its

unique culture and diverse ecosystems, the Pantanal is quickly becoming a tourist
destination. Up to 10,000 people visit the area annually, and the potential for
expanded tourism is great.
Another cultural value of the Pantanal is that it is home to many indigenous
peoples (Bucher et al., 1993). There are 19 reservations in the area and as many as
12 distinct groups of people. Some of these groups are known for their handicrafts
and music, while others are close to extirpation.

Threats and Impacts

Unsustainable economic activities impact the Pantanal ecosystem (Mittermeier
et al., 1990; Bucher et al., 1993). Cattle ranching requires large tracts of land for
grazing. Wetlands are drained and forests cut down to create pastures for grazing
and other agricultural activities. In addition, cattle trample vegetation, and their
selective grazing changes vegetative composition. Native fauna such as puma (

Felis
concolor

), jaguar, and armadillo (

Dasypus novemcinctus

) may compete for food
with cattle, or prey on cattle, and thus are hunted and killed.
Another impact is overfishing. Large catches of pacu (

Colossoma metrei

), catfish

(

Surubum

sp.), cacharra (

Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum

), and other species are taken
from area lakes. Much of the overfishing is attributed to the commercial fishing
industry which exports fish to large cities in the region. Some local overfishing
occurs as well.
Hunting has impacted the populations of many indigenous species. In addition
to hunting animals to protect livestock, ranchers hunt to supplement their income.
Supplemental hunting increases as the value of beef decreases. Interestingly, sub-
sistence hunting rarely occurs, because most residents rely on fish and beef for food.
Sport hunting and hunting for skins have made the greatest impacts on native fauna.
Otter, ocelot (

Felis pardalis

), jaguar, and caiman (

Caiman crocodilus

) are hunted
for their skins. Tourists often participate in sport hunting, shooting birds, caiman,
and various mammals from roadsides.
Apparently passive recreation is also accompanied by impacts (Mittermeier et al.,
1990; Junk, 1993). Visitors often disturb wildlife by throwing stones at caiman, or

scaring birds into flight to create a photographic opportunity. Little infrastructure or
organization exists to effect public education.
Other impacts to the Pantanal include siltation of wetlands and waterways as
the result of deforestation, and pollution from agricultural activities and mining.
Also, wildlife losses occur through the international skin and animal trade (Bucher
et al., 1993).

©2001 CRC Press LLC

The greatest threat to the Pantanal is the proposed waterway project known as
Hidrovia (Bucher et al., 1993; Gottgens et al., 1998). The Hidrovia project is a
system of channels designed to enhance navigation of the Paraguay and Parana
Rivers. This enhancement would increase the transport of goods to ports throughout
the region, especially in Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil. The project engenders
significant changes to waterway morphology, including bottom dredging, channel
straightening, and waterflow regulation.
The potential impacts to the Pantanal are not completely understood and could
be devastating. The most significant impact would be a reduction in flood storage
capacity. With the straightening of river channels, water will flow at a higher velocity,
thereby causing the Pantanal to drain. Ironically, this may make the rivers difficult
to navigate. Dredging activities will increase turbidity, decreasing water quality and
impacting aquatic insects and fish populations. Other likely impacts include the loss
of ecological and biological diversity because energy and food web relationships
will be altered. Destruction of the wetlands could result in enormous social costs
because many regional economic and cultural activities rely on the Pantanal’s eco-
logical resources.

Conservation Efforts

The Pantanal is listed as a Wetland of International Importance. However, 95

percent of the wetland is privately owned (Bucher et al., 1993). Only three areas are
designated as reserves: Pantanal National Park (135,000 ha), the Federal Reserve of
Cara-Cara (61,126 ha), and the Taima Ecological Station (12,000 ha).
Concerned landowners have formed the Pantanal Defense Society to encourage
sustainable practices in the region (Mittermeier et al., 1990). Issues being addressed
include wise land use, erosion control, pollution reduction, and improved ranching
practices. The Rural Workers’ Union, state governments, scientific research organi-
zations, and environmental agencies have met to discuss sustainable use of key
wildlife species. Strategies include caiman farming to reduce poaching and fish
farming. Ranching practices are being evaluated to reduce hunting.
To implement the Hidrovia project, the basin countries formed the Intergovern-
mental Committee on the Hidrovia (CIH, Gottgens et al., 1998). As part of devel-
opment plans, the CIH conducted an economic feasibility study. However, the study
may have inaccurately evaluated the environmental costs of the Hidrovia project. A
technical panel of reviewers concluded that the study failed to fully estimate signif-
icant environmental losses to such industries as fishing and cattle ranching, and that
it overestimated the project benefits such as soybean exports and iron ore values
(Gottgens et al., 1998). In addition, the panel stated that the study failed to provide
information on existing transportation routes and plans that might be more environ-
mentally benign. Finally, the panel criticized the initial study for the lack of input
from indigenous cultures and the lack of information on the long-term environmental
effects of the project. In response, the InterAmerican Development Bank and the
United Nations Development Program contributed US $10 million in technical
assistance to conduct assessments of the engineering, economic, and environmental
costs of the project.

©2001 CRC Press LLC

Brazil and Paraguay have, or are considering, abandoning the Hidrovia Project
because of questionable economic benefits (Bucher et al., 1993; Gottgens et al.,

1998). In 1998, Brazil’s Federal Environmental Agency abandoned the proposed
construction of the waterway along its border. The national courts terminated all
ongoing studies for the construction of Hidrovia, instead focusing on smaller
nonstructural improvements. Paraguay is also considering abandoning its portion
of Hidrovia. Consultation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has provided
insight into past mistakes associated with large channelization projects in the
United States, such as those on the Mississippi River and in South Florida. How-
ever, Bolivia and Argentina are continuing to dredge new channels to create
waterways for commercial use.

The Wadden Sea

The Wadden Sea stretches from the north coast of The Netherlands, along
Germany’s coastline to the Skallingen Peninsula in Denmark (Figure 4). Encom-
passing 1,350,570 ha, the shallow sea has a wide diversity of ecosystems. Large
bays exist where the rivers meet the sea. Tidal channels, mud flats, salt marshes,
beaches, and dunes exist where the sea meets the land. Numerous barrier islands
and sand bars protect the coastline from the harsh North Sea.
Tidal flats comprise two thirds of the Wadden Sea (Frazier, 1996; Common
Wadden Sea Secretariat, 1997). Diurnal tides bring 1500 ha of water from the North
Sea into the Wadden, doubling its size. Sand and silt carried with the tide settle in
the calmer waters of the Wadden creating tidal flats that are exposed at low tide. As
the largest stretch of tidal flats in the world, the Wadden Sea accounts for 60 percent
of all tidal areas in Europe and North Africa.

Functions and Values

The productivity of the Wadden Sea can be compared with that of tropical rain
forests (Common Wadden Sea Secretariat, 1997). Shallow water and high nutrient
levels result in high primary productivity. Phytoplankton and algae support a great

abundance and diversity of bird, mammal, and fish species. The environment of the
Wadden Sea is highly variable, with extreme temperatures, salinities, and water
levels. Indigenous species have adapted to these extremes, and there are more than
250 endemic species and ecotypes. The Wadden Sea is a site of international impor-
tance for waterfowl species. Documented are 52 distinct populations of 41 species.
Of the individuals from 20 populations, one half use the area during a stage of their
annual life cycle and 10 species are endemic. Approximately 10 to 12 million birds
stop in the area to rest and feed during migration (Davis, 1993; Dugan, 1993; Frazier,
1996).
The Wadden Sea is also habitat for marine mammals such as the harbor seal
(

Phoca vitulina

), the gray seal (

Halichoerus grypus

), and the bottlenose dolphin
(

Tursiops truncatus

). In addition, the Wadden Sea is a spawning and migration
ground for 102 species of fish, with 34 designated as rare or extremely rare. Many
of these species are found only in the sea during certain times of the year. Large

©2001 CRC Press LLC

percentages of major commercial species such as plaice (


Pleuronectes platessa

),
sole (

Solea solea

), and North Sea herring (

Clupea harengus

) mature in the Wadden
Sea, making the sea economically important to the region.
Other economic values of the Wadden Sea are tourism and recreation. Currently,
30 to 40 million people a year visit the Wadden Sea (Davis, 1993). The tourism
industry has become one of the most important economic inputs into the area, with
some barrier islands completely dependent upon tourism for economic stability.

Threats and Impacts

The most obvious impact to the Wadden Sea is the construction of embankments,
dikes, and shipping ports (Enemark, 1993; Common Wadden Sea Secretariat, 1997).
Construction of embankments have reduced the number of bays and impeded the
natural migration of barrier islands and sandbars. Collectively, these infrastructure
projects have resulted in the loss of 16,000 ha of land area, almost half of what now
remains. This loss reduces natural habitat and accentuates the difference between
low and high tides, thereby creating the potential for the loss of coastline from
erosion and submersion.


Figure 4

The Wadden Sea.
Wadden
Sea
Denmark
Netherlands
Germany