Historical Importance of the Vietnam War: The Vietnam War was the
prolonged struggle between nationalist forces attempting to unify the country
of Vietnam under a communist government and the United States (with the
aid of the South Vietnamese) attempting to prevent the spread of
communism. Engaged in a war that many viewed as having no way to win,
U.S. leaders lost the American public's support for the war. Since the end of
the war, the Vietnam War has become a benchmark for what not to do in all
future U.S. foreign conflicts.
Dates of the Vietnam War: 1959 April 30, 1975
Also Known As: American War in Vietnam, Vietnam Conflict, Second
Indochina War, War Against the Americans to Save the Nation
Overview of the Vietnam War:
Ho Chi Minh Comes Home
There had been fighting in Vietnam for decades before the Vietnam War
began. The Vietnamese had suffered under French colonial rule for nearly six
decades when Japan invaded portions of Vietnam in 1940. It was in 1941,
when Vietnam had two foreign powers occupying them, that communist
Vietnamese revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh arrived back in Vietnam after
spending thirty years traveling the world.
Once Ho was back in Vietnam, he established a headquarters in a cave in
northern Vietnam and established the Viet Minh, whose goal was to rid
Vietnam of the French and Japanese occupiers. Having gained support for
their cause in northern Vietnam, the Viet Minh announced the establishment
of an independent Vietnam with a new government called the Democratic
Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945. The French, however, were not
willing to give up their colony so easily and fought back.
For years, Ho had tried to court the United States to support him against the
French, including supplying the U.S. with military intelligence about the
Japanese during World War II. Despite this aid, the United States was fully
dedicated to their Cold War foreign policy of containment, which meant
preventing the spread of Communism. This fear of the spread of Communism

was heightened by the U.S. "domino theory," which stated that if one
country in Southeast Asia fell to Communism then surrounding countries
would also soon fall. To help prevent Vietnam from becoming a communist
country, the U.S. decided to help France defeat Ho and his revolutionaries by
sending the French military aid in 1950.
France Steps Out, U.S. Steps In
In 1954, after suffering a decisive defeat at Dien Bien Phu, the French
decided to pull out of Vietnam. At the Geneva Conference of 1954, a number
of nations met to determine how the French could peacefully withdraw. The
agreement that came out of the conference (called the Geneva Accords)
stipulated a cease fire for the peaceful withdrawal of French forces and the
temporary division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel (which split the
country into communist North Vietnam and non-communist South Vietnam).
In addition, a general democratic election was to be held in 1956 that would
reunite the country under one government. The United States refused to
agree to the election, fearing the communists might win.
With help from the United States, South Vietnam carried out the election
only in South Vietnam rather than countrywide. After eliminating most of his
rivals, Ngo Dinh Diem was elected. His leadership, however, proved so
horrible that he was killed in 1963 during a coup supported by the United
States. Since Diem had alienated many South Vietnamese during his tenure,
communist sympathizers in South Vietnam established the National
Liberation Front (NLF), also known as the Viet Cong, in 1960 to use guerilla
warfare against the South Vietnamese.
First U.S. Ground Troops Sent to Vietnam
As the fighting between the Viet Cong and the South Vietnamese continued,
the U.S. continued to send additional advisers to South Vietnam. When the
North Vietnamese fired directly upon two U.S. ships in international waters
on August 2 and 4, 1964 (known as the Gulf of Tonkin Incident), Congress
responded with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. This resolution gave the

President the authority to escalate U.S. involvement in Vietnam. President
Lyndon Johnson used that authority to order the first U.S. ground troops to
Vietnam in March 1965.
Johnson's Plan for Success
President Johnson's goal for U.S. involvement in Vietnam was not for the
U.S. to win the war, but for U.S. troops to bolster South Vietnam's defenses
until South Vietnam could take over. By entering the Vietnam War without a
goal to win, Johnson set the stage for future public and troop disappointment
when the U.S. found themselves in a stalemate with the North Vietnamese
and the Viet Cong.
From 1965 to 1969, the U.S. was involved in a limited war in Vietnam.
Although there were aerial bombings of the North, President Johnson wanted
the fighting to be limited to South Vietnam. By limiting the fighting
parameters, the U.S. forces would not conduct a serious ground assault into
the North to attack the communists directly nor would there be any strong
effort to disrupt the Ho Chi Minh Trail (the Viet Cong's supply path that ran
through Laos and Cambodia).
Life in the Jungle
U.S. troops fought a jungle war, mostly against the well-supplied Viet Cong.
The Viet Cong would attack in ambushes, set up booby traps, and escape
through a complex network of underground tunnels. For U.S. forces, even
just finding their enemy proved difficult. Since Viet Cong hid in the dense
brush, U.S. forces would drop Agent Orange or napalm bombs which cleared
an area by causing the leaves to drop off or to burn away. In every village,
U.S. troops had difficulty determining which, if any, villagers were the enemy
since even women and children could build booby traps or help house and
feed the Viet Cong. U.S. soldiers commonly became frustrated with the
fighting conditions in Vietnam. Many suffered from low morale, became
angry, and some used drugs.
Surprise Attack

On January 30, 1968, the North Vietnamese surprised both the U.S. forces
and the South Vietnamese by orchestrating a coordinated assault with the
Viet Cong to attack about a hundred South Vietnamese cities and towns.
Although the U.S. forces and the South Vietnamese army were able to repel
the assault known as the Tet Offensive, this attack proved to Americans that
the enemy was stronger and better organized than they had been led to
believe. The Tet Offensive was a turning point in the war because President
Johnson, faced now with an unhappy American public and bad news from his
military leaders in Vietnam, decided to no longer escalate the war.
Nixon's Plan for "Peace With Honor"
In 1969, Richard Nixon became the new U.S. President and he had his own
plan to end U.S. involvement in Vietnam. President Nixon outlined a plan
called Vietnamization, which was a process to remove U.S. troops from
Vietnam while handing back the fighting to the South Vietnamese. The
withdrawal of U.S. troops began in July 1969. To bring a faster end to
hostilities, President Nixon also expanded the war into other countries, such
as Laos and Cambodia a move that created thousands of protests,
especially on college campuses, back in America. To work toward peace, new
peace talks began in Paris on January 25, 1969.
When the U.S. had withdrawn most of its troops from Vietnam, the North
Vietnamese staged another massive assault, called the Easter Offensive (also
called the Spring Offensive), on March 30, 1972. North Vietnamese troops
crossed over the demilitarized zone (DMZ) at the 17th parallel and invaded
South Vietnam. The remaining U.S. forces and the South Vietnamese army
fought back.
The Paris Peace Accords
On January 27, 1973, the peace talks in Paris finally succeeded in producing
a cease-fire agreement. The last U.S. troops left Vietnam on March 29, 1973,
knowing they were leaving a weak South Vietnam who would not be able to
withstand another major communist North Vietnam attack.

Reunification of Vietnam
After the U.S. had withdrawn all its troops, the fighting continued in Vietnam.
In early 1975, North Vietnam made another big push south which toppled
the South Vietnamese government. South Vietnam officially surrendered to
communist North Vietnam on April 30, 1975. On July 2, 1976, Vietnam was
reunited as a communist country, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
1858-1884 - France invades Vietnam and makes Vietnam a colony.
October 1930 - Ho Chi Minh helps found the Indochinese Communist Party.
September 1940 - Japan invades Vietnam.
May 1941 - Ho Chi Minh establishes the Viet Minh (League for the
Independence of Vietnam).
September 2, 1945 - Ho Chi Minh declares an independent Vietnam, called
the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
January 1950 - The Viet Minh receive military advisors and weapons from
China.
July 1950 - The United States pledges $15 million worth of military aid to
France to help them fight in Vietnam.
May 7, 1954 - The French suffer a decisive defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien
Phu.
July 21, 1954 - The Geneva Accords creates a cease-fire for the peaceful
withdrawal of the French from Vietnam and provides a temporary boundary
between North and South Vietnam at the 17th parallel.
October 26, 1955 - South Vietnam declares itself the Republic of Vietnam,
with newly elected Ngo Dinh Diem as president.
December 20, 1960 - The National Liberation Front (NLF), also called the
Viet Cong, is established in South Vietnam.
November 2, 1963 - South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem is
executed during a coup.
August 2 and 4, 1964 - North Vietnamese attack two U.S. destroyers
sitting in international waters (the Gulf of Tonkin Incident).

August 7, 1964 - In response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, the U.S.
Congress passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
March 2, 1965 - A sustained U.S. aerial bombing campaign of North
Vietnam begins (Operation Rolling Thunder).
March 8, 1965 - The first U.S. combat troops arrive in Vietnam.
January 30, 1968 - The North Vietnamese join forces with the Viet Cong to
launch the Tet Offensive, attacking approximately one hundred South
Vietnamese cities and towns.
March 16, 1968 - U.S. soldiers kill hundreds of Vietnamese civilians in the
town of Mai Lai.
July 1968 - General William Westmoreland, who had been in charge of the
U.S. troops in Vietnam, is replaced by General Creighton Abrams.
December 1968 - U.S. troops in Vietnam reaches 540,000.
July 1969 - President Nixon orders the first of many U.S. troop withdrawals
from Vietnam.
September 3, 1969 - Communist revolutionary leader Ho Chi Minh dies at
age 79.
November 13, 1969 - The American public learns of the Mai Lai massacre.
April 30, 1970 - President Nixon announces that U.S. troops will attack
enemy locations in Cambodia. This news sparks nationwide protests,
especially on college campuses.
June 13, 1971 - Portions of the Pentagon Papers are published in The New
York Times.
March 1972 - The North Vietnamese cross the demilitarized zone (DMZ) at
the 17th parallel to attack South Vietnam in what became known as the
Easter Offensive.
January 27, 1973 - The Paris Peace Accords are signed that provide a
cease-fire.
March 29, 1973 - The last U.S. troops are withdrawn from Vietnam.
March 1975 - North Vietnam launches a massive assault on South Vietnam.

April 30, 1975 - South Vietnam surrenders to the communists.
July 2, 1976 - Vietnam is unified as a communist country, the Socialist
Republic of Vietnam.
November 13, 1982 - The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington D.C.
is dedicated.
The Vietnam War occurred in present-day Vietnam, Southeast Asia. It
represented a successful attempt on the part of the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam (North Vietnam, DRV) and the National Front for the Liberation of
Vietnam (Viet Cong) to unite and impose a communist system over the
entire nation. Opposing the DRV was the Republic of Vietnam (South
Vietnam, RVN), backed by the United States. The war in Vietnam occurred
during the Cold War, and is generally viewed as an indirect conflict between
the United States and Soviet Union, with each nation and its allies supporting
one side.
Causes of the Conflict
Photograph Source: Public Domain
The Vietnam War first began in 1959, five years after the division of the
country by the Geneva Accords. Vietnam had been split into two, with a
communist government in the north under Ho Chi Minh and a democratic
government in the south under Ngo Dinh Diem. Ho launched a guerilla
campaign in South Vietnam, led by Viet Cong units, with the goal of uniting
the country under communist rule. The United States, seeking to stop the
spread of communism, trained the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN)
and provided military advisors to help combat the guerillas.
Post World War II Vietnam
The causes of the Vietnam War trace their roots back to the end of World
War II. A French colony, Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, & Cambodia) had been
occupied by the Japanese during the war. In 1941, a Vietnamese nationalist
movement, the Viet Minh, was formed by Ho Chi Minh to resist the occupiers.
A communist, Ho Chi Minh waged a guerilla war against the Japanese with

the support of the United States. Near the end of the war, the Japanese
began to promote Vietnamese nationalism and ultimately granted the
country nominal independence.
Following the Japanese defeat, the French returned to take possession of
their colony. Their entrance into Vietnam was only permitted by the Viet
Minh after assurances had been given that the country would gain
independence as part of the French Union. Discussions broke down between
the two parties and in December 1946, the French shelled the city of
Haiphong and forcibly reentered the capital, Hanoi.
These actions began a conflict between the French and the Viet Minh known
as the First Indochina War. Fought mainly in North Vietnam, this conflict
ended when the French were decisively defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
The war was ultimately settled by the Geneva Accords of 1954, which
temporarily partitioned the country at the 17th parallel, with the Viet Minh in
control of the north and a non-communist state to be formed in the south
under Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem. This division was to last until 1956,
when national elections would be held to decide the future of the nation.
The Politics of American Involvement
Initially, the United States had little interest in Vietnam and Southeast Asia,
however as it became clear that the post-World War II world would be
dominated by the US and its allies and the Soviet Union and theirs, isolating
communist movements took an increased importance. These concerns were
ultimately formed into the doctrine of containment and domino theory. First
spelled out 1947, containment identified that the goal of Communism was to
spread to capitalist states and that the only way to stop it was to “contain” it
within its present borders. Springing from containment was the concept of
domino theory which stated that if one state in a region were to fall to
Communism, then the surrounding states would inevitably fall as well. These
concepts were to dominate and guide US foreign policy for much of the Cold
War.

In 1950, to combat the spread of Communism, the United States began
supplying the French military in Vietnam with advisors and funding its efforts
against the “red” Viet Minh. These efforts continued in 1956, when advisors
were provided to train the army of the new Republic of Vietnam (South
Vietnam). Despite their best efforts, the quality of the Army of the Republic
of Vietnam (ARVN) was to remain consistently poor throughout its existence.
Early Life:
Born in the village of An Xa on August 25, 1911, Vo Nguyen Giap was the
son of Vo Quang Nghiem. At 16, he began attending a French lycée in Hue,
but was expelled after two years for organizing a student strike. He later
attended the University of Hanoi where he earned degrees in political
economy and law. Departing school, he taught history and worked as a
journalist until he was arrested in 1930, for supporting student strikes.
Released 13 months later, he joined the Communist Party and began
protesting against French rule of Indochina. During the 1930s, he resumed
work as a writer for several newspapers.
Exile & World War II:
In 1939, Giap married fellow socialist Nguyen Thi Quang Thai. Their marriage
was brief as he was forced to flee to China later that following the French
outlawing of communism. While in exile, his wife, father, sister, and sister-
in-law were arrested and executed by the French. In China, Giap joined with
Ho Chi Minh, the founder of the Vietnamese Independence League (Viet
Minh). Between 1944 and 1945, Giap returned to Vietnam to organize
guerilla activity against the Japanese. Following the end of the World War II,
the Viet Minh was given power by the Japanese to form a provisional
government.
First Indochina War:
In September 1945, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam and named Giap as interior minister. The government was short-
lived as the French soon returned to take control. Unwilling to recognized Ho

Chi Minh's government, fighting soon broke out between the French and the
Viet Minh. Given command of the Viet Minh's military, Giap soon found this
his men could not defeat the better-equipped French and he ordered a
withdrawal to bases in the countryside. With the victory of Mao Zedong's
communist forces in China, Giap's situation improved as he gained a new
base for training his men.
Over the next seven year's Giap's Viet Minh forces successfully drove the
French from most of North Vietnam's rural areas, but were unable to take
any of the region's towns or cities. At a stalemate, Giap began attacking into
Laos, hoping to draw the French into battle on the Viet Minh's terms. With
French public opinion swinging against the war, the commander in Indochina,
General Henri Navarre, sought a quick victory. To accomplish this he fortified
Dien Bien Phu which was situated on the Viet Minh's supply lines to Laos. It
was Navarre's goal to draw Giap into a conventional battle where he could be
crushed.
To deal with the new threat, Giap concentrated all of his forces around Dien
Bien Phu and surrounded the French base. On May 13, 1954, his men
opened fire with newly obtained Chinese 105mm guns. Surprising the French
with artillery fire, the Viet Minh slowly tightened the noose on the isolated
French garrison. Over the next 56 days, Giap's troops captured one French
position at time until the defenders were compelled to surrender. The victory
at Dien Bien Phu effectively ended the First Indochina War. In the ensuing
peace accords, the country was partitioned with Ho Chi Minh leading
communist North Vietnam.
Vietnam War:
In the new government, Giap served as minister of defense and commander-
in-chief of the People's Army of Vietnam. With the outbreak of hostilities with
South Vietnam, and later the United States, Giap led North Vietnam's
strategy and command. In 1967, Giap oversaw the planning for the massive
Tet Offensive. While initially against a conventional attack, Giap's goals were

both military and political. In addition to achieving a military victory, Giap
desired the offensive to spark an uprising in South Vietnam and show that
American claims about the war's progress were wrong.
While the 1968 Tet Offensive proved to be a military disaster for North
Vietnam, Giap was able to achieve some of his political objectives. The
offensive showed that North Vietnam was far from being defeated and
significantly contributed to changing American perceptions about the conflict.
Following Tet, peace talks began and the US ultimately withdrew from the
war in 1973. Following the American departure, Giap remained in command
of North Vietnamese forces and directed General Van Tien Dung and the Ho
Chi Minh campaign that finally captured the South Vietnamese capital of
Saigon in 1975.
Postwar:
With Vietnam reunified under Communist rule, Giap remained minister of
defense and was promoted to deputy prime minister in 1976. He stayed in
these positions until 1980 and 1982 respectively. Now retired, Giap is the
author of several military texts including People's Army, People's War and
Big Victory, Great Task.
The Tet Offensive
On January 21, 1968, an intense barrage of artillery hit the US Marine base
at Khe Sanh in northwest South Vietnam. This presaged a siege and battle
that would last for seventy-seven days and would see 6,000 Marines hold off
20,000 North Vietnamese. Anticipating that American forces would be drawn
north to the fighting at Khe Sanh, Viet Cong units broke the traditional Tet
(Lunar New Year) cease-fire on January 30, 1968, by launching major
attacks against most cities in South Vietnam.
For the next two months, US and ARVN forces successfully beat back the Viet
Cong assault, with particularly heavy combat in the cities of Hue and Saigon.
Once the fighting had ended, the Viet Cong had been permanently crippled
and ceased to be an effective fighting force. On April 1, US forces began

Operation Pegasus to relieve the Marines at Khe Sanh. After opening the
road to Khe Sanh (Route 9) with a mix of air mobile and ground forces, US
troops linked up with the besieged Marines on April 8.
Aftereffects of Tet
While the Tet Offensive proved to be a military victory for the US and ARVN,
it was a political and media disaster. Public support began to erode as
Americans started to question the handling of the conflict. Others doubted
Westmoreland’s ability to command, leading to his replacement in June
1968, by General Creighton Abrams. President Johnson’s popularity
plummeted and he withdrew as a candidate for reelection. Ultimately, it was
the media’s reaction and stressing of a widening “credibility gap” that did the
most damage to the Johnson Administration’s efforts. Noted reporters, such
as Walter Cronkite, began to openly criticize Johnson and the military
leadership, as well as called for negotiated end to the war. Though he had
low expectations, Johnson conceded and opened peace talks with North
Vietnam in May 1968.
Handing Off the War
Campaigning under the slogan “Peace with Honor,” Richard M. Nixon won the
1968 presidential election. His plan called for the “Vietnamization” of the war
which was defined as the systematic build up of ARVN forces to the point
that they could prosecute the war without American support. As part of this
plan, American troops would slowly be removed. Nixon complemented this
approach with efforts to ease global tensions by reaching out diplomatically
to the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China. In Vietnam, the war
shifted to smaller operations geared towards attacking North Vietnamese
logistics.
Trouble on the Home Front
While the antiwar movement in the US was pleased with Nixon’s efforts at
détente with communist nations, it was inflamed in 1969, when news broke
about a massacre of 347 South Vietnamese civilians by US soldiers at My Lai

(March 18, 1968). Tension grew further when, following a change in stance
by Cambodia, the US began bombing North Vietnamese bases over the
border. This was followed in 1970, with ground forces attacking into
Cambodia, a move viewed as expanding the war rather than winding it down.
Public opinion sunk lower in 1971 with the release of the Pentagon Papers. A
top secret report, the Pentagon Papers detailed American mistakes in
Vietnam since 1945, as well as exposed lies about the Gulf of Tonkin
Incident, detailed US involvement in deposing Diem, and revealed secret
American bombing of Laos. The papers also painted a bleak outlook for
American prospects of victory.
First Cracks
Despite the incursion into Cambodia, Nixon had begun the systematic
withdrawal of US forces, lowering troop strength to 156,800 in 1971. That
same year, the ARVN commenced Operation Lam Son 719 with the goal of
severing the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos. In what was seen as a dramatic
failure for “Vietnamization,” ARVN forces were routed and driven back across
the border. Further cracks were revealed in 1972, when the North
Vietnamese launched a conventional invasion of the South, attacking into the
northern provinces and from Cambodia. This offensive was only defeated
with the support of US airpower (Operation Linebacker).
Conflict & Dates:
The Battle of Dien Bien Phu was fought from March 13 to May 7, 1954, and
was the decisive engagement of the First Indochina War (1946-1954), the
precursor to the Vietnam War.
Armies & Commanders:
French
• Brigadier General Christian de Castries
• Colonel Pierre Langlais
• Major General Rene Cogny
• 10,800 men (March 13)

Viet Minh
• Vo Nguyen Giap
• 48,000 men (March 13)
Battle of Dien Bien Phu Overview:
With the First Indochina War going poorly for the French, Premier Rene
Mayer dispatched General Henri Navarre to take command in May 1953.
Arriving in Hanoi, Navarre found that no long-term plan existed for defeating
the Viet Minh and that French forces simply reacted to the enemy's moves.
Believing that he was also tasked with defending neighboring Laos, Navarre
sought an effective method for interdicting Viet Minh supply lines through the
region. Working with Colonel Louis Berteil, the "hedgehog" concept was
developed which called for French troops to establish fortified camps near
Viet Minh supply routes.
Supplied by air, the hedgehogs would allow French troops to block the Viet
Minh's supplies, compelling them to fall back. The concept was largely based
on the French success at the Battle of Na San in late 1952. Holding the high
ground around a fortified camp at Na San, French forces had repeatedly
beaten back assaults by General Vo Nguyen Giap's Viet Minh troops. Navarre
believed that the approach used at Na San could be enlarged to force the
Viet Minh to commit to a large, pitched battle where superior French
firepower could destroy Giap's army.
In June 1953, Major General René Cogny first proposed the idea of creating a
"mooring point" at Dien Bien Phu in northwest Vietnam. While Cogny had
envisioned a lightly defended airbase, Navarre seized on the location for
trying the hedgehog approach. Though his subordinates protested, pointing
out that unlike Na San they would not hold the high ground around the
camp, Navarre persisted and planning moved forward. On November 20,
1953, Operation Castor commenced and 9,000 French troops were dropped
into the Dien Bien Phu area over the next three days.
With Colonel Christian de Castries in command, they quickly overcame local

Viet Minh opposition and began building a series of eight fortified strong
points. Given female names, de Castrie's headquarters was located in the
center of four fortifications known as Huguette, Dominique, Claudine, and
Eliane. To the north, northwest, and northeast were works dubbed Gabrielle,
Anne-Marie, and Beatrice, while four miles to the south, Isabelle guarded the
base's reserve airstrip. Over the coming weeks, de Castries' garrison
increased to 10,800 men supported by artillery and ten M24 Chaffee light
tanks.
Moving to attack the French, Giap dispatched troops against the fortified
camp at Lai Chau, forcing the garrison to flee towards Dien Bien Phu. En
route, the Viet Minh effectively destroyed the 2,100-man column and only
185 reached the new base on December 22. Seeing an opportunity at Dien
Bien Phu, Giap moved approximately 50,000 men into the hills around the
French position, as well as the bulk of his heavy artillery and anti-aircraft
guns. The preponderance of Viet Minh guns came as a surprise to the French
who did not believe that Giap possessed a large artillery arm.
Though Viet Minh shells began falling on the French position on January 31,
1954, Giap did not open the battle in earnest until 5:00 PM on March 13.
Utilizing a new moon, Viet Minh forces launched a massive assault on
Beatrice behind a heavy barrage of artillery fire. Extensively trained for the
operation, Viet Minh troops quickly overcame French opposition and secured
the works. A French counterattack the next morning was easily defeated. The
next day, artillery fire disabled the French airstrip forcing supplies to be
dropped by parachute.
That evening, Giap sent two regiments from the 308th Division against
Gabrielle. Battling Algerian troops, they fought through the night. Hoping to
relieve the beleaguered garrison, de Castries launched a counterattack north,
but with little success. By 8:00 AM on March 15, the Algerians were forced to
retreat. Two days later, Anne-Maries was easily taken when the Viet Minh
were able to convince the T'ai (a Vietnamese ethnic minority loyal to the

French) soldiers manning it to defect. Though the next two weeks saw a lull
in fighting, the French command structure was in tatters.
Despairing over the early defeats, de Castries secluded himself in his bunker
and Colonel Pierre Langlais effectively took command of the garrison. During
this time, Giap tightened his lines around the four central French
fortifications. On March 30, after cutting off Isabelle, Giap began a series of
assaults on the eastern bastions of Dominique and Eliane. Achieving a
foothold in Dominique, the Viet Minh's advance was stopped by concentrated
French artillery fire. Fighting raged in Dominique and Eliane through April 5,
with the French desperately defending and counterattacking.
Pausing, Giap shifted trench warfare and attempted to isolate each French
position. Over the next several days, fighting continued with heavy losses on
both sides. With his men's morale sinking, Giap was forced to call for
reinforcements from Laos. While the battle raged on the eastern side, Viet
Minh forces succeeded in penetrating Huguette and by April 22 had captured
90% of the air strip. This made resupply, which had been difficult due to
heavy anti-aircraft fire, next to impossible. Between May 1 and May 7, Giap
renewed his assault and succeeded in overrunning the defenders. Fighting to
the end, the last French resistance ended by nightfall on May 7.
Aftermath
A disaster for the French, losses at Dien Bien Phu numbered 2,293 killed,
5,195 wounded, and 10,998 captured. Viet Minh casualties are estimated at
around 23,000. The defeat at Dien Bien Phu marked the end of the First
Indochina War and spurred peace negotiations which were ongoing in
Geneva. The resulting 1954 Geneva Accords partitioned the country at the
17th Parallel and created a communist state in the north and a democratic
state in the south. The resulting conflict between these two regimes
ultimately grew into the Vietnam War.
General
• Length: 159 ft. 4 in.

• Wingspan: 185 ft.
• Height: 40 ft. 8 in.
• Wing Area: 4,000 sq. ft.
• Empty Weight: 185,000 lbs.
• Loaded Weight: 265,000 lbs.
• Crew: 5 (pilot, copilot, radar navigator (bombardier), navigator, and
electronic warfare officer)
Performance
• Power Plant: 8 × Pratt & Whitney TF33-P-3/103 turbofans
• Combat Radius: 4,480 miles
• Max Speed: 650 mph
• Ceiling: 50,000 ft.
Armament
• Guns: 1 × 20 mm M61 Vulcan cannon (remote controlled tail turret)
• Bombs/Missiles: 60,000 lbs. of bombs, missiles, & mines in
numerous configurations
B-52 Stratofortress Design & Development:
On November 23, 1945, only weeks after the end of World War II, the US Air
Material Command issued performance specifications for a new long-range,
nuclear bomber. Calling for a cruising speed of 300 mph and a combat radius
of 5,000 miles, AMC invited bids the following February from Martin, Boeing,
and Consolidated. Developing the Model 462, a straight-wing bomber
powered by six turboprops, Boeing was able to win the competition despite
the fact that the aircraft's range fell short of the specifications. Moving
forward, Boeing was issued a contract on June 28, 1946, to build a mock-up
of the new XB-52 bomber.
Over the next year, Boeing was forced to change the design several times as
the US Air Force first showed concern over the XB-52's size and then
increased the required cruising speed. By June 1947, the USAF realized that
when complete the new aircraft would nearly be obsolete. While the project

was put on hold, Boeing continued to refine their latest design. That
September, the Heavy Bombardment Committee issued new performance
requirements demanding 500 mph and an 8,000-mile range, both of which
were far beyond Boeing's latest design.
Lobbying hard, the president of Boeing, William McPherson Allen, was able to
prevent their contract from being terminated. Coming to an accord with the
USAF, Boeing was instructed to begin exploring recent technological
advances with an eye to incorporating them into the XB-52 program. Moving
forward, Boeing presented a new design in April 1948, but was told the next
month that the new aircraft should incorporate jet engines. After swapping
out turboprops for jets on their Model 464-40, Boeing was ordered to design
a completely new aircraft utilizing the Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojet on
October 21, 1948.
A week later, Boeing engineers first tested the design that would become the
basis for the final aircraft. Possessing 35-degree swept wings, the new XB-52
design was powered by eight engines placed in four pods under the wings.
During testing, concerns arose regarding the fuel consumption of the
engines, however the commander of the Strategic Air Command, General
Curtis LeMay insisted the program move forward. Two prototypes were built
and the first flew on April 15, 1952, with famed test pilot Alvin "Tex"
Johnston at the controls. Pleased with the result, the USAF placed an order
for 282 aircraft.
Operational History:
Entering operational service in 1955, the B-52B Stratofortress replaced the
Convair B-36. During its initial years of service, several minor issues arose
with the aircraft and the J57 engines experienced reliability problems. A year
later, the B-52 dropped its first hydrogen bomb during testing at Bikini Atoll.
On January 16–18, 1957, the USAF demonstrated the bomber's reach by
having three B-52s fly non-stop around the world. As additional aircraft were
built, numerous changes and modifications were made. In 1963, the

Strategic Air Command fielded a force of 650 B-52s.
With the US entry into the Vietnam War, the B-52 saw its first combat
missions as part of Operations Rolling Thunder (March 1965) and Arc Light
(June 1965). Later that year, several B-52Ds underwent "Big Belly"
modifications to facilitate the aircraft's use in carpet bombing. Flying from
bases in Guam, Okinawa, and Thailand, B-52s were able to unleash
devastating firepower on their targets. It was not until November 22, 1972,
that the first B-52 was lost to enemy fire when an aircraft was downed by a
surface-to-air missile.
The B-52's most notable role in Vietnam was during Operation Linebacker II
in December 1972, when waves of bombers struck targets across North
Vietnam. During the war, 18 B-52s were lost to enemy fire and 13 to
operational causes. While many B-52s saw action over Vietnam, the aircraft
continued to fulfill its nuclear deterrence role. B-52s routinely flew airborne
alert missions to provide a rapid first strike or retaliation capability in case of
war with the Soviet Union. These missions ended in 1966, following the
collision of a B-52 and a KC-135 over Spain.
During the 1973 Yom Kippur War between Israel, Egypt, and Syria, B-52
squadrons were placed on a war footing in an effort to prevent the Soviet
Union from becoming involved in the conflict. By the early 1970s, many of
the early variants of the B-52 began to be retired. With the B-52 aging, the
USAF sought to replace the aircraft with the B-1B Lancer, however strategic
concerns and cost issues prevented this from occurring. As a result, B-52Gs
and B-52Hs remained a part of the Strategic Air Command's nuclear standby
force until 1991.
With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the B-52G was removed from service
and the aircraft destroyed as part of the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty.
With the launch of the coalition air campaign during the 1991 Gulf War, the
B-52H returned to combat service. Flying from bases in the United States,
Britain, Spain, and Diego Garcia, B-52s conducted both close air support and

strategic bombing missions, as well as served as a launch platform for cruise
missiles. Carpet bombing strikes by B-52s proved particularly effective and
the aircraft was responsible for 40% of the munitions dropped on Iraqi forces
during the war.
In 2001, the B-52 again returned to the Middle East in support of Operation
Enduring Freedom. Due to the aircraft's long loiter time, it proved highly
effective in providing needed close air support to the troops on the ground. It
has fulfilled a similar role over Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom. As of
April 2008, the USAF's B-52 fleet consisted of 94 B-52Hs which operate from
Minot (North Dakota) and Barksdale (Louisiana) Air Force Bases. An
economical aircraft, the USAF intends to retain the B-52 through 2040 and
has investigated several options for updating and enhancing the bomber,
including replacing its eight engines with four Rolls-Royce RB211 534E-4
engines.
Selected Sources
Conflict:
The Battle of Hamburger Hill took place during the Vietnam War.
Dates:
US forces were engaged in the A Shau Valley from May 10 to May 20, 1969.
Armies & Commanders:
United States
• Major General Melvin Zais
• approx. 1,800 men
North Vietnam
• Unknown
• approx. 1,500 men
Summary of the Battle of Hamburger Hill:
In 1969, US troops began Operation Apache Snow with the goal of clearing
the People's Army of Vietnam from the A Shau Valley in South Vietnam.
Located near the border with Laos, the valley had become an infiltration

route into South Vietnam and a haven for PAVN forces. A three-part
operation, the second phase commenced on May 10, 1969, as elements of
Colonel John Conmey's 3rd Brigade of the 101st Airborne moved into the
valley.
Among Conmey's forces were the 3rd Battalion, 187th Infantry (Lt. Colonel
Weldon Honeycutt), 2nd Battalion, 501st Infantry (Lt. Colonel Robert
German), and the 1st Battalion, 506th Infantry (Lt. Colonel John Bowers).
These units were supported by the 9th Marines and the 3rd Battalion, 5th
Cavalry, as well as elements of the Army of Vietnam. The A Shau Valley was
covered in thick jungle and dominated by Ap Bia Mountain, which had been
designated Hill 937. Unconnected to the surrounding ridges, Hill 937 stood
alone and, like the surrounding valley, was heavily forested.
Terming the operation a reconnaissance in force, Conmey's forces began
operations with two ARVN battalions cutting the road at the base of the
valley while the Marines and 3/5th Cavalry pushed towards the Laotian
border. The battalions from the 3rd Brigade were ordered to search and
destroy PAVN forces in their own areas of the valley. As his troops were air
mobile, Conmey planned to shift units rapidly should one encounter strong
resistance. While contact was light on May 10, it intensified the following day
when the 3/187th approached the base of Hill 937.
Sending two companies to search the north and northwest ridges of the hill,
Honeycutt ordered Bravo and Charlie companies to move towards the
summit by different routes. Late in the day, Bravo met stiff PAVN resistance
and helicopter gunships were brought in for support. These mistook the
3/187th's landing zone for PAVN camp and opened fire killing two and
wounding thirty-five. This was the first of several friendly fire incidents
during the battle as the thick jungle made identifying targets difficult.
Following this incident, the 3/187th retreated into defensive positions for the
night.
Over the next two days, Honeycutt attempted to push his battalion into

positions where they could launch a coordinated assault. This was hampered
by difficult terrain and fierce PAVN resistance. As they moved around the hill,
they found that the North Vietnamese had constructed an elaborate system
of bunkers and trenches. Seeing the focus of the battle shifting to Hill 937,
Conmey shifted the 1/506th to the south side of the hill. Bravo Company was
airlifted to the area, but the remainder of the battalion traveled by foot and
did not arrive in force until May 19.
On May 14 and 15, Honeycutt launched attacks against PAVN positions with
little success. The next two days saw elements of the 1/506th probing the
southern slope. American efforts were frequently hindered by the thick
jungle which made air-lifting forces around the hill impractical. As the battle
raged, much of the foliage around the summit of the hill was eliminated by
napalm and artillery fire which was used to reduce the PAVN bunkers. On
May 18, Conmey ordered a coordinated assault with the 3/187th attacking
from the north and the 1/506th attacking from the south.
Storming forward, Delta Company of the 3/187th almost took the summit
but was beaten back with heavy casualties. The 1/506th was able to take the
southern crest, Hill 900, but met heavy resistance during the fighting. On
May 18, the commander of the 101st Airborne, Major General Melvin Zais,
arrived and decided to commit three addition battalions to the battle as well
as ordered that the 3/187th, which had suffered 60% casualties, be relieved.
Protesting, Honeycutt was able to keep his men in the field for the final
assault.
Landing two battalions on the northeast and southeast slopes, Zais and
Conmey launched an all-out assault on the hill at 10:00 AM on May 20.
Overwhelming the defenders, the 3/187th took the summit around noon and
operations began to reduce the remaining PAVN bunkers. By 5:00 PM, Hill
937 had been secured.
Aftermath
Due to the grinding nature of the fighting on Hill 937, it became known as

"Hamburger Hill." This also pays homage to a similar fight during the Korean
War known as the Battle of Pork Chop Hill. In the fighting, US and ARVN
forces suffered 70 killed and 372 wounded. Total PAVN casualties are
unknown, but 630 bodies were found on the hill after the battle. Heavily
covered by the press, the necessity of the fighting on Hill 937 was
questioned by the public and stirred controversy in Washington. This was
worsened by the 101st's abandonment of the hill on June 5. As a result of
this public and political pressure, General Creighton Abrams altered US
strategy in Vietnam from one of "maximum pressure" to "protective reaction"
in an effort to lower casualties.
Conflict:
The Battle of Dak To was a major engagement of the Vietnam War.
Dates:
Fought over nineteen days, the Battle of Dak To lasted from November 3 to
November 22, 1967.
Armies & Commanders:
US & Republic of Vietnam
• Major General William R. Peers
• 16,000 men
North Vietnam & Viet Cong
• General Hoang Minh Thao
• Tran The Mon
• 6,000 men
Battle Summary:
In the summer of 1967, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) initiated a
series of attacks in western Kontum Province. To counter these, Major
General William R. Peers commenced Operation Greeley using elements of
the 4th Infantry Division and the 173rd Airborne Brigade. This was designed
to sweep PAVN forces from the jungle-covered mountains of the region. After
a series of sharp engagements, contact with PAVN forces diminished in

August leading the Americans to believe that they had withdrawn back
across the border into Cambodia and Laos.
After a quiet September, US intelligence reported that PAVN forces around
Pleiku were moving into Kontum in early October. This shift increased PAVN
strength in the area to around division level. The PAVN plan was to utilize the
24th, 32nd, 66th, and 174th regiments to isolate and destroy a brigade-sized
American force near Dak To. It was believed by the PAVN command that this
would lead to the further deployment of American troops to the border
regions which would leave South Vietnam's cities and lowlands vulnerable.
To deal with this build up of PAVN forces, Peers launched Operation
MacArthur on November 3.
Peer's understanding of the enemy's intentions and strategy was greatly
enhanced on November 3, following the defection of PAVN Sgt. Vu Hong.
Alerted to each PAVN unit's location and objective, Peers' men began
engaging the enemy the same day, disrupting the North Vietnamese plans
for attacking Dak To. As elements of the 4th Infantry, 173rd Airborne, and
the 1st Brigade of the 1st Air Cavalry went into action they found that the
North Vietnamese had prepared elaborate defensive positions on the hills
and ridges around Dak To.
Over the ensuing three weeks, American forces developed a methodical
approach to reducing PAVN positions. Once the enemy was located, massive
amounts of firepower (both artillery and air strikes) were applied, followed
by an infantry assault to secure to objective. In most instances, PAVN forces
fought tenaciously, bloodying the Americans, before vanishing into the
jungle. Key firefights in the campaign occurred on Hills 823, 724, and 882.
As these fights were taking place around Dak To, the airstrip became a
target for PAVN artillery and rocket attacks.
The worst of these took place on November 12, when rockets and shellfire
destroyed several aircraft as well as detonated the base's ammunition and
fuel depots. In addition to the American forces, Army of Vietnam (ARVN)

units also took part in the battle, seeing action around Hill 1416. The last
major engagement of the Battle of Dak To began on November 19, when the
2nd Battalion of the 503rd Airborne attempted to take Hill 875. After meeting
initial success, the 2/503 found itself caught in an elaborate ambush.
Surrounded, it endured a severe friendly fire incident and was not relieved
until the next day.
Resupplied and reinforced, the 503rd attacked the crest of Hill 875 on
November 21. After savage, close-quarters fighting, the airborne troopers
neared the top of the hill, but were forced to halt due to darkness. The
following day was spent hammering the crest with artillery and air strikes,
completely removing all cover. Moving out on the 23rd, the Americans took
the top of the hill after finding that the North Vietnamese had already
departed. By the end of November, the PAVN forces around Dak To were so
battered that they were withdrawn back across the border ending the battle.
Aftermath:
A victory for the Americans and South Vietnamese, the Battle of Dak To cost
376 US killed, 1,441 US wounded, and 79 ARVN killed. PAVN casualties are
estimated between 1,000 to 1,445 killed. The Battle of Dak To saw US forces
drive the North Vietnamese from the Kontum Province and decimated the
regiments of the 1st PAVN Division. One of the "border battles" of late 1967,
the Battle of Dak To did accomplish a key PAVN objective as US forces began
to move out from cities and lowlands. By January 1968, half of all US combat
units were operating away from these key areas.
Conflict:
The Siege of Khe Sanh occurred during the Vietnam War.
Armies & Commanders:
Allies
• General William Westmoreland
• Colonel David Lownds
• approx. 6,000 men

North Vietnamese
• Vo Nguyen Giap
• Tran Quy Hai
• approx. 20,000-30,000 men
Dates:
The fighting around Khe Sanh began January 21, 1968 and concluded around
April 8, 1968.
Battle of Khe Sanh Overview:
In the summer of 1967, American commanders learned of a build-up of
People's Army of North Vietnam (PAVN) forces in the area around Khe Sanh
in northwest South Vietnam. Responding to this, the Khe Sanh Combat Base
(KSCB), located on a plateau in a valley of the same name, was reinforced
by elements of the 26th Marine Regiment under Colonel David E. Lownds.
Also, outposts on the surrounding hills were occupied by American forces.
While KSCB possessed an air strip, its overland supply route was over the
dilapidated Route 9 which led back the coast.
That fall, a supply convoy was ambushed by PAVN forces on Route 9. This
was the last overland attempt to resupply Khe Sanh until the following April.
Through December, PAVN troops were spotted in the area, but there was
little fighting. With the increase in enemy activity a decision was needed
regarding whether to further reinforce Khe Sanh or abandon the position.
Assessing the situation, General William Westmoreland elected to increase
the troop levels at KSCB.
Though he was supported by the commander of the III Marine Amphibious
Force, Lieutenant General Robert E. Cushman, many Marine officers
disagreed with the decision believing that Khe Sanh was not necessary to
ongoing operations. In late December/early January, intelligence reported
the arrival of the 325th, 324th, and 320th PAVN divisions within striking
distance of KSCB. In response, additional Marines were moved to the base.
On January 20, the PAVN defector alerted Lownds that an attack was

imminent. At 12:30 AM on the 21st, Hill 861 was attacked by about 300
PAVN troops, while KSCB was heavily shelled.
While the attack was repulsed the PAVN soldiers did manage to breach the
Marines' defenses. The attack also revealed the arrival of the 304th PAVN
division in the area. To clear their flank, PAVN forces attacked and overran
Laotian troops at Ban Houei Sane on January 23, forcing the survivors to flee
to the US Special Forces camp at Lang Vei. During this time KSCB received
its last reinforcements as additional Marines and the 37th Army of the
Republic of Vietnam Ranger Battalion. Enduring several heavy
bombardments, the defenders at Khe Sanh learned on January 29 that there
would be no truce for the Tet holiday.
To support the defense of the base, which had been dubbed Operation
Scotland, Westmoreland initiated Operation Niagara which called for the
massive application of aerial firepower to the battle. Utilizing a variety of
advanced sensors and forward air controllers, American aircraft began
pounding PAVN positions around Khe Sanh. When the Tet Offensive
commenced on January 30, the fighting around KSCB quieted. Fighting in the
area resumed on February 7, when the camp at Lang Vei was overrun.
Fleeing from the scene, the Special Forces units made their way to Khe
Sanh.
Unable to resupply KSCB by land, American forces delivered needed
materials by air, dodging an intense gauntlet of PAVN anti-aircraft fire.
Ultimately tactics such as the "Super Gaggle," which involved the use of A-4
Skyhawk fighters to suppress ground fire, allowed helicopters to resupply the
hilltop outposts, while drops from C-130s delivered goods to the main base.
On the same night that Lang Vei was attacked, PAVN troops assaulted an
observation post at KSCB. In the last week of February, fighting intensified
as a Marine patrol was ambushed and several attacks were launched against
the 37th ARVN's lines.
In March, intelligence began noticing an exodus of PAVN units from the

vicinity of Khe Sanh. Despite this, shelling continued and the base's
ammunition dump detonated for the second time during the campaign.
Pressing out from KSCB, Marine patrols engaged the enemy on March 30,
carried two PAVN trench lines. The next day Operation Scotland was ended
and operational control of the area turned over to the 1st Air Cavalry Division
for the execution of Operation Pegasus.
Designed to "break" the siege of Keh Sanh, Operation Pegasus called for
elements of the 1st and 3rd Marine Regiments to attack up Route 9 towards
Khe Sanh, while the 1st Air Cav moved by helicopter to seize key terrain
features along the line of advance. As the Marines advanced, engineers
would work to repair the road. This plan infuriated the Marines at KSCB as
they did not believe they needed to be "rescued." Jumping off on April 1,
Pegasus met little resistance as American forces moved west. The first major
engagement occurred on April 6, when a day-long battle was fought with a
PAVN blocking force. Fighting largely concluded with a three-day fight near
Khe Sanh village. Troops linked up with the Marines at KSCB on April 8 and
three days later Route 9 was declared open.
Aftermath
Lasting 77 days, the "siege" of Khe Sanh saw American and South
Vietnamese forces suffer 703 killed, 2,642 wounded, and 7 missing. PAVN
losses are not known with accuracy but are estimated at between 10,000-
15,000 dead and wounded. Following the battle, Lownds' men were relieved
and Westmoreland ordered the base occupied until he left Vietnam in June.
His successor, General Creighton Abrams, not believing that retaining Khe
Sanh was necessary, ordered the base destroyed and abandoned later that
month. This decision earned the ire of the American press who questioned
why Khe Sanh had to be defended in January but was no longer needed in
July. Abrams' response was that military situation no longer dictated that it
be held. To this day, it is unclear whether PAVN leadership in Hanoi intended
to fight a decisive battle at Khe Sanh or if operations in the area were meant

to distract Westmoreland in the weeks before the Tet Offensive.