A Case Study of Technology-assisted Language Learning in Enhancing Learners’ Translation Capabilities at BUH during the post-Covid period : Đề tài nghiên cứu khoa học / Nguyễn Quang Nhật, Nguyễn Ngọc Phương Dung

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<b>A Case Study of assisted Language Learning in Enhancing Learners’ Translation </b>

<b>Technology-Capabilities at BUH during the post-Covid period</b>

Research paper presented to Faculty of Foreign Languages Banking University of Ho Chi Minh City

In the fulfillment of Research Activities at the Institutional level

<b> NGUYEN NGOC PHUONG DUNG NGUYEN QUANG NHAT </b>

HCMC, 2022 Word count: 21896

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iii

<b>ABSTRACT </b>

This study provided a technology-assisted language learning (TALL) model to teach a Vietnamese-English Translation module. The study aimed to (1) provide an in-depth insight into how the TALL model was actually implemented in a specific scenario, to (2) investigate the effectiveness of the model towards learners’ translation performance through various assessments, and to (3) find out how this model could re-orientate learners’ usage of translation strategies. 39 English-majored juniors at Banking University of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam participated in the study during the second semester of the 2020-2021 academic year. The study implemented a case-study mixed method design, applying document analysis of one specific learning scenario, error analysis of learners’ various assessment activities, and in-depth interviews to clarify how the model enhanced their translation strategies. Results show that a careful design of the TALL model not only contributed to the relevant literature on how to implement technology in actual classroom settings, but also effectively improved learners’ performance in translation studies.

<i><b>Keywords: TALL model, translation strategies</b>, students’ performance, effectiveness. </i>

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – TABLE OF CONTENTS

<b>TABLE OF CONTENTS </b>

<b>INTRODUCTION ... 1</b>

Introduction ... 1

Definitions of key terms ... 1

Problem statement and rationale of the study ... 2

Translation quality assessment ... 14

Translation training in the Vietnamese context ... 18

Translation training at BUH ... 20

Technology-assisted language learning ... 22

Definition ... 22

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Technology as a mean in translation training ... 22

Technology-assisted language learning as a mediational tool in translation training ... 27

Procedure of the study ... 45

The online platform ... 45

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – TABLE OF CONTENTS

Trustworthiness and authenticity ... 53

Ethical Issues and Considerations ... 54

Summary ... 55

<b>RESULTS AND FINDINGS ... 56</b>

Introduction ... 56

A snapshot of the TALL model ... 56

Learning contents and learning outcomes ... 56

Assessment activities ... 59

Learning activities ... 70

Student’s improved competence through assessments... 79

Learners’ performance in this specific scenario (N=39) .. 79

Error analysis through assessment tasks ... 81

Interview results ... 90

Learners’ mastery of translation strategies... 91

Learners’ approach to translate a text ... 97

Learners’ evaluation of a translated version ... 100

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vii The TALL model approach fostered learners’ use of professional

trastrategies ... 108

Conclusion ... 111

<b>CONCLUSION ... 112</b>

Introduction ... 112

Key contributions of the research ... 112

Limitations of the study ... 115

Recommendations for further study ... 116

Conclusion ... 117

<b>REFERENCES ... 119</b>

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – LIST OF FIGURES

vii

<b>LIST OF FIGURES </b>

Figure 1-1: Conceptual framework ... 6Figure 2-2: Five-step approach to navigate learners’ translation habits ... 13Figure 3-1: Aligned elements of the research design ... 32Figure 5-1: Translation strategies employed by students ... 108

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vii

<b>LIST OF TABLES </b>

Table 2-1: Translation Rubric ... 17

Table 3-1: Competences and learning outcomes of the module ... 33

Table 3-2: Course assessment activities ... 36

Table 3-3: Translation rubric for 4-point assessment tasks ... 39

Table 3-4: Translation rubric for peer-assessment ... 40

Table 3-5: Translation rubric for self-assessment ... 41

Table 3-6: The final test-structure and its constructs ... 42

Table 3-7: Distribution of participants ... 44

Table 3-8: Matrix for interviewer selection ... 51

Table 4-1: Learning contents in Module 3 ... 56

Table 4-2: Assessment activities and descriptions ... 59

Table 4-3: In-class activities ... 73

Table 4-4: Descriptive analysis of participants’ scores ... 79

Table 4-5: Frequency of score range ... 80

Table 4-6: Frequencies of lexical errors in the first assessment ... 80

Table 4-7: Error analysis of lexical items ... 82

Table 4-8: Error analysis of syntactic items (N=39) ... 83

Table 4-9: Examples of error analysis at the lexical and syntactic level ... 84

Table 4-10: Descriptive analysis of translating errors (N=39) ... 87

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 1

<b>INTRODUCTION Introduction </b>

This chapter introduces key term definitions upon which the foundation of this study was made. Then, it describes the problem statements and rationale for the study. The next sections highlight research questions and research objectives. Afterwards, a conceptual background is presented with an aim to place their relevance to translation training. Finally, the chapter discusses the scope of the study.

<b>Definitions of key terms </b>

Translation is a linguistic activity at high level to render meaning from one source language into a target language (Newmark, 1988).

Translation training is a profession-orientated discipline that caters to the preparation and equipping of trainees for the market.

Technology-assisted language learning (TALL) is a pedagogical approach in which technologies and technology-assisted platforms (e.g., computers, laptops, Ipads, mobile devices, online resources) are exploited to develop learners’ profound knowledge and language skills via meaningful practice and real-life exercises.

The TALL model provides a guiding framework for the implementation of technology into a particular educational context. This study includes a suggested procedure with various group works and individual activities with the usage of technology as a mediational tool.

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Perceptions are the emotional feelings of the students towards the implementation of a specific pedagogical method (Bergmann & Sams, 2012). In this study, they are measured by the students’ attitudes towards the beneficial effects of the suggested model.

Effectiveness is the degree to which an intervention is successful in producing the desired pedagogical results (Caliskan & Bicen, 2016). In this context, the effectiveness is measured by academic performance reflecting the student’s depth of knowledge and skills gained through various assessments. In addition, effectiveness is also measured by the changes of learners’ usage of professional translation strategies.

Process-orientated translation is related to the cognitive process, focusing on the awareness of how a translator produces a translated version as a result of decision-making and strategy-execution at the three fundamental loci of comprehension, transfer, and production (Volkova, 2014).

<b>Problem statement and rationale of the study </b>

As English becomes the lingua franca in many professional fields, competent translators are vital for non-English speaking countries that seek to integrate economy into the world for social, educational, and economic achievements (Robert et al., 2017). Hence, there is a high demand for proficient translators as well as for effective educational methods for translation subjects (Sanchez, 2017). Vietnam is a country where the improvement of translation training is undertaken as an integral part of many

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 1

faculties of foreign languages, and of translation lecturers' desire to adopt contemporary active, student-centred methods to enhance learners’ performance (Nguyen et al., 2016). However, Vietnamese translation lecturers are struggling to adopt educational approaches that can enhance learners’ independence and autonomy (Pham, 2016). For example, Le et al. (2012) found that 67% of graduates from eight universities in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) stated their translation programmes did not provide sufficient skills practice, maintaining that most teachers favoured monotonous traditional training and offered few real-life activities, whereas the students still spontaneously adopted word-to-word translation techniques. While 28% of the participants considered these courses useful for their employability, others did not feel well-prepared to enter the market after graduation. Hence, there is a need to change the current situation of translation training in Vietnam (Do, 2020; Nguyen et al., 2016).

With the increased availability of web-based educational technologies, some scholars have studied the teaching of translation from the perspective of computer-aided instructions (Barr, 2012), online platform (Wang, 2017), and PEnPAL (Vale de Gato et al., 2016). While the research mentioned demonstrates beneficial effects on teaching translation using modern technology, there are some limitations, such as the limited adaptability of online resources with relevant curriculum content. Moreover, these studies neglected physical in-class interactions to boost collaborative learning and develop professional competences. Therefore, a better

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application of technology in the translation classroom with a more detailed description of the in-class procedures might be beneficial.

Finally, a review of recent literature reveals some gaps in the TALL theories (Ha et al., 2019; Mustafa et al., 2019). First, most studies do not describe what activities are happening outside and inside the classroom and how actively the participants get involved in the technological-assisted activities to promote individualised learning. Moreover, it is still difficult to envision how these activities enable learners to master their skills with regards to the learning objectives and the course requirements (Akỗayr & Akỗayr, 2018). Therefore, a further investigation is needed to clarify how technological-assisted teaching activities and assessment tasks are aligned to the course objectives and learning outcomes, in order to enhance test achievements and skill competency. These are the reasons that strongly support the conduct of this study.

In summary, this research sought to provide a TALL model with a detailed description of technological-assisted activities to shed light on how technology is actually implemented in translation training. The study also proposed to clarify the extent to which the alignment of learning outcomes, assessment tasks, and teaching contents enhances learners’ test achievements and skills competency. Finally, in-depth results with both quantitative and qualitative evidence were provided in the paper to demonstrate the benefits of this suggested model from assessment analysis and semi-structured interviews.

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 1

<b> Research objectives </b>

This study aims to:

1. describe how a TALL model is implemented in a translation classroom setting to ensure that all teaching activities are systematically and coherently aligned with the expected learning outcomes and assessment tasks.

2. investigate the benefits of the TALL model towards learners’ improvement in translation competence as measured through their formative and summative assessments.

3. explore the impacts of the TALL model in enhancing learners’ usage of professional translation strategies.

<b>Research questions </b>

This study aimed to answer three following questions:

1. How was the TALL model actually implemented to ensure the alignment between learning activities and learning outcomes, assessments, and educational theories in one particular scenario?

2. How does this model influence students’ improvement in translation competence, as measured by error analysis through their performance in formative and summative assessments?

3. How did the model impact the students’ translation strategies to solve their assignments?

<b>Conceptual framework </b>

This study was built upon 2 main cores: computer-assisted language learning and process-orientated training to develop learners’ competency. Figure 1-1 illustrates this relationship as follows.

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The technology as part of a blended learning model was employed to improve educational efficacy in the Vietnamese translation classroom. Students first gained exposure to new knowledge via watching videos and other online resources, which provided a distinct advantage for learners who performed at different paces. Class time was then used for learning-centred activities that build on the pre-class work and process-oriented training. With this model, technology is inclined to be an integrative and mediational tool for the training process, and interactions between students and teachers created by process-oriented training are of great significance with thin the training procedure.

<b>Scope of the study </b>

The scope of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of the suggested learning model implementing TALL model in a translation course

<small>Learners’ usage of professional </small>

<small>strategies Better academic </small>

<small>results </small>

<b><small>Effectiveness </small></b>

<b><small>oriented </small></b>

<b><small>Process-training Technology-</small></b>

<b><small>assisted learning </small></b>

<b><small>Technology as a mediational tool </small></b>

<small>1. Technologies 2. Portfolio </small>

<small>3. Preparatory tasks 4. Group forum </small>

<b><small>Collaborative practice + Training of professional translation strategies </small></b>

<small>1. Revision </small>

<small>2. Exploratory activities 3. Joint negotiation 4. Individual construction 5. Peer review </small>

<b>Figure 1-1: Conceptual framework </b>

<small>Constructively- designed lessons </small>

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 1

and explore Vietnamese undergraduate students’ usage of translation strategies. Therefore, it is meaningful to examine one scenario to see how the activities were organised to align constructively with the learning outcomes and assessment tasks, and how various elements of the TALL model were actually exploited. Moreover, this study analysed learners’ competencies through various formal assessments, critically evaluating both quantitatively and qualitatively to define the true values of the model in enhancing learners’ translation strategies in the Vietnamese context.

<b> Summary </b>

In short, translation students need a learning environment with more class time for skills practice and collaborative learning experience. However, the current delivery in Vietnam could not promote active learning as well as fails to foster learners’ engagement <small>(</small>Do, 2019<small>)</small>. Furthermore, the limited class time poses challenges for instructors to cover the required contents as well provide adequate practice for skills mastery. Therefore, this research implemented a suggested TALL model as an opt solution to tackle these issues.

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<b>LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction </b>

This chapter contains three main parts. First, it provides a brief overview of translation training and the current status of this discipline in the Vietnamese context as well at Banking University. Then, the chapter provides information about technology-assisted language learning and its beneficial impacts in educational setting.

<b> Translation training </b>

<b> Definition of translation training </b>

Nida and Taber defined translation as “reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and, second in terms of style” (1969, p. 12). This definition put forward the notion of “equivalence” and ultimate translation, implying that there exists an absolute correct translation. However, the evaluation of “closest natural equivalent” is subjective as any translation has to be analysed on different cultural context and historical significance. Moreover, this definition also put too much emphasis on the centrality of original text and the priority of meaning, which neglects the creativity and dynamicity of translators.

Later, Newmark considered translation as “a craft consisting of the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language” (1988, p. 7), while Houbert regarded translation as “the process whereby a message

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 expressed in a specific source language is linguistically transformed in order to be understood by readers of the target language” (1998, p. 38). As such, these two authors implied that translation means more than substitution of words in one language with those from another language. The difference between these two definitions is that Newmark considered translation as an art to cope with the elegancy of expressions and with the tricks and formalistic experiments, while Houbert looked at it from scientific viewpoint requiring systematic techniques to bring two cultures together.

<b>Translation training </b>

Translation training (a.k.a. translation teaching or translation education) is a sub-branch within the translation studies with the purpose of educating high-quality translators to meet the ever-changing market needs. Formal translator training has been an indispensable part in many institutions, either in form of tertiary degrees, certificates and vocational diplomas. In those programmes, translator training works as a means to cope with the globalisation of the economy, to attract foreign investments, and to ensure knowledge transfer between languages and cultures. As a result, this institutionalisation of translator training has achieved great progress around the world and many translation academics are looking for methods to teach translation efficiently (Petrescu, 2015).

Prominent research scholars share the ideas that translation training should be:

• process-oriented: more emphasis should be put on translation process rather than the products so that learners can acquire professional

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expertise and necessary translation competencies (Hatim, 2012;

<b>Lee-Jahnke, 2005). </b>

• competence-based: pedagogy should be supported by grounded translation theories and research studies to enhance learners’ translating proficiency such as ability to assess critically their own strengths and weaknesses, function collaboratively within a team, and work responsibly to complete the tasks (Göpferich & Jääskeläinen, 2009; Hatim,

• profession-oriented: students should be exposed to authentic

<b>materials and real-life work conditions during the training that can help them </b>

continue progressing and learning after they graduate (Hubscher-Davidson

<b>& Borodo, 2012; Sanchez, 2017). </b>

• learner-centred: students should be the main components within the teaching and learning process and all activities should aim to boost their autonomy and make them accountable for their own learning (Hanna, 2016;

<b>Sanchez, 2017) </b>

<b>• social-constructivist: collaborative learning environments should </b>

be fostered so that students could interact with peers and teachers while completing tasks and gradually penetrate into the professional community (Kelly, 2005; Kiraly, 2000; Pym, 2013).

<b>Translation competence </b>

Translation competence could be considered as a collection of skills and knowledge necessary for a qualified translator to meet the demand of the market or to produce a good-quality text in compliance with all the

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 relevant norms of a community (Li, 2013). In reality, the model of the PACTE group (2017), which has been widely accepted by many prestigious universities and certified translation examinations, was developed with five different sub-competences:

<b>• Bilingual sub-competence: refers to linguistic knowledge necessary to </b>

communicate in both languages. This includes pragmatic, socio-linguistic, textual and lexical-grammatical knowledge in each language.

<b>• Extra-linguistic sub-competence: implies mostly declarative knowledge </b>

(explicit and implicit) about the world in general and specific areas. This comprises of bicultural, encyclopedic, domain and thematic knowledge.

<b>• Translation knowledge sub-competence: includes knowledge about </b>

translation principles (e.g. translation units, techniques and strategies) and professional aspects (e.g. techniques related to the labour market or techniques to handle different types of customers).

<b>• Instrumental sub-competence: refers to practical knowledge of </b>

documentary sources and ICT for translation (e.g. dictionaries, Computer Assisted Translation tools, search engine, and network community)

<b>• Strategic sub-competence: can be understood as the capacity to plan a </b>

translation project, evaluate the translation process and outputs, activate any additional sub-competences that may be required to compensate for translation deficiencies, and solve translation problems.

<b>• Psycho-physiological sub-competence: includes knowledge about </b>

cognitive components (e.g. memory, attention span, perseverance,

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emotion), behavioral aspects (e.g. curiosity, persistence, punctuality, critical mind, self-confidence) as well as psychomotor mechanisms (e.g. the capacity to assess one’s abilities, motivation, the ability to think creatively and logically, analysis and synstudy skills)

The merit of this model is that all sub-competencies are differentiated but interconnected and have their own function, while the strategic competence is the most important. However, it seems that the PACTE group tried to try to include as many components as possible to create an ideal image of professional translator. This attempt might be overwhelming for any translation training at the tertiary level as certain sub-competences require a long exposure to the real world of professional translators (e.g., psycho-physiological sub-competence). In other words, it is impractical for a graduate student to have the professional competence equal to that of an experienced and professional translator.

<b>Translation strategies </b>

According to Lörscher (2005), translation strategies could be grouped into three categories, i.e. Comprehension strategies, Transfer strategies, and Production strategies. Comprehension strategies imply the strategies of understanding the source texts, identifying the translation problems (lexical and syntactic problems), and segmenting the source texts into smaller units. Transfer strategies mean analysing the differences between the source texts and the target ones, and finding the appropriate solutions to these problems. Finally, the Production strategies refer to the assessment of the translated versions as well as any necessary refinements.

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 As an important part of developing translation competence, the acquisition of effective translation strategies needs to be given due attention during the training process until these strategies finally become familiarised and habitual by students. Martín de Ln (2016) suggested a five-step approach in teaching translation and navigating the learners’ habits for better performance. This includes source text analysis, evaluation of translation difficulties, elimination of difficulties, assessment of equivalence, and back translation. This approach is insightful because it provides a teaching model to navigate positive translation strategies. This can be summarized in Figure 2-2 below:

<b><small>Comprehension strategies </small></b>

<b><small>Transfer strategies </small></b>

<b><small>Production strategies </small></b>

<b><small>1. Read the whole text to get the main idea and </small></b>

<small>Segment the text into translatable units. </small>

<b><small>2. Identify translation problems </small></b>

<small> + Lexical problems: hyponymy, connotative, ambiguity, terminology, cultural elements. </small>

<small> + Syntactic problems: lack of subject, redundancy, word order, article, preposition, collocation, verb tenses, structures, word formation, and voices. </small>

<b><small>3a.Translation skills at the word and phrase level: </small></b>

<small>Direct translation, Borrowing, Naturalization, Diction, Paraphrase, Cultural equivalence. </small>

<b><small>3b.Translation skills at the syntactic level: Key </small></b>

<small>message analysis, Reformulation techniques </small>

<b><small>3c.Translation skills at the paragraph level: </small></b>

<small>Adaptation, Clarification. </small>

<b><small>4. Evaluate the product in terms of Accuracy, </small></b>

<small>Comprehensibility, Stylistic equivalence, and Intended meaning. </small>

<b><small>5. Conduct peer reviews to check any errors, </small></b>

<small>ambiguities or confusions that may arise. </small>

<b>Figure 2-1: Five-step approach to navigate learners’ translation habits </b>

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This model has four advantages. First, it takes into account all the issues of forms, meaning, context, and text types so that learners can make sense of the cohesive relations among the various elements of a discourse. By learning how to divide the texts into pieces, the students can reconstruct its content and relate that content to specific structures. Second, it employs systematic strategies by dividing language into smaller units for translating purposes. Thus, the translating procedures are given step by step, and solutions to problematic areas are given systematically. In this way, students can recall these strategies and apply them in similar cases more easily. Third, it incorporates insights from other linguistic areas such as discourse analysis and contrastive linguistics. Finally, the enhancement of translation competence could be achieved through a gradual process. The translation teaching could emphasise the route to acquiring appropriate translation habits that will enable the development of a professional working style. As a result, learners will be able to develop professional habits to complete their assignments.

<b>Translation quality assessment </b>

During the recent decades, many researchers have endeavored to find a robust conceptual framework for identifying and analyzing translation errors (Károly, 2012). There are currently two main approaches to scoring in translation testing, including holistic and analytic methods (Aubakirova, 2016; Flanagan & Christensen, 2014). The holistic method is based on the idea that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts, and graders are

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 required to combine all the prominent features of a translation to arrive at an overall judgment of its quality. Therefore, they normally need to refer to a holistic rubric so that the grading can be more systematic and objective. A holistic rubric defines performance criteria and levels but does not indicate specific components of the performance. An example of these grading rubrics is that developed by American Translators Association (ATA, 2013) which contains four following levels:

▪ Strong: Translated text conveys meaning fully and accurately as specified by Translation Instructions.

▪ Acceptable: Translated text conveys meaning well enough to be useful to intended reader; occasional mistranslations, omissions or additions may slightly obscure meaning.

▪ Deficient: Translated text does not convey meaning well enough to be useful to the intended reader; mistranslations, omissions or additions may obscure meaning.

▪ Minimal: Translated text would be nearly useless to intended reader; frequent and/or serious mistranslations, omissions or additions obscure or change meaning.

By contrast, the analytic rubric adopts an error classification scheme to assess the quality of a translation version. An error, defined by its severity, can be a major one or a minor one, so a weight in the form of a numerical value can be assigned to each error. Currently there are quite a few translation error classification schemes set out in rubrics (e.g. Dunne, 2009; Secară, 2005; Williams, 2004). A more detailed of analytic rubric is also

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developed by American Translators Association (ATA, 2013) with 27 error types. The list includes the following errors: 1) Incomplete passage, 2) Illegible handwriting, 3) Misunderstanding of the original text, 4) Mistranslation into target language, 5) Addition or omission, 6) Terminology, word choice, 7) Register, 8) Too freely translated, 9) Too literal, word-for-word translation, 10) False cognate, 11) Indecision in word choice, 12) Inconsistent, 13) Ambiguity, 14) Grammar, 15) Syntax, 16) Punctuation, 17) Spelling, 18) Accents and other diacritical marks, 19) Case (upper case/lower case), 20) Word form, 21) Usage and 22) Style and Form (ATA, 2013).

The primary advantages of holistic scoring are the simultaneous consideration of all components of the response and time efficiency, while the strength of analytic scoring lies in assessing the examinee’s specific strengths and weaknesses and identifying the particular components of the translation competence. It is a common consensus that translation assessment methods grounded in error analysis are more reliable than holistic scoring methods, although academic scholars could not provide verifiable evidence for this hypostudy (Flanagan & Christensen, 2014). Due to the complexity of this practice, it remains intricate to establish a single comprehensive list of all the translation errors observed. This part, therefore, just attempts to review some of the most noticeable translation errors, and proposes a list of translation errors which can be regarded as the foundation for the test marking in this study.

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 Based on the above reviewed scoring, it could be summarised that the list of errors can be divided into three categorizations including lexical errors, syntactic level, and translating errors. These three types of errors are unavoidable to novice translators and learners because of their lack of practical experience, low level of English proficiency, as well as the insufficient background knowledge about translation theories.

Table 2-1 illustrates the analytical rubric and translation error scheme which was used to grade the test papers of the participants in this study.

<b>Table 2-1: Translation Rubric </b>

<b>Lexical errors </b>

<b>Syntactic errors </b>

<b>Translating errors </b>

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<b>Translation training in the Vietnamese context The status of translation training in Vietnam </b>

Due to the open-door policy and recent integration into the international economy, the socio-economic, scientific as well as cultural exchanges between Vietnam and foreign countries have led to a great demand for professional competent translators. Translation, thus, has become an integral component in most English-majored degree programs since 2002 (Pham & Tran, 2013). More importantly, when Vietnam officially joined WTO in 2006, attitudes towards translation training in Vietnam have undergone deep transformations both in the professional world and that of scholarly research. University teachers become aware of the future prospects of their students as editors, authors, scholars and professional translators (Do, 2016). As a result, many language faculties acknowledge the actual requirements of their prospective graduates to keep up with the market needs, and develop special courses in which translation is a main major in its own right. However, it is a reality that most people who engage in translation field normally hold a degree in modern languages and do it as a part-time job (Do, 2016). There is also a lack of intensive post-graduate translation courses to provide advanced training for translators.

It is also noteworthy that translator training and research in the Vietnamese context have not received adequate attention as yet. There is a lack of professional instructional materials, an inconsistency in content designs among institutions, no well-defined classroom procedures and subjectivity in quality assessment without detailed rubrics (Nguyen et al.,

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 2016). One reason for these problems lies in the fact that the prevailing teaching method is product-oriented and follows the traditional formats, which makes it comparatively easy to manage teaching activities, yet not productive of development in translation abilities on the part of learners (Nguyen et al., 2016). In fact, it is normal to find a traditional translation classroom in which the teacher is a “knowledge transmitter” (Pham, 2016), who tries to correct every translation mistake made by their passive students. Though there have been efforts made by some teachers and scholars in translation didactics, more studies need to be done to develop more efficient teaching models, especially those involving Internet resources, which will be more applicable and feasible under the conditions of EFL majors (Nguyen, 2016). The final point is that most translation teachers lack formal training in translation and hand-on experience related to the translation profession (Do, 2016; Pham & Tran, 2013). Since most educators are not professional translators or still need to fine-tune with the translation industry, it is difficult for them to apply authentic teaching methods and provide students with authentic materials. As a result, they are unable to pass on to students the vocational experience and knowledge that is obviously valuable for career development in the future.

In recent years, certain attempts have been made to move from a traditional training approach to a more professionally-grounded approach aiming to equip learners with professional skills for their future jobs as translators. For example, various conferences and seminars have been organised throughout the country since 2012 to investigate innovative trends

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and methods in translation training (Pham, 2016). In addition, some research studies and training programs at the national level have been sponsored by the government for an improvement in translation curriculum, a consistent content design and standardised course books. In theory, these programs have a relatively clear aim and seem to cover almost main points concerning the preparation for the translator training. However, in reality, there are problems during the implementation since the programs lack tools for the selection of students, materials, and course evaluation instruments. Finally, there is no systematic mechanism to evaluate if those programs are at present actually taking into account the translation employment market and students’ needs (Nguyen, 2020). Therefore, a reform of the curriculum is needed since Vietnamese tertiary education is still theory-oriented and scholastically-driven.

In short, translation training in Vietnam is still in its infancy with the product-oriented and traditional format as a prevailing method, while educators and the government are struggling to improve the quality of this field by innovative methodologies, consistent contents, and standardised course books. Thus, it could be said that the problems confronting translation teaching in Vietnam are enormous.

<b> Translation training at BUH </b>

Banking University of Ho Chi Minh City has been involved in translation education since 2009. The translation component at the undergraduate level constitutes part of a systematic course in English language and literature, and is exercised at the rate of four hours (4 hours =

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 5 academic periods) a week. That is why it remains unrealistic to talk about proper translation training at the undergraduate level. Though there have been efforts to improve existing syllabuses, the traditional subject-matter orientation, methods of teaching, testing, and grading are still adopted there. Existing syllabuses are facing difficulties due to the lack of qualified translation teachers, the absence of systematic teaching methods, the lack of proper textbooks and the insufficient time devoted to these syllabi.

In recent years, the Faculty of Foreign Languages at BUH has been implementing certain innovations to improve the translation teaching and learning process. On the one hand, the product-oriented teaching method in which students’ products are judged as “right” or “wrong”, “good” or “bad” is gradually substituted by the process-oriented approach to enhance learner’s competence. Learners are geared towards professional strategies to deal with translation problems and real-life practice. On the other hand, teachers are encouraged to exploit different factors to promote constructive, critical attitudes among learners and creativity in the classroom such as group work, peer review, and projects. Translation tasks are also complemented by the teaching of theoretical principles in the belief that learners need to know the underlying mechanisms to improve their translation skills and the management of mental process. Finally, blended-language learning with the support of modern technology is implemented for an improvement in the teaching and learning process. For example, video dubbing can help learners take a more active role to interact with each other to reach achievements while Computer-aided translation tools such as Google

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Translate or Transit NXT could help learners self-study at home or assess their work, thus mitigating teachers’ workload. Still, translation training at BUH is in its infancy. Therefore, more innovative teaching methods are needed and appreciated in this Faculty to incorporate both necessary theoretical and practical aspects into the syllabus, to help learners develop effective strategies to solve translation tasks.

<b>Technology-assisted language learning </b>

<b> Definition </b>

Technology-assisted language learning (TALL) is a type of blended learning in which technology is expploited to help learners acquire the necessary knowlegde and skills as well as to achieve their goals with a higher level of learning (An et al., 2021). This implies that TALL is a pedagogical method to shift instructions to a learner-centered model in which class time explores topics in greater depth and creates meaningful opportunities for practice, while educational technologies such as video lessons, online exercises, or project-based digital research are exploited for both knowledge delivery and skill mastery.

<b>Technology as a mean in translation training </b>

While traditional method is still dominant in many classes, translation academics have endeavoured to establish innovative methodologies to help novice translators improve their competencies for vocational or professional purposes. This eventually welcomes the integration of technology and process-oriented teaching for empowering learners’ translation performance (Nguyen, 2019).

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 Since the late 1990s, certain studies have been conducted on technology and web-based learning in translation teaching but did not gain much success. For example, Gillespie (2000) adopted computer conferencing to support one-to-one communication between students and tutors and between pairs of students, but the full potential of computer conferencing to support learners’ performance was not investigated in his study. Similarly, Millán-Varela (2001) discussed the implementation of electronic mailing list for an online distance Master program in Translation Studies but found that students were reluctant to use it due to lack of time and overwhelming workload. Finally, O’Hagan and Ashworth (2002) described a virtual translation course at the University of Hawaii in which students posted assignments to a bulletin board for peer review. Though the participants agreed that they gained some experience working in virtual teams to deal with group translation tasks as well as received constructive feedback from peer review, this asynchronous communication did not arouse their interest and enhance their autonomy. The reasons for these unsatisfactory results might lie in the fact that technology in translation training was still in its infancy at that time, both teachers and students were not familiar with technology and there was a lack of scientific framework for implementing technology into classroom.

However, those negative results did not discourage researchers from bringing technology into the classroom. With modifications and improvements, positive results about technology in translation training were found by some scholars. For example, Yumuk (2002) investigated the

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effectiveness of the Internet in a Turkish undergraduate translation course. Technology was implemented to encourage 90 third-year translation students to use the Internet to select, analyze, evaluate and apply relevant information to enhance the accuracy of their translation. Through questionnaires, interviews, and diary analysis, the results showed that 94% of the students were motivated to assess their progress and 58% became accustomed to conducting deeper terminology searches with the help of the Internet for self-study and revision. This indicated that the program had a significant impact on students, in that it supported further practice at home and students can access the Internet to review materials and do exercises without instructor assistance. As a result, learners’ autonomy was promoted and they began to view translation learning more meaningfully. However, no data regarding collaborative work was found and the Internet was just a supporting device to do at home rather than an integrated part inside the classroom.

In the same vein, Varela Salinas (2007) elaborated on a web-based technology to enhance the translation teaching process. She used an open-source learning management system (Moodle) to employ different activities to train students. For example, questionnaires and quizzes were used to revise faulty translation by comparing the answers with a source text, then the system evaluated learners and gave feedback on their performance. That system also served as a virtual forum, where students discussed their assignments in chat rooms and the instructor could monitor closely. She maintained that if leaners were provided with clear structure and guidance

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 on how to use these tools, they could collaborate with one another in a non-threatening environment. As a result, their transferable skills and computer skills will be greatly improved. Still, Salinas admitted that this approach could not work alone and should be a complementary part to the face-to-face training mode.

Taking a constructivist perspective as the starting point, Mañas and Albir (2010) recommended two proposals adopting blended language learning in teaching “Introduction to Translation” and “Technical-scientific translation” courses. Details were given about learning theories from which the design of this study was drawn (i.e. competence-based training and task-based approach), and the well-planned process for the implementation of technology was presented. By using questionnaires, reflective diary, and comparisons between self-grading marks of the students and the marks given by the teachers, the data demonstrated the students’ satisfaction with these new methods and their effectiveness. The study also confirmed that students place a high value on the blended learning methodology as it permitted timetable flexibility to organize the workload, encouraged group work and promoted students’ autonomy and responsibility. It can be said that they made advances in recommended a framework employing technology in teaching translation with empirical validation. However, more data are needed to investigate whether these teaching proposals are truly effective in improving learners’ real performance such as comparing the summative results of students in the treatment class with those not exposed to blended learning.

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Galán-One year later, Azizinezhad and Masoud (2011) adopted blogs in teaching a translation class and reported that their experiences in using this technology were positive. Participants in the treatment class were satisfied with the friendly environment and blogs helped them acquire updated knowledge as well as provide motivation for translation activities. They concluded that web-based technology could be effective in enhancing openness, collaboration and community-building for both teachers and learners. Still, blogs were just supporting tools for additional exercises and could only be used outside the classrooms. Moreover, no detailed guideline or framework was given regarding how to incorporate technology into the classroom procedures.

Recently, Celia Rico (2017) presented an experience in using ePortfolio in a course on translation technology with a view to implementing a learner-centred scenario. In her study, ePortfolio was used as an instructional tool so that leaders could exchange ideas, experiences, assignments and aspirations, thereby creating a learning context directly related to the principles of socio-constructivism. Through students’ diaries and formative assessments, this author stated that this tool was effective to help learners acquire a sense of empowerment and active role in their learning process. She also believed that ePortfolio contributed to the development of learner autonomy and interaction in a collaborative learning environment with the possibility of sharing experiences with others inside and outside the classroom. One merit of this study is that he structured the classroom sessions around the well-planned stages to foster deeper

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 learning, emphasising conceptual understanding and personal involvement both in the students and the teacher. This can be considered as an initial step towards shaping learning methodologies with technology into translation education, whereby learners generate knowledge and meaning from experience both with processes and actual products.

To sum up, research results showed that students expressed positive opinions towards the implementation of technology and any of e-learning devices. However, such technology was only used as a separate mean within the course, which means the aforementioned individual teaching experiences mainly suggested technological tools to transmit knowledge from one person to another without designing a pedagogical proposal for teaching translation. No exemplary model is provided to explain how technology should be incorporated into the training process in which learning is the result of interactions, reflections, and experiences. Hence, a paradigm is needed to address how teachers adopted technology to present lectures, to have students do assignments based on the information they impart, and to encourage learners’ collaborative work inside and outside classroom.

<b>Technology-assisted language learning as a mediational tool in translation training </b>

According to Kozulin (2018), mediational tools are those devices that facilitate learners’ relationship with the world via real-life practices and social-cultural exchanges. This means learners have more opportunities to get exposure to a wide range of mediational tools for knowledge mastery and transferable skill enhancement. In other words, technology as a

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mediational tool in this context implies the use of a wide range of devices (rather than a single form of technology) to help learners get access to authentic learning environments so that their skills can be sharpened for academic performance and future career.

While much existing literature on TALL has been conducted in different disciplines, studies on the effectiveness of this method in translator training as a mediational tool are quite rare. In fact, there are currently three accessible empirical studies on the effectiveness of TALL in translator training from prestigious sources, all of which lack a coherent design of the classroom procedure.

First, Ling (2017) applied technology-assisted learning in a Chinese translation class for twenty non-English majors, and used a questionnaire-type survey to explore learners’ perceptions of the approach. More than 87% of responses stated that this approach improved various aspects of their translation ability. However, this study did not reveal any quantitative evidence to show that an improvement in learner perceptions could bring about perceived better learning outcomes.

Then, Mei (2017) conducted a study on translation training in his TALL classroom with fifteen students. The class procedure was divided into three main steps: (1) pre-class work (video watching, material reading, and comprehension exercises), (2) in-class activities (revision, exercise correction, students’ presentations, and discussions), and (3) after-class feedback. Through observations, questionnaires, and test analysis, he showed that the method had improved teaching and learning efficiency, with

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PHUONG DUNG + QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 2 the average test scores of the experimental class being higher (93%) than for the traditional class (86%). He also asserted that it could improve student engagement, as the exercise completion rates and participation rates in the TALL class averaged roughly 99% and 91%, considerably better than those for the traditional session (91% and 91%). However, to what extent this method influences learners’ translation ability is still left unanswered.

In terms of the effectiveness of TALL on learners’ usage of translation strategies, Lin (2019) investigated the perceptions of thirteen English majors about the effectiveness of a TALL translation classroom in Taiwan. Her semi-structured interviews revealed that most participants were able to use professional strategies such as choosing appropriate vocabulary and formulating sentence patterns for different text types and text genres. Participants also expressed an increase in their motivation, autonomy and in-class participation. However, more information is still needed to see how this approach can enhance learners’ translation habits, and how learners actually adopt professional strategies in their assignments.

In conclusion, there is a general lack of empirical investigation into how students experience TALL translation lessons that use a detailed instructional procedure in a systematic way. In fact, no published academic paper on the implementation of a TALL classroom model in Vietnamese translation training could be found at the time of writing this paper, and this was another motivation for conducting this study.

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<b>Summary </b>

The first section of this chapter highlighted general information regarding translation training, the status of translation teaching in the Vietnamese context and Banking University. Then, the second section gave an overview about technology-assisted language learning and its beneficial impacts. The next chapter will examine the philosophical perspectives upon which this study is built, the data collection process, data analysis procedure and other issues relating to the conduct of this research paper.

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NGUYEN QUANG NHAT – CHAPTER 3

<b>METHODOLOGY Introduction </b>

This chapter begins with the information about the case-study mixed method design. After that, data collection tools and analysis methods were defined, including a qualitative section for document analysis of one particular learning scenario, error analysis of students’ assessment performance, and thematic analysis of learners’ semi-structured interviews. Following that, issues relating to reliability and validity of the whole study are addressed. The final section includes ethical considerations, methodological limitations as well as a summary of the whole chapter

<b>Research design </b>

The study adopted a case-study design to (1) uncover how the model was actually implemented in one specific learning scenario; to (2) explore the effect of the TALL classroom on student academic achievement through various types of assessments, and to (3) demonstrate how the model enhanced learners’ translation strategies. One rationale for this research design is attributed to the theory of constructive alignment introduced by John Biggs to meet the ever-changing market needs and the requirements of theory-informed syllabus design in higher education (2014). “Constructive” means learners actively construct their knowledge through various collaborative activities, and “alignment” implies how instructors process the lessons to ensure activities and assessments are appropriate to the intended learning outcomes (Biggs, 2014). Learners could have

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opportunities to reflect on their own experiences and practical knowledge, while collaborations enable them to solve real-life and simulated problems. Students also are enabled to foster knowledge construction, learning behaviours and required skills, as well as to self-assess their outcomes. Therefore, this theory could be seen as putting more emphasis on student-centred methodology, autonomous learning, well-supported assessments and outcome-based instructions. All elements of learning outcomes, task assignments, assessment activities and evaluation criteria are coordinated to maximise student learning.

Adapted from Biggs’ model (2014), the following Figure 3-1 illustrates the design of this phase as follows.

<i><b><small>Learning outcomes </small></b></i>

<i><b><small>Assessments </small></b></i>

<small>Norm-referenced standardised </small>

<small>tests </small>

<small>Criterion-referenced assessments </small>

<b><small>3. Ipsative </small></b>

<small>assessment </small>

<b><small>4. Rubric </small></b>

<small>criteria for quality assessment </small>

<small>taxonomy </small>

<i><small>between three elements: </small></i>