Networking Models 79
These devices allow users to share, create, and obtain information. Host devices can
exist without a network, but without a network, host capabilities are greatly reduced.
Host devices are physically connected to the network media using a network interface
card (NIC). They use this connection to perform the tasks of sending e-mails, printing
reports, scanning pictures, or accessing databases. A NIC is a printed circuit board
that fits into the expansion slot of a bus on a computer motherboard, or it can be a
peripheral device. It is also called a network adapter. Laptop or notebook computer
NICs are usually the size of a PCMCIA card.
Each NIC carries a unique code called a MAC address. MAC addresses are covered
more in a moment. As the name implies, the NIC controls host access to the medium.
There are no standardized symbols for end-user devices in the networking industry.
They bear a resemblance to the real device to allow for quick recognition.
Network devices provide transport for the data that needs to be transferred between
end-user devices. Network devices extend cable connections, concentrate connections,
convert data formats, and manage data transfers. Examples of devices that perform
these functions are repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, and routers. The following sec-
tions provide an overview of some common networking devices.
Repeaters
Repeaters are networking devices that exist at Layer 1, the physical layer, of the OSI
reference model. To understand how a repeater works, it is important to understand
that as data leaves a source and goes out over the network, it is transformed into either
electrical or light pulses that pass along the networking medium. These pulses are
called signals. When signals leave a transmitting station, they are clean and easily rec-
ognizable. However, the longer the cable length, the weaker and more deteriorated the
signals become as they pass along the networking medium. The purpose of a repeater
is to regenerate and retime network signals at the bit level, allowing them to travel a
longer distance on the medium.
The term repeater originally meant a single port “in” device and a single port “out”
device. Today multiple-port repeaters also exist. Repeaters are classified as Layer 1
devices in the OSI model because they act only on the bit level and look at no other

information.
Hubs
The purpose of a hub is to regenerate and retime network signals. The characteristics
of a hub are similar to those of a repeater. A hub is a common connection point for
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80 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals
devices in a network, as shown in Figure 2-22. Hubs commonly connect segments of a
LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to
the other ports so that all the LAN’s segments can see all the packets.
Figure 2-22 Hub
Because hubs and repeaters have similar characteristics, a hub is also called a multiport
repeater. The difference between a repeater and a hub is the number of cables that con-
nect to the device. Whereas a repeater typically has only two ports, a hub generally has
from four to 20 or more ports, as shown in Figure 2-23. Whereas a repeater receives
on one port and repeats on the other, a hub receives on one port and transmits on all
the other ports.
Figure 2-23 Hubs Have Several Ports
The following are the most important properties of hubs:
■ Hubs amplify signals.
■ Hubs propagate signals through the network.
■ Hubs do not require filtering.
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Networking Models 81
■ Hubs do not require path determination or switching.
■ Hubs are used as network-concentration points.
Hubs are commonly used in Ethernet 10BASE-T or 100BASE-T networks. (You will
learn more about Ethernet networks in Chapter 6, “Ethernet Technologies and Ether-
net Switching.”) Hubs create a central connection point for the wiring medium. They
also increase the network’s reliability by allowing any single cable to fail without dis-
rupting the entire network. This feature differs from the bus topology, in which the

failure of one cable disrupts the entire network. (Network topology is discussed later
in this chapter.) Hubs are considered Layer 1 devices because they only regenerate the
signal and repeat it out all their ports (network connections).
In Ethernet networks, all the hosts are connected to the same physical medium. Signals
that are sent out across the common medium are received by all devices. A collision is
a situation that can occur when 2 bits propagate at the same time on the same network.
The area within the network from where the data packets originate and collide is called
a collision domain. All shared-media environments are collision domains, or band-
width domains. You learn more about collision domains in Chapter 5, “Ethernet Fun-
damentals.”
As previously mentioned in this section, the function of Layer 1 devices is simply to
facilitate the transmission of signals. The devices recognize no information patterns in
the signals, no addresses, and no data. When two wires are connected using hubs or
repeaters, all the interconnections are part of a collision domain.
Network Interface Cards
Network interface cards (NICs) are considered Layer 2 devices because each NIC
throughout the world carries a unique code, called a Media Access Control (MAC)
address. This address controls data communication for the host on the LAN. The NIC
controls the access of the host to the medium. Figure 2-24 shows a NIC.
Figure 2-24 Network Interface Card
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82 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals
Bridges
A bridge is a Layer 2 device designed to create two or more LAN segments, each of
which is a separate collision domain. In other words, bridges were designed to create
more usable bandwidth. The purpose of a bridge is to filter traffic on a LAN to keep
local traffic local yet allow connectivity to other parts (segments) of the LAN for traffic
that is directed there. Every networking device has a unique MAC address on the NIC.
The bridge keeps track of which MAC addresses are on each side of the bridge and
makes forwarding decisions based on this MAC address list.

Bridges filter network traffic by looking only at the MAC address. Therefore, they can
rapidly forward traffic representing any network layer protocol. Because bridges look
only at MAC addresses, they are not concerned with network layer protocols. Conse-
quently, bridges are concerned only with passing or not passing frames, based on their
destination MAC addresses. The following are the important properties of bridges:
■ Bridges are more “intelligent” than hubs. That is, they can analyze incoming
frames and forward (or drop) them based on addressing information.
■ Bridges collect and pass packets between two or more LAN segments.
■ Bridges create more collision domains, allowing more than one device to trans-
mit simultaneously without causing a collision.
■ Bridges maintain MAC address tables.
Figure 2-25 shows how a bridge is used. The appearances of bridges vary greatly,
depending on the type.
Figure 2-25 Bridge
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Networking Models 83
What defines a bridge is its Layer 2 filtering of frames and how this is accomplished.
To filter or selectively deliver network traffic, bridges build tables of all MAC
addresses located on a network segment and other networks and then map them to
associated ports. The process is as follows:
Step 1 If data comes along the network medium, a bridge compares the destina-
tion MAC address carried by the data to MAC addresses contained in its
tables.
Step 2 If the bridge determines that the data’s destination MAC address is from
the same network segment as the source, it does not forward the data to
other segments of the network. This process is known as filtering. By per-
forming this process, bridges can significantly reduce the amount of traf-
fic between network segments by eliminating unnecessary traffic.
Step 3 If the bridge determines that the data’s destination MAC address is not
from the same network segment as the source, it forwards the data to the

appropriate segment.
Step 4 If the destination MAC address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge
broadcasts the data to all devices on a network except the one on which
it was received. This process is known as
flooding.
A broadcast is a data packet that is sent to all nodes on a network. A broadcast domain
consists of all the devices connected to a network that receive the data packet broad-
cast by a node to all other nodes on the same network. Because every device on the
network must pay attention to broadcasts, bridges always forward them. Therefore,
all segments in a bridged environment are considered to be in the same broadcast
domain.
As was the case in the repeater/hub combination, another device, called a switch, is
used for multiple bridge connections. The next section discusses switches in greater
detail.
Layer 2 Switches
Layer 2 switches, also called LAN switches or workgroup switches, often replace
shared hubs and work with existing cable infrastructures to ensure that the switches
are installed with minimal disruption of existing networks. Figure 2-26 shows a switch.
Figure 2-26 Switch
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84 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals
Like bridges, switches connect LAN segments, use a table of MAC addresses to deter-
mine the segment on which a frame needs to be transmitted, and reduce traffic. Switches
operate at much higher speeds than bridges.
Switches are data link layer devices that, like bridges, let multiple physical LAN seg-
ments be interconnected into single larger networks. Similar to bridges, switches for-
ward and flood traffic based on MAC addresses. Because switching is performed in
hardware, it is significantly faster than the switching function performed by a bridge
using software. Think of each switch port as a microbridge. Each switch port acts as a
separate bridge and gives each host the medium’s full bandwidth. This process is called

microsegmentation.
Microsegmentation allows the creation of private or dedicated segments—one host per
segment. Each host receives instant access to the full bandwidth and does not have to
compete for available bandwidth with other hosts. In full-duplex switches, because
only one device is connected to each switch port, collisions do not occur.
However, as with a bridge, a switch forwards a broadcast message to all the segments
on the switch. All segments in a switched environment are therefore considered to be
in the same broadcast domain.
Some switches—mainly high-end and enterprise-level switches—perform multilayer
functioning. For example, the Cisco 6500 and 8500 series perform some Layer 3 func-
tions. The Cisco Catalyst 8500, shown in Figure 2-27, is a Layer 3-enhanced ATM
switch that seamlessly integrates wire-speed Layer 3 switching and ATM switching. The
Catalyst 8500 family delivers campus and MAN solutions with scalable performance,
lower cost of ownership, and intranet-based application features to deliver increased
business productivity. Unlike old first- or second-generation ATM switches, which force
customers to have a costly, inefficient, multisystem solution, the Catalyst 8500 switch
provides an integrated ATM and Gigabit Ethernet solution in a single chassis.
Routers
A router, as shown in Figure 2-28, is a type of internetworking device that passes data
packets between networks based on Layer 3 addresses. A router can make decisions
regarding the best path for delivery of data on the network.
Working at Layer 3 allows the router to make decisions based on network addresses
instead of individual Layer 2 MAC addresses. Routers also can connect different Layer 2
technologies, such as Ethernet, Token Ring, and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
Routers also commonly connect Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and serial con-
nections. However, because of their capability to route packets based on Layer 3 infor-
mation, routers have become the backbone of the Internet and run the IP protocol.
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Networking Models 85
Figure 2-27 Cisco Catalyst 8500 Switch

Figure 2-28 Router
The purpose of a router is to examine incoming packets (Layer 3 data), choose the best
path for them through the network, and then switch them to the proper outgoing port.
Routers are the most important traffic-regulating devices on large networks. Routers
let virtually any type of computer communicate with any other computer anywhere in
the world.
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86 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals
Voice, DSL, Cable Modem, and Optical Devices
Recent networking demands of voice and data network integration and fast data
transmission for end users and network backbones have resulted in the development
of the following new networking devices:
■ Voice gateways for handling converged packetized voice and data traffic
■ DSLAMs used at the service provider’s central office for concentrating DSL
modem connections from hundreds of homes
■ Cable Modem Termination System (CMTS) used at a cable operator’s headend or
central location to concentrate connections from many cable modem subscribers.
■ Optical platforms for sending and receiving data over fiber-optic cable, providing
high-speed connection
Voice Gateway
A gateway is a special-purpose device that converts information from one protocol
stack to another. The Cisco AS5400 Series Universal Access Server provides cost-
effective platforms that combine routing, remote access, voice gateway, firewall, and
digital modem functionality. Figure 2-29 shows a Cisco AS5400 Series Universal Gate-
way, which offers universal port data, voice, wireless, and fax services on any port at
any time.
Figure 2-29 Cisco AS5400 Series Universal Gateway
DSLAM
A digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) is a device used in a variety of
DSL technologies. A DSLAM serves as the interface point between a number of sub-

scriber premises and the carrier network. Figure 2-30 shows a Cisco 6100 Series
Advanced DSL Access Multiplexer.
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Networking Models 87
Figure 2-30 Cisco DSLAM 6100
CMTS
Cable operators use a Cable Modem Termination System (CMTS) at various concen-
tration points or hubs in the cable network to provide high-speed Internet access, voice,
and other networking services to home and business subscribers. The Cisco uBR7100
(Universal Broadband Router) CMTS series is designed for MTUs (multitenant units)
such as apartment buildings and hotels. High-capacity models such as the uBR10012
series, shown in Figure 2-31, can handle thousands of subscribers.
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88 Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals
Figure 2-31 Cisco CMTS uBR10012
Optical Platforms
Several optical platforms are available for optical networking, which is primarily a
backbone, wide-area technology. Figure 2-32 shows a Cisco ONS 15454 dense wave-
length division multiplexing (DWDM) optical network system (ONS). The Cisco ONS
15454 provides the functions of multiple network elements in a single platform.
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