semantic and syntactic attributes of serial verb constructions in vietnamese

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TRAN THI NHAN

SEMANTIC AND SYNTACTIC ATTRIBUTES OFSERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS IN VIETNAMESE:

A COGNITIVE INVESTIGATION

MASTER GRADUATION PROJECTIN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

DONG NAI, 2024

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TRAN THI NHAN

SEMANTIC AND SYNTACTIC ATTRIBUTES OFSERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS IN VIETNAMESE:

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Scope of the study...3

Aims of the study...3

Contributions of the study...4

Research questions...4

The Organization of the project... 4

CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW... 6

1.2.1. Semantic aspects of serial verb constructions in Vietnamese ...12

1.2.2. Cognitive and cultural perspectives...12

CHAPTER 3. SERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS IN VIETNAMESE...21

3.1. SVCs of locative verbs in Vietnamese ...22

3.1.1. SVCs of inner locative...22

3.1.2. SVCs of Outer locative...27

3.2. SVCs of dative verbs in Vietnamese... 32

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3.2.1. Agentive-Dative-Goal verbs...33

3.2.2. Agentive-Dative-Source verbs... 34

3.3. Summary...37

CHAPTER 4. SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS OF SVCs IN VIETNAMESE... 38

4.1. The syntax of SVCs in Vietnamese ... 38

4.1.1. Coordination...38

4.1.2. Embedding... 40

4.1.3. Non-grammaticalized and grammaticalized SVCs... 46

4.1.4. SVCs with complement-taking and non–complement–taking verbs... 48

4.2. Semantic properties of Vietnamese SVCs... 51

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I would like to begin by sincerely thanking my supervisor Ly Ngoc Toan, Ph.D., whose assistance in a number of areas has enabled me to ultimately complete this project. His enlightening comments and discussions used to extend our meetings to several hours. His formal and empirical methodology have greatly affected my research views.

I also want to express my gratitude to Nguyen Thi Chau Anh, Ph.D. for her kind guidance and assistance throughout the project, from the initial drafts to its completion. My deepest gratitude is extended to the Dean of the Foreign Languages and Informatics Faculty at People's Police College II, for his constant encouragement.

Finally , despite my best efforts, I humbly acknowledge that imperfections remain in this project due to limited time and ability. However, I sincerely appreciate any feedback or criticism that could help me to further improve my work. Learning from such eminent academics has been an honor and a joy, and I hope that this study adds even a tiny bit to the great history of this prestigious university.

Dong Nai, January, 2024Author

Tran Thi Nhan

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This project aims to conduct an in-depth investigation of serial verb constructions (henceforth SVCs) in Vietnamese, a unique linguistic phenomenon that allows for the compact encoding of complex events through the serialization of multiple verbs within a single clause. The research adopts a cognitive linguistics approach, drawing upon Talmy's framework of event conceptualization, to unravel the cognitive mechanisms underlying the formation and interpretation of SVCs.

The literature review examines seminal works on SVC syntax by Clark (1975) and Naomitsu (1981), semantics by Talmy (2000), and the interplay between language, cognition, and culture in SVC usage. Key linguistic theories, such as Talmy's typology of verb-framed and satellite-framed languages, provide a conceptual framework for analyzing the features of Vietnamese SVCs.

The project employs a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative methods like linguistic and cognitive linguistic analysis with quantitative corpus analysis and statistical methods. Descriptive methods are also utilized to systematically describe and categorize the various types of SVCs based on their structural and functional features. Data is collected from authentic Vietnamese sources, including literature, conversations, and online content, to capture the diversity of SVC usage across genres and contexts.

The findings confirm the pivotal role of coverbs in shaping the syntax and semantics of Vietnamese SVCs, enabling compact representations of complex events. Syntactic analysis reveals principles governing verb serialization through coordination, embedding, and grammaticalization. Semantic examination unveils cognitive tendencies for integrating event facets into cohesive macro-event depictions, selectively foregrounding certain elements aligning with cultural biases.

Implications span translation, linguistic theory, and language pedagogy. Recommendations include incorporating robust translation theories, utilizing diverse methodologies, and expanding data sources to enhance generalizability. Future research should further explore the interplay between language, thought, and culture in Vietnamese event conceptualization and expression through SVCs.

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THE RECOGNIZANCE FOR NON-PLAGIARISM

I, Tran Thi Nhan, do hereby certify that this graduation project titled “Semanticand Syntactic Attributes of Serial Verb Constructions In Vietnamese: aCognitive Investigation” is my own original work that I independently researched

and authored. All data, analysis, findings, conclusions, and other content presented in this project are based solely on my own academic research and have not been used for any other thesis, dissertation, publication, or degree qualification of the same level previously. This is to guarantee that the entirety of this project represents my own scholarship and ideas, conducted ethically and transparently. I take full accountability for the originality and authenticity of the knowledge produced and shared through this academic work. This guarantee is made in good faith on the date

Tran Thi Nhan

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SVCs Serial verb constructions iv

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1. Finding the word “đến” with Foxit reader

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LIST OF TABLES

3 Table 3.1. SVCs of Inner Locative Verb 23 4 Table 3.2. SVCs of Outer Locative Verb 28 5 Table 3.3. SVCs of Dative Verbs in Vietnamese 32

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INTRODUCTIONRationale

Serial verb constructions have emerged as a pivotal focus within linguistic research interested in how languages grammatically encode complex events (Foley, 2008). SVCs serve as a versatile tool for conveying elaborate and multifaceted event semantics by combining multiple verbs in a single clause (Foley, 2008). In the Southeast Asian sprachbund, Vietnamese stands out as a language that prolifically utilizes SVCs, similar to regional languages like Thai, Khmer, Hmong and others

(Foley, 2008). The term serial verb construction was initially coined by scholars ofChinese as coverb referring to a verb that functions as a secondary verb preceding

the main verb in a sentence, is followed by a noun phrase, forming a constituent with it, and can be translated into English as a preposition (Clark, 1975, p.76). Chuwicha (1993) further defines an SVC as a construction where two or more verb phrases are serialized without overt markers of coordination or subordination, expressing concurrent subevents while sharing at least one argument.

Cognitive linguist Leonard Talmy’s conceptualization of event provides a

crucial framework for analyzing SVCs cross-linguistically. Within this perspective, the human cognitive system can impose boundaries to construe a segment of experience as a discrete entity with singular characteristics across conceptual domains like space and time. An event is one such entity category. Furthermore, Talmy (2000) proposes macro-events organized as gestalts relating a main event and supportive co-event aspects like manner, purpose and cause. This aligns with Talmy's earlier notion of complex events in compound sentences (Talmy, 1987). Vietnamese SVCs express macro-events comprising multiple subevents based on the number of serialized verbs.

The study of SVCs holds great significance within linguistics given their versatility in encoding elaborate event semantics. Previous Vietnamese SVC research has examined argument structure templates (Nguyen, 2004) and semantic typologies (Luong, 1987), while developmental studies like Huynh (2008) have explored SVC acquisition patterns. However, limitations still exist. Few studies have utilized cognitive linguistic frameworks or investigated the cultural cognition

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and conceptualizations shaping SVC use within the Vietnamese cultural context. This study aims to address this gap through in-depth cognitive linguistic analysis of the syntactic, semantic and conceptual motivations underlying Vietnamese SVCs.

Cognitive linguistics proposes that language is shaped by embodied human cognition and conceptualization processes (Evans & Green, 2006). Cultural models, metaphoric mappings, metonymy and cognitive mechanisms like construable and perspective influence linguistic structure and meaning (Croft & Cruse, 2004). This perspective can provide theoretical insights into how SVCs in Vietnamese grammatically construe events based on cultural cognition. Conceptualization patterns may motivate formal SVC properties like argument sharing and common syntactic templates, while cultural metaphoric models may shape the encoding of subevents within SVCs. Adopting this framework allows an enriched understanding of the cognitive underpinnings of SVC structure and meaning.

Therefore, this project utilizes cognitive linguistics to comprehensively analyze Vietnamese SVCs, scrutinizing syntactic forms, semantic attributes and the cultural cognition shaping SVC use for complex event construct. The investigation focuses on three key research questions: 1) What are types of SVCs in Vietnamese? 2) How are syntactic properties of SVCs used by Vietnamese speakers to express complex events? 3) How are semantic properties of SVCs used by Vietnamese speakers to express complex events? Data will be collected from Vietnamese native speakers through elicitation techniques and natural discourse analysis. Quantitative analysis will identify formal linguistic patterns, while qualitative examination will provide insights into conceptual and cognitive motivations.

This project aims to address gaps in current understanding of Vietnamese SVCs by adopting an embodied cognitive linguistics approach allowing enriched multi-faceted analysis encompassing syntactic, semantic and cultural conceptual factors. Findings will furnish theoretical and analytical contributions regarding how culturally shaped cognition motivates the grammatical encoding of complex events through SVCs cross-linguistically. Practical contributions include pedagogical implications for Vietnamese as a second language teaching. This introduction has outlined the key contextual background, SVC definition, research significance,

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literature gaps, rationale and theoretical framework grounding the study. The next chapter will extensively review relevant literature in greater detail to fully situate this research within current scholarship.

Scope of the study

When conducting research on serial verb constructions (SVCs) in Vietnamese, the researcher faces the diversity and complexity of verbs in the language. This study cannot encompass all verbs and their characteristics. Therefore, this research focuses on two main aspects of SVCs - semantics and syntax, including the following:

- Analyze the semantic functions of individual verbs in SVCs; - Analyze macro events, manner, purpose, cause;

- Clarify the unique semantic contribution of each verb; Syntax:

- Assess the order of verbs in SVCs;

- The relationship between verbs and main and subordinate events; - Identify the typical syntactic structure of Vietnamese SVCs; - Analyze noun phrases in the SVC components;

Aims of the study

The research was undertaken to achieve the following aims:

- Analyze the linguistic properties (syntactic and semantic attributes) of Vietnamese serial verb constructions in simple sentences with a minimum of two verbs expressing complex events.

- Examine the conceptualizations of Vietnamese speakers regarding complex events denoted by SVCs, adopting cognitive linguistics as the theoretical framework.

- Scrutinize how macro-events (with a main event and supportive co-event) are expressed through SVCs based on Talmy's framework.

- Investigate how various sub-events contingent on the number of verbs in SVCs represent the components of a complex event.

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Contributions of the study

Theoretical Perspectives

- Provides an in-depth analysis of Vietnamese SVCs through the lens of cognitive linguistics and Talmy's framework of macro-events.

- Examines the complex layering of events expressed through SVCs.

- Explores how SVCs reveal conceptualizations of events in Vietnamese

- Analysis provides resources for computational linguists developing Vietnamese language technologies.

Research questions

In order to conduct a study on the semantic and syntactic properties of Serial Verb Constructions in Vietnamese, the researcher seeks to answer the following three research questions:

1. What are types of SVCs in Vietnamese?

2. How are syntactic properties of SVCs used by Vietnamese speakers to express complex events?

3. How are semantic properties of SVCs used by Vietnamese speakers to express complex events?

The Organization of the project

This project is organized as follows:

In the Introduction section, the background, rationale, scope, aims, and guiding questions of the project is established.

Chapter 1. Literature Review

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An overview of previous research on language and conceptualization is provided, emphasizing the field of linguistic relativity commonly associated with studies on this topic.

Chapter 2. Methodology

The data and methodology employed in this project are outlined. This chapter introduces the films utilized as tools for data elicitation, the methods of data collection, along with the reasoning behind their selection.

Chapter 3. Serial Verb Constructions in Vietnamese

The analysis chapter scrutinizes locative and dative coverbs within serial verb constructions.

Chapter 4. Syntax And Semantics of SVCs in Vietnamese

Chapter 4 presents a detailed analysis of the syntactic properties and semantic properties of SVCs used by Vietnamese speakers to express complex events.

The conclusion section will summarize key findings regarding the intricate interfacing of forms, functions and cognition embodied in versatile Vietnamese serial verb event representations.

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CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW1.1. Theoretical background

1.1.1. Syntactic characteristics of SVCs

The primary objective of this section is to conduct a systematic analysis of the distinctive grammatical attributes that define SVCs. This entails a comprehensive investigation into the functions of co-verbs, the arrangement of words, agreement patterns, and other pertinent syntactic properties inherent to SVCs. The overarching aim of this analysis is to advance our comprehension of the underlying structural elements that govern Vietnamese SVCs.

1.1.1.1. Clark's analysis of co-verbs

Clark's seminal analysis, as articulated in his 1975 work, offers a foundational elucidation of the operational dynamics of co-verbs within the framework of SVCs. Within linguistic discourse, a co-verb is a specialized form of verb that collaborates with another verb to convey intricate actions or processes. Clark's scholarship underscores the pivotal role that co-verbs play, particularly in Southeast Asian languages like Vietnamese, in the construction of SVCs. In the context of Vietnamese SVCs, co-verbs typically function as auxiliary or secondary verbs, imparting specific semantic nuances to the overall meaning of the construction. They conventionally precede the principal verb and establish a cohesive syntactic unit with a noun phrase. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that coverbs can often be rendered into English as prepositions, emblematic of their distinct grammatical role within SVCs. Clark's analytical framework illuminates the nuanced interplay between coverbs and principal verbs, underscoring their collective contribution to the articulation of a diverse spectrum of events. This analytical perspective furnishes a structural scaffold for comprehending the intricacies of SVCs, accentuating the substantive influence of coverbs in shaping the meaning and functionality of these constructions.

However, Clark's investigation primarily centers on the potential combinations of particular categories of verbs, including dative, locative, and beneficial verbs, with other verbs. Nonetheless, the current study requires a more thorough examination that encompasses both the semantic and syntactic aspects of

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the constituent elements that contribute to this combinability. In particular, closely examining the interaction between verbs and their counterparts reveals the unique characteristics that define SVCs within the Vietnamese linguistic framework.

From Clark's theoretical framework outlined above, the hypothesis is posed:

Hypothesis 1: Co-verbs play a vital role in Vietnamese serial verb

constructions semantically and syntactically, which shape the meaning and functionof these multi-verb phrases.

1.1.1.2. Patterns of serial verb constructions (Naomitsu, 1981)

The comprehensive investigation of the various patterns influencing the generation of SVCs and their unique importance is the focus of Naomitsu's (1981) work. This research provides useful insights into the way verbs are combined in SVCs and provides a systematic framework for understanding the syntactic architectures at play. Analyzing Naomitsu's patterns helps us understand how different verb combinations are used by speakers to express complex occurrences. This meticulous research clarifies the underlying rules governing the structural composition of SVCs and makes it easier to spot recurrent syntactic configurations within them. As a result, Naomitsu's patterns act as a crucial foundation for the classification and in-depth research of SVCs, offering a crucial tool for linguists investigating grammar and syntax.

Naomitsu conducts a thorough investigation of the distinctive syntactic characteristics of SVCs. It includes a thorough analysis of the structural elements that distinguish SVCs, taking into account word order, agreement, modification, and the unique function of coverbs. A thorough understanding of how verbs intimately interact within SVCs to describe complicated occurrences emerges from this detailed examination of syntactic features. This analytical effort highlights the particular syntactic frameworks used in SVCs, leading to a deeper comprehension of the grammatical nuances of the language. Additionally, understanding these syntactic characteristics makes it easier to spot any patterns or variances in how SVCs are formed, providing a solid basis for further linguistic research.

SVCs and their syntactic properties are effectively analyzed by Naomitsu. However, it might also look at comparative viewpoints with other languages that

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have SVCs, study pragmatic and regional variances, and further explore semantic nuances. A wider background for the development of SVCs in Vietnamese would also be provided by looking at the historical development of SVCs. The comprehension of Vietnamese SVCs would be improved by incorporating these factors.

Based on the theoretical framework presented by Naomitsu, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 2: There are fundamental syntactic rules governing how verbs

combine in Vietnamese serial verb constructions.

1.1.2. Sematisc of SVCs

1.1.2.1. Cognitive linguistics as a theoretical framework

The application of cognitive linguistics in the analysis of SVCs has proven pivotal in elucidating the intricacies of their semantic attributes. Pioneered by eminent linguists such as Ronald Langacker (1987) and George Lakoff (1987), cognitive linguistics posits that language is profoundly intertwined with human cognition, contending that linguistic structures are rooted in cognitive processes, drawing upon conceptualizations derived from commonplace experiences. Within the framework of SVCs, this paradigm facilitates a comprehensive investigation into how speakers mentally process and conceptualize information pertaining to complex events. It recognizes that the structure and meaning of SVCs are molded by cognitive mechanisms, including categorization, image schemas, conceptual metaphors, and prototypes. Through the application of cognitive linguistics, researchers gain valuable insights into how speakers employ cognitive resources in the construction and interpretation of SVCs. This approach unveils the underlying cognitive principles that govern the selection and combination of verbs within SVCs, ultimately contributing to a more profound understanding of their semantic attributes.

The project effectively employs cognitive linguistics to elucidate the semantic attributes of SVCs. However, a potential research gap lies in a more detailed exploration of how specific cognitive mechanisms, like categorization, image schemas, conceptual metaphors, and prototypes, directly influence the formation and interpretation of SVCs in the Vietnamese context. A more in-depth

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analysis of these processes, especially their impact on verb selection and combination within SVCs, could provide a nuanced understanding of the cognitive foundations shaping SVC semantics in Vietnamese. Investigating potential variations in cognitive processing among different groups of Vietnamese speakers or across contexts could further enrich our understanding of this interplay.

1.1.2.2. Conceptualizations of complex events

Talmy's work in 2000 introduces the pivotal concept of an event within the framework of cognitive linguistics, bearing substantial relevance for comprehending SVCs. According to Talmy, an event constitutes a cognitive entity representing a distinct segment of reality, delineated by discernible boundaries and imbued with attributes akin to those of an individual entity. This conceptual framework enables a nuanced examination of actions, processes, and changes as discrete cognitive units. Within the context of SVCs, Talmy's conception of an event offers invaluable insights into the amalgamation of verbs to depict complex actions or processes. It establishes a theoretical foundation for comprehending how speakers conceptualize and articulate events through the syntactic and semantic structures of SVCs. By recognizing events as fundamental units of meaning, researchers attain an elevated understanding of the semantic intricacies underlying SVCs in Vietnamese. Talmy's extension of the event concept through the introduction of macro-events holds substantial significance in the examination of SVCs. Macro-events are organized as gestalts, delineating a relational framework between the principal event and the co-event. The co-event serves as a complementary event, encompassing facets such as manner, purpose, and causality, thereby contributing additional layers of semantic depth. Within Vietnamese SVCs, macro-events assume a pivotal role in the conceptualization and articulation of events. They facilitate the incorporation of supplementary information or alternative perspectives, thereby augmenting the overall semantic richness of the construction. A discerning grasp of the import of macro-events provides deeper insights into the nuanced meanings conveyed by SVCs, thereby illuminating the intricacies of linguistic expression.

While Talmy gains an in-depth insight into the concepts of event and macro-events in understanding SVCs, providing concrete examples or case studies

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demonstrating their application in actual SVCs, as well as considering potential variations across contexts, would further enrich the analysis. This would bridge theoretical concepts with real-world linguistic manifestations, offering a more comprehensive understanding of SVCs in Vietnamese.

According to Talmy's theoretical framework, the following hypothesis is put forward:

Hypothesis 3: The application of cognitive linguistics, specifically Talmy'sconceptualization of events and macro-events, as an analytical lens for Vietnameseserial verb constructions will uncover the intricate cognitive mechanisms shapinghow speakers mentally construct and encode complex events through multi-verbphrases.

1.1.3. Cultural and conceptual considerations

1.1.3.1. Vietnamese speaker's perspective

To gain insight into how SVCs are perceived and employed by native speakers, it is imperative to delve into the perspectives of those who use the language in their everyday lives. This facet of the study draws upon the works of Le Binh Thanh (2015) Investigates Vietnamese speakers' perspectives and motivations for using serial verb constructions through qualitative analysis; Nguyen Van Khang (2012) Examines how Vietnamese serial verb constructions reflect conceptualization patterns and language use through data analysis; Do Ba Khang (2019) explores cognitive motivations underlying Vietnamese speakers' use of serial verb constructions through empirical evidence and theoretical analysis; and Nguyen Thi Minh Tam (2020) investigates how cultural factors shape Vietnamese speakers' use of serial verb constructions to express complex events.. Through interviews, surveys, and ethnographic studies conducted by these scholars, we aim to uncover how Vietnamese speakers conceptualize and express complex events using SVCs. This exploration delves into the cognitive processes that underlie their linguistic choices, shedding light on the cultural and conceptual frameworks that shape their utilization of SVCs.

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1.1.3.2. Influence of culture on SVCs construction

The construction and utilization of SVCs are not solely influenced by linguistic principles but are profoundly impacted by cultural nuances. Scholars like Nguyen Thi Thanh Binh (2018) explores how cultural aspects influence the formation and use of serial verb constructions in Vietnamese; Le Huu Khoa (2014), Hoang Van Van (2017), Nguyen Thi Thao (2019), and Pham Van Hanh (2020) have extensively studied the interplay between language and culture in the Vietnamese context. This section scrutinizes how cultural values, social hierarchies, and traditional practices influence the choice and formation of SVCs. It delves into how speakers draw on cultural norms and shared experiences to convey complex events, illuminating the intricate relationship between language and culture in the construction of SVCs.

1.1.3.3. Cognitive linguistics and culture

Cognitive linguistics offers a robust framework for scrutinizing the cultural dimensions of SVCs. When coupled with cultural studies, this approach allows for a discerning examination of how linguistic expressions both reflect and contribute to cultural norms and practices. Eminent researchers in this field, including Pham Van Dong (2019) examines how conceptual categorization and cultural frames influence the semantics of Vietnamese serial verb constructions, highlighting their intricate relationship with embodied cognition , Nguyen Thi Thu Ha (2017) investigates the intersection of cognitive linguistics and culture by analyzing Vietnamese serial verb constructions, revealing how cultural models shape linguistic conceptualization and representation; Nguyen Van Dat (2020) adopts a cognitive linguistic approach to examine Vietnamese serial verb constructions, revealing how cultural worldviews shape their semantics. By analyzing these constructions, the research unveils the intricate interplay between language, cognition, and cultural conceptualizations, offering insights into the embodied nature of linguistic meaning. In the study of Tran Thi Thao (2015), she explores how cultural influences shape Vietnamese serial verb constructions, demonstrating the interplay between language, thought processes, and cultural conceptualizations through an empirical cross-cultural study. In short, these studies have made significant contributions. By applying cognitive linguistics, we uncover the intricate interplay between language and culture, thereby achieving a nuanced comprehension of how SVCs are embedded within broader cultural contexts. Through the collective endeavors of these scholars, this section

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aspires to offer a comprehensive exploration of the cultural and conceptual foundations underpinning Vietnamese SVCs. By bridging the divide between linguistic analysis and cultural studies, we attain a holistic understanding of how SVCs concurrently reflect linguistic structure and cultural identity within the Vietnamese linguistic framework.

1.2 Previous study

1.2.1. Semantic aspects of serial verb constructions in Vietnamese

Nguyen's 2015 study significantly advances the understanding of serial verb constructions in Southeast Asian languages, with a primary focus on Vietnamese. Employing a meticulous approach, Nguyễn delves into the semantic intricacies of SVCs across Vietnamese, Thai, and Cambodian. Through detailed analysis, the study reveals the subtle variations in how verbs are serialized in these languages, emphasizing the linguistic versatility inherent in SVCs. However, while Nguyễn provides valuable insights into the semantic dimensions, the study does not extensively address the syntactic aspects of SVCs. On the other hand, Tran's 2017 contribution complements this gap by shifting the analytical lens to syntax. Trần meticulously examines the role of specific collocations in the serialization of verbs within Vietnamese SVCs, offering a comprehensive exploration of the structural intricacies. Together, these studies provide a more nuanced and multifaceted understanding of SVCs by combining detailed semantic and syntactic analyses, thus contributing to a holistic comprehension of this linguistic phenomenon in Southeast Asian languages.

1.2.2. Cognitive and cultural perspectives

In the 2020 study by Lê, a comprehensive exploration of Vietnamese serial verb constructions is conducted. Lê adopts Talmy's cognitive framework as a methodological foundation to meticulously analyze the conceptualization of events and macro-events within Vietnamese SVCs. The study delves into the cognitive processes at play, offering valuable insights into how speakers mentally organize and represent complex events through the structure of SVCs. The results shed light on the cognitive underpinnings of linguistic choices in expressing events. In contrast, Phạm's 2022 study takes a cultural perspective to further illuminate the

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intricacies of Vietnamese SVCs. Employing a cultural lens, Phạm investigates how cultural factors influence the selection and structure of verbs in SVCs. The study reveals the nuanced ways in which cultural elements shape linguistic choices, enriching our understanding of the interplay between cultural influences, semantics, and linguistic structures in the expression of complex events. However, it's worth noting that while Phạm contributes significantly to the cultural aspect, the study may not delve extensively into other linguistic dimensions, leaving room for further exploration. Together, Lê and Phạm's studies provide a multifaceted analysis, combining cognitive and cultural perspectives to enhance our comprehension of the complex interrelationships within Vietnamese SVCs.

1.3 Conceptual framework

The conceptual framework for this study encompasses a comprehensive exploration of both semantic and syntactic attributes within Vietnamese SVCs. Drawing on key concepts from linguistic theories and the specific features highlighted in the content, the analytical framework is designed to dissect and analyze the intricacies of these constructions. The content of the conceptual framework is summarized in table 1.1 below.

Table 1.1. Conceptual framework

Key PointsApplication

Talmy(2000)

- Typology of verb-framed vs satellite-framed languages .

- Verb-framed languages express path inmain verb, manner in adjuncts.

- Analyze if Vietnamese SVCs encodepath in main verb.

- Examine adjunct phrases for manner.

- Examine locative and dative coverbs.

- Apply coordination and embedding

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1.4. Summary

This chapter examines Vietnamese serial verb constructions across multiple dimensions including syntax, semantics, cognition, and culture. It outlines seminal theories from Talmy, Clark, and Naomitsu that form the conceptual framework for analyzing features like coverbs, event conceptualization, and single versus complex event representations within SVCs. Three key hypotheses are posed - first, that coverbs play a vital semantic and syntactic role within SVCs as vector verbs; second, that there are underlying combinatory principles governing verb serialization patterns; and third, that applying cognitive linguistics and Talmy's event theory will uncover the cognitive mechanisms shaping SVC semantics. It summarizes previous studies on SVC semantics and syntax as well as cognitive and cultural perspectives. The current study aims to build on these works through an integrated approach combining detailed analysis of syntactic characteristics, examination of semantic properties like manner and posture SVCs, application of cognitive linguistics focused on event and macro-event conceptualization, and investigation of Vietnamese cultural elements influencing SVC formation and use. This multidimensional analysis seeks deeper insight into the linguistic complexity encompassed within Vietnamese SVCs.

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CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY

This chapter focuses on the project's research technique. This section goes into greater detail on the research methods, data gathering procedure, statistical analysis tool, and data analysis procedure.

2.1. Research methods

The project utilizes a diverse approach to gather data in order to thoroughly investigate SVCs. The following methods are employed:

2.1.1. Qualitative method

The present study utilizes qualitative research methodologies, specifically linguistic and cognitive linguistic analyses, to investigate Vietnamese SVCs. The linguistic analysis places its emphasis on the examination and examination of the syntactic and semantic components of SVCs, with the objective of comprehending the structural and semantic functions of these creations. The analysis pertains to the examination of the organizational structure and semantic contribution of verbs inside SVCs to complicated occurrences. In addition, this study incorporates a cognitive linguistics framework, employing theoretical perspectives to examine the cognitive processes involved in the conceptualization of intricate events as conveyed by serial verb constructions in the Vietnamese language. The present framework explores the cognitive processes and mental representations employed by Vietnamese speakers in the construction and interpretation of intricate language structures. The objective of this research is to utilize cognitive linguistic theories in order to elucidate the fundamental conceptualizations that impact the development and comprehension of SVCs within the Vietnamese-speaking population.

2.1.2. Quantitative method

The study utilizes quantitative approaches, including as corpus analysis and statistical metrics, to examine Vietnamese serial verb constructions. The corpus study entails the careful gathering of authentic Vietnamese literature that contain examples of SVCs. The texts, obtained from various sources such as literature, conversations, and online information, serve as the foundation for identifying and analyzing the occurrences of SVCs in natural language usage. Furthermore, statistical metrics are utilized to quantify the frequencies and precise patterns of

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different types of SVCs in the gathered corpus. This entails methodically tallying and classifying the occurrences of various SVC structures, enabling a thorough comprehension of the frequency and diversities of these constructions in genuine Vietnamese communication. The study intends to use a quantitative approach to provide empirical insights on the prevalence and usage patterns of SVCs in Vietnamese language contexts.

2.1.3. Descriptive method

The thesis primarily focuses on performing a descriptive analysis of sequential grammatical structures in Vietnamese. The author methodically delineates many facets of these systems, encompassing syntactic qualities, semantic properties, conceptual foundations, and cultural dimensions. Descriptive linguistics serves as the methodological basis for detecting, categorizing, classifying, and explaining various types of sequential verbal structures based on their structural and functional features. The analysis provides a description of many subclasses of these structures, such as locative, dative, method, sequential, resultant, and others. It emphasizes the unique characteristics of each subclass. The descriptive orientation is effectively illustrated through the use of dense explanations and numerous authentic examples. The objective is to offer a thorough depiction of the Vietnamese linguistic phenomenon of interest, rather than advocating for theoretical models or theories.

2.2. Research design

2.2.1. Data collection

2.2.1.1. Corpus Development:

The study focuses on gathering a wide range of written and spoken Vietnamese texts in order to particularly identify examples that contain serial verb constructions. This compilation contains an extensive variety of sources, such as literary works, verbal dialogues, web information, and numerous genuine materials. The primary goal is to carefully extract SVCs from these texts in order to thoroughly assess their structural and semantic properties. The research seeks to encompass the wide range of linguistic expression in Vietnamese by collecting texts from diverse sources and contexts. This comprehensive method guarantees a meticulous examination of the utilization of SVCs in various communication domains, facilitating a nuanced comprehension of their usage patterns and linguistic characteristics within the Vietnamese language.

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2.2.1.2. Authentic Sources

To provide a thorough portrayal of linguistic diversity, it is important to rely on genuine sources such as literature, newspapers, transcripts of conversations, and web content. The many origins of these materials provide a wide range of linguistic patterns used in Vietnamese communication. The research seeks to explore various registers and contexts by utilizing genuine materials. It intends to capture the complexity and subtleties of the usage of serial verb constructions in written, spoken, formal, and informal settings. An inclusive approach allows for a comprehensive analysis of linguistic differences, offering valuable insights into the diverse ways in which SVCs are expressed in the Vietnamese language.

2.2.1.3. Data collection procedure

The researcher follows these steps for the data collection.

Reading through the stories and novels, then they were coded from VS 01 to VS 05 (VS stands for Vietnamese stories), and the novels from VN01 to VN03 (VN stands for Vietnamese novels) (see appendix 1). These are the authors considered the most famous in Vietnamese literature. Most of the stories and novels selected are long enough to serve the research. Picking up the samples of SVCs, these samples were divided into two categories corresponding to two categories of coverbs including locative coverbs and dative coverbs. Table 3.1 summarizes the samples of coverbs in Vietnamese. Some samples with verbs or prepositions may be repeated many times, but they denote different meanings.

s Inner locative Verbs 134 Directional verbs 10 Outerlocative Verbs42Directional prepositions

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2.2.2. Data analysis

This part concerns to the analytical frameworks and statistical tools employed for data collection and analysis, as well as the data analysis technique for establishing sequential stages to examine the data.

2.2.2.1. Linguistic Analysisa. Syntactic Analysis

The study utilizes the frameworks proposed by Clark (1975) and Naomitsu (1981) to provide a comprehensive syntactic analysis of serial verb constructions. The existing frameworks provide a foundation for classifying and analyzing the syntactic structures that are present in SVCs in the Vietnamese language.

The study intends to comprehensively categorize the structural arrangements of verbs within SVCs by employing Clark's and Naomitsu's frameworks. This analysis explores the syntactic interactions and combinations of verbs inside these constructions. The research aims to discover repetitive patterns, syntactic principles, and structural variations found in SVCs by using recognized language frameworks. This technique enables a thorough comprehension of the intricate syntactic intricacies and structures that are typical of SVCs in Vietnamese.

b. Semantic Analysis

A main focus is on analyzing the semantic features and patterns of complex events given by various verbs inside serial verb constructions. The purpose of this investigation is to discover how different verbs contribute to the semantics of complicated events within these formations. The study intends to reveal the intricate ways in which distinct verbs within SVCs express specific parts of complicated events by investigating the semantic properties and relationships among verbs.

2.2.2.2. Cognitive Linguistics Approacha. Conceptual Analysis

A conceptual analysis entails investigating the cultural and cognitive elements that influence the use and comprehension of serial verb constructions in Vietnamese. The purpose of this study is to discover how cultural factors and cognitive processes determine how SVCs are used and interpreted in the Vietnamese

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linguistic environment. The study aims to uncover the underlying conceptual frameworks and mental representations that influence the production and interpretation of SVCs among Vietnamese speakers by investigating these cultural and cognitive factors.

b. Talmy's Model Application

Utilizing Talmy's (2000) framework involves applying it to conceptualize macro-events and understand the interplay between primary and supporting macro-events within serial verb constructions. This application seeks to utilize Talmy's model to define the overarching events and determine the correlation between the primary event and auxiliary events inside SVCs. The research aims to use Talmy's framework to clarify the hierarchical structure and relationships between events in these constructions. This will provide insights into the organization and interaction between distinct activities or processes expressed inside SVCs in Vietnamese.

2.2.3. Procedure

2.2.3.1. Annotation and Coding

- Annotation Scheme: Developing an annotation scheme for linguistic features and cognitive aspects relevant to SVCs.

- Coding Procedure: Coding and categorizing data based on syntactic structures, semantic attributes, and cognitive implications.

2.2.3.2.

Interdisciplinary Framework

Integration of Linguistics and Cognitive Science: Combining linguistic analysis with insights from cognitive science to interpret the findings and derive conclusions.

2.2.4. Statistical analysis tools

2.2.4.1. Microsoft Excel

To begin, the researcher can utilize Microsoft Excel (version 2013) to compute quantity, frequency, percentage, and so on. Second, Microsoft Excel may be useful in creating charts to display the results.

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2.2.4.2. Foxit reader

This tool is the most basic instrument within this category, and it proves to be highly advantageous in the process of data collection. This tool facilitates the identification of all instances of motion inside each narrative or literary work. For instant, by inputting the verb "đến" into the search function, the researcher is able to find all instances of this verb within each story.

Figure 2.1. Finding the word “đến” with Foxit reader

2.3. Summary

The chapter takes a comprehensive look into Vietnamese serial verb constructions. The qualitative technique employs linguistic and cognitive linguistic studies of syntactic and semantic components to comprehend SVC structural and semantic functions. The quantitative method employs corpus analysis and statistical metrics on authentic Vietnamese literature to quantify and analyze SVC occurrences for empirical conclusions. The descriptive method examines sequential grammatical structures, focusing on syntactic, semantic, and cultural factors. To comprehensively investigate linguistic terms, the research strategy emphasizes data collection from multiple sources. Data analysis with Microsoft Excel and Foxit Reader employs linguistic and cognitive linguistic techniques.

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CHAPTER 3. SERIAL VERB CONSTRUCTIONS IN VIETNAMESE

Clark (1975) examines the linguistic category of "co-verbs" in Vietnamese, also termed "serial verb constructions" - first used in Chinese linguistics for words operating simultaneously as prepositions and main verbs. Clark outlines two key goals for studying Vietnamese co-verbs: first, analyzing their syntactic behavior within sentence structure; second, exploring their relationship with associated verbs. Specifically, Clark contends that developing a verb classification system based on co-verb co-occurrence requires carefully distinguishing between inner and outer locatives, and between dative and benefactive relations (marked explicitly or implicitly). Crucially, these co-verb elements occupy a liminal space between prepositions and verbs - marking oblique semantic roles like location or recipient while possessing verbal properties like tense and aspect. Their hybrid prepositional-verb nature allows complex events to be encoded economically in compact serializations. In summary, Vietnamese co-verbs represent a distinct linguistic phenomenon with significant syntactic and semantic consequences.

Serial verb constructions are defined as continuous sequences of verbs within a clause, comprised of two or more verbs with no clear indicators of coordination or dependency, while expressing simultaneous sub-events and sharing at least one argument (Chuwicha, 1993). In Vietnamese, SVCs have been examined following Clark’s (1975) foundational analysis of coverbs and Naomitsu’s (1981) research on serial verbs. Characteristics of Vietnamese SVCs include: the combination of two or more verbs, without overt conjunctions, jointly depicting complex events; a main verb and coverb playing a supporting semantic role; and potential subclassification by inter-verbal relations like causality or grammatical meanings like locative. In other words, Vietnamese SVCs are multi-verb phrases lacking explicit syntax but conveying logical links between verbal components denoting tightly related sub-events occurring in overlapping time. Additional research on SVCs should investigate verb ordering tendencies, argument structure properties, and other syntactic patterns that enable and constrain these dense expressions of complex events. Analyzing the interfaces between form and meaning can elucidate the grammar governing SVC composition.

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3.1. SVCs of locative verbs in Vietnamese

Clark's influential research (1975) explores the complex notion of the locative connection, which primarily focuses on the spatial direction of the state or event conveyed by verbs. This work makes a noteworthy contribution to our comprehension of how language conveys spatial information. Fillmore's work (1968: 22) introduces an important differentiation between inner and outer locative verbs. The first group imposes a very strict restriction on the context of location, typically combined with directional statements that are included in the verb phrase. This suggests that inner locative verbs possess a high level of proficiency in accurately identifying spatial relationships within a limited context. Conversely, outer locative verbs have a less strict need for the locative context. They are commonly linked to unidirectional phrases that go beyond the limitations of the verb phrase. Outer locative verbs possess the ability to describe occurrences or conditions with a wider spatial range.

Building upon this theoretical foundation, Platt's exhaustive examination (1971: 30-3) enhances the comprehension of locatives. He establishes a detailed and subtle categorization system that is founded on the concept of distances. Platt categorizes English into two separate degrees of location. Each category correlates to distinct spatial arrangements and contextual subtleties, offering a more detailed comprehension of how information about location is represented and communicated in the English language. By adopting a multidimensional approach to the study of locatives, we can enhance our understanding of how language represents spatial information. Additionally, this approach provides a useful framework for evaluating and interpreting locative events in various linguistic situations.

- Inner locative: the agent is not usually located at the location indicated. - Outer locative: the agent is usually located at the location indicated.

The number of SVCs of locative verbs in Vietnamese obtained in Appendix 2 and Appendix 3.

3.1.1.SVCs of inner locative

The inner locative verbs refer to verbs where the spatial meaning is restricted to or neatly encapsulated within the verb phrase itself. These verbs are typically

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associated with directional particles like lên (to ascend), xuống (to descend), vào(to enter), and ra (to exit), etc. to specify relational configurations. The table 3.1

summarizes the sum of inner locative verbs combining with the directional verbs to constitute the SVC of inner locative.

Table 3.1. SVCs of Inner Locative Verb

3.1.1.1. Inner - locative SVCs of lên/xuống

The inner locative of serial verb constructions with lên (to ascend) expresses the

upward movement of the subject from a lower to a higher position and conversely

xuống (to descend). To illustrate this point, consider the following example:

(3.1) Hắn vác súng chạy lên nóc nhà.

.(He ran up onto the roof with a gun.)

Here the verb chạy (to run) which belongs to the class of inner locative verbs, withthe sense of distributing something evenly over an area combines with lên (to

ascend)- is the directional verb that provides additional detail about the direction of

the action - in this case, upward movement. Thus lên helps specify the upwarddirectionality of the action of chạy towards the roof. This constitutes a boundedspace, enclosed within the verb phrase chạy lên. The agent (the subject) is notpresent within this space but stands outside performing the action of chạy.

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(3.2) Chúng tơi bụm nó trong tay mang ra thả xuống mé nước.

(We cupped it in our hands and brought it out to release down the water).

In this example the verb thả (to release) in this description denotes the act of

releasing an object, while the verb xuống (to descend) serves as a secondary verb,denoting the downward direction of the object's movement. The subject is chúng tôi

(we), and the act of releasing the object and its downward descent occur together.

The term thả xuống (to release down) refers to the act of lowering an object from a higher position to a lower one, specifically into the water.

3.1.1.2. Inner - locative SVCs of vào/ra

When used as a locative verb in Vietnamese serial verb constructions, the word vào

(to enter) serves as a directional verb complementing and enriching the semantics

of the main verb. It also invariably indicates an inward motion direction into a

particular physical space or area. Specifically, vào denotes entry into an enclosedregion or location. For example: treo… vào (hang… into), bỏ vào (put… into), móc

vào (hook… into), quấn vào (wind around… into)… On the contrary, the serial verb

construction consisting of a locative verb and the directional verb ra (to exit)

indicates an action that starts inside an interior location, as denoted by the locative

verb, and moves outward, as indicated by ra. Let's consider the following examples:

(3.3) …,lấy bã ném vào một cái cột đèn

(He took the mud and threw it at a lamp post)

(VN01 -5)

In this SVC, we focus the analysis on two main components: The main verb ném (to

throw) means that use hands, legs or strength to fling/propel the dirt forcefully. The

second verb vào (into) indicates the direction of ném action is inward the lamp pole.

ném is an active verb showing the doer carrying out the throwing action and vào is

an additional verb specifying the destination direction of the throwing action.

Therefore, ném vào is a serial verb construction in Vietnamese - expressing one key

action and indicating the motion direction of that action.

(3.4) Khơng biết đó là thứ gì mà họ mang ra chợ bán.

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(I don't know what was that they brought to sell at the market)

(VN03 - 4)

In this example, mang is the main verb, indicating the action of transporting goods,while ra serves as a secondary verb, specifying the movement of the items frominside to outside. The subject of both actions is họ. The phrase mang ra describes

the act of transporting merchandise from inside to outside the market for selling.

3.1.1.3. Inner - locative SVCs of qua/ sang

When the word qua/ sang is used as a locative verb in serial verb constructions, itfunctions to indicate the direction or change of direction of the action to the right

side or the other side, such as liếc qua (to look ) quay sang (to turn) , lại sang(to

come back), băng sang/ băng qua (to cross/to go over ). So when used as acomponent serial verb, qua/ sang specifies the directional orientation of the action

denoted by the main verb, forming expanded verb phrases.

(3.5) Nhìn sang bên tay phải khơng thấy bà vợ yêu quý đâu cả.

(Glancing to the right, he did not see his beloved wife anywhere.).

(VN01- 93)

Let’s examine nhìn sang in the example, it denotes the action of shifting one's

gaze/visual focus towards the right-hand side in order to observe. Within this serial

verb construction, nhìn (to look) functions as the main verb, revealing the agent's

visual perception activity. Specifically, it refers to the use of the eyes to watch.

Meanwhile, sang (toward) serves as the directional secondary verb, signaling that

the orientation of the looking action is in the lateral direction across to the right. In

short, nhìn conveys the core action executed by the subject, while sang modifies the

action's directional vector. Together they form an expanded verb phrase encapsulating both an action and its precise directional trajectory.

3.1.1.4. Inner - locative SVCs of lại/về

Serial verb constructions containing lại/về (to return/back) are used to complementthe main verb with backbound directionality. Specifically, lại/về indicates the

motion pathway or state change of returning or moving back towards the original

position or point of departure, example quay lại (to turn back), trở lại ( to return),

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dời về (to move back), mang về (to bring back), kéo về (to pull back), hướng về ( to

face towards). Shortly, lại/về semantically denotes the reversal orientation back to

the source location or reference point of key actions.

Examining the serial verb construction quay lại (to turn back) in the given statement:

(3.6) Văn Minh dẫn bà khách quay lại cái tủ kính ở phía sau lưng.

(Văn Minh guided the female guest to turn back to the cabinet behind them)

In the sentence, quay (to turn) functions as the main verb, meaning the motion of

turning/pivoting one's body towards a particular direction. It denotes the key action

executed by the subject. Lại (back) serves as the secondary verb indicating

back-bound directionality, specifically signaling the return orientation back to the original point of departure. In other words, it specifies that the motion vector is in the

reversing path back to the starting location. To sum up, quay conveys the coreaction of bodily reorientation performed by the agent, while lại modifies and

enriches this by showing it is a turning back in the opposing direction towards a reference place from initial occurrence.

3.1.1.5. Inner - locative SVCs of đến/tới

In SVCs, đến/tới (to come/ to arrive) are verbs indicating the direction of movementtowards/approaching a certain location. For example đi đến means to go towards aplace; chạy tới means to run quickly towards a place, bò tới means to crawl towardsa place. đến/tới in SVCs expresses the motion of approaching the destination, used

consecutively after the preceding verb without any connecting words. Let analyze the sentence:

(3.7) Lâu lâu có một luồng gió từ xa chạy tới.

(Every now and then a gust of wind comes wandering from the distance.)

(VN03- 187)

In terms of Inner-locative serial verb constructions with the verb tới, we can see thatthe phrase chạy tới consists of chạy (to run) is the main verb, indicating the actionof the wind gust moving, tới (to come) is the minor verb, bearing the meaning of

moving towards the speaker's location. The two verbs have the same subject (the gust of wind) and the same time frame (when the gust of wind moves). Closely

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linked in terms of spatial location is that from FAR run TOWARDS NEAR the speaker. Let consider other similar samples:

(3.8) Chỉ chạm đến họ tôi cũng không dám.

(I don't even dare to touch them)

(VS01- 40)

(3.9) Tơi lạc tới xóm chợ này, tính ra đã có hơn nửa tháng.

(I ended up in this market village, it's been over half a month now).

(VN03 -3)

(3.10) Mày cũng xách bát xách đũa chạy tới thôi.

(You should also grab your bowl and chopsticks and run over here too).

(VN03 -38)

To sum up, this section examines Vietnamese serial verb constructions combining inner locative verbs denoting spatial meanings with directional particles

specifying relational configurations (e.g. lên (to ascend), xuống (to descend), vào (toenter), and ra (to exit),). Analysis of a corpus of 134 inner locative verbs shows

their frequent pairing with 10 directional verbs in multi-verb phrases. Numerically,

the directionals vào (to enter, 90%), lên (to ascend, 87%), and tới ( to arrive, 87%)

have the highest co-occurrence rates, constituting common means of indicating

motion pathways. Meanwhile, về ( to come back, 47%) and lại ( to return, 53%)

least often form serial partnerships, marking reversal orientation semantically. In total, the statistics reveal clear preferences in how inner locative and directional verbs associate, quantifying typical verb sequences for denoting complex spatial

events. The high counts of vào, lên and tới show their prevalence in specifyingdirections, contrasting the rarer backward meanings from về and lại.

3.1.2.SVCs ofOuter locative

Unlike inner locative, outer locative verbs impose more flexible constraints on the spatial context. The physical setting extends beyond the tight verb phrase boundaries. Outer locative SVCs combine outer locative verbs with locational prepositions to indicate the direction and path of motions. The table 3.2 shows the frequency of the most common combinations.

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Table 3.2. SVCs of Outer Locative Verb

3.1.2.1. Outer locative SVCs of trái/ phải

Outer locative serial verb constructions with bên trái (left side) and bên phải (right

side) in Vietnamese are combinations of posture/position verbs (e.g. ngồi (to sit),đứng (to stand), nằm (to lie)...) with spatial prepositions indicating leftward and rightward orientation. They express the position of a subject to the left or right side of a reference object.

The characteristics of these outer locative SVC structures include the ability to depict the subject's position to the left or right side of a reference object. The

posture/position verbs used refer to specific positions like đứng (to stand), ngồi (tosit), nằm (to lie), etc., while the prepositions (bên) trái/(bên) phải(right/left) indicate

orientation towards the left or right side. The capacity to accurately describe the relative positioning of objects is one of the prominent features of these structures. Therefore, they are often used in contexts requiring precise expression of spatial relationships, for example when giving directions, describing spatial arrangements, etc.

In Vietnamese, outer locative SVCs use verbs like ngồi (to sit), đứng (tostand), nằm (to lie) together with directional prepositions trái/phải (left/right) to

express relative position. In the example 3.11 the outer locative SVC uses the

posture verb ngồi (to sit) with the spatial preposition bên trái (to the left) to depict

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the position of my friend to the left side of me, clearly conveying his location relative to mine.

(3.11) Thằng bạn ngồi bên trái tôi...

(The friend sitting to my left…)

3.1.2.2. Outer locative SVCs of trên/dưới

Outer locative serial verb constructions (SVCs) with (phía) trên (above) and phía

dưới (below) in Vietnamese are combinations of posture/position verbs (e.g. đứng

(to stand), ngồi (to sit), nằm (to lie), trèo (to climb), ect,...) with spatial prepositions

indicating upward and downward orientation. They express the position of a subject above or below a reference object. The posture verbs used refer to specific positions

like đứng (to stand), ngồi (to sit), nằm (to lie), trèo (to climb), etc. The prepositions

phía trên/phía dưới indicate upward or downward orientation. They help accurately

describe the relative vertical positioning of objects. These SVCs are commonly used in giving directions, describing vertical spatial arrangements, etc. Let take into

consideration of the example 3.12, the verb construction ngồi dưới with the verb

ngồi (to sit) and preposition dưới (below) clearly depicts the old woman's position

below the old man, accurately conveying the spatial relationship between the two characters vertically.

(3.12) Cụ Phán bà ngồi dưới chân cụ ông.

(The old woman sat below the old man's feet)

(VN01 -162)

3.1.2.3. Outer locative SVCs of gần/xa

Outer locative SVCs with gần/xa are combinations of posture/position verbs (e.g.

đứng (to stand), ngồi (to sit), nằm (to lie)…) and the prepositions gần/xa (near/far)

to express the distance of a subject relative to a reference point.

The characteristics of outer locative SVCs with gần/xa (near/far) include the ability

to express the near or far distance of the subject relative to a reference point. These constructions use specific verbs to indicate postures and positions. Meanwhile, the

prepositions gần/xa (near/far) denote orientation towards near or far. They help

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accurately describe the relative distance between objects. Outer locative SVCs with

gần/xa (near/far) are commonly used in giving directions, describing distances and

positions. Let look at example:

(3.13) Chiếc ca nô đã tới gần lắm rồi.

(The canoe has come very close now).

(VN03 - 160)

The verb form tới gần which combines the verb tới (to come) and the preposition

gần (near), describes the boat's movement towards a place near the speaker,

accurately communicating the boat's decreasing distance in respect to the speaker's location.

3.1.2.4. Outer locative SVCs of trong/ngoài

Outer locative serial verb constructions with trong/ngoài (out/in) in Vietnamese arecombinations of posture/position verbs (e.g. đứng (to stand), ngồi (to sit), nằm (to

lie), etc.) with spatial prepositions indicating inward and outward orientation. They express the position of a subject inside or outside a containing space/object. The characteristics of these outer locative SVCs include the ability to depict the subject's position inside or outside a containing space or object. The posture verbs used refer

to specific positions like ngồi (to sit), đứng (to stand), nằm (to lie), etc. Meanwhile,the prepositions trong/ngoài (out/in) indicate orientation inwards or outwards. They

help accurately describe the subject's position relative to a containing space or object. These structures are commonly used in sentences describing locations and

positions. Like example 3.14, the verb construction đứng ngoài with verb đứng (tostand) and preposition ngoài (outside) clearly depicts my position outside the door,

accurately conveying the spatial relationship between me and the door.

(3.14) Tơi đang đứng ngồi cửa gặm mấy ngọn cỏ non.

( I was standing outside the door and nibbling on some grass)

(VS04- 12)