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<b>KHOA TIẾNG ANH --- </b>

<b>BÁO CÁO TỔNG KẾT </b>

<b>ĐỀ TÀI NGHIÊN CỨU KHOA HỌC SINH VIÊN </b>

<b>RESEARCH ON TYPICAL TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING ERRORS MADE BY FINAL-YEAR STUDENTS OF THE FACULTY OF </b>

<b>ENGLISH, HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY AND STRATEGIES FOR </b>

ENHANCING STUDENTS’ TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING

<b>ABILITIES </b>

<b>Thuộc nhóm ngành khoa học: Biên phiên dịch </b>

<b>Hà Nội, 2023 </b>

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<b>TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC MỞ HÀ NỘI KHOA TIẾNG ANH </b>

<b>--- </b>

<b>BÁO CÁO TỔNG KẾT </b>

<b>ĐỀ TÀI NGHIÊN CỨU KHOA HỌC SINH VIÊN </b>

<b>RESEARCH ON TYPICAL TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING ERRORS MADE BY FINAL-YEAR STUDENTS OF THE FACULTY OF </b>

<b>ENGLISH, HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY AND STRATEGIES FOR </b>

ENHANCING STUDENTS’ TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING

<b>ABILITIES </b>

<b> Thuộc nhóm ngành khoa học: Biên phiên dịch </b>

<small>Sinh viên thực hiện: 1. Vũ Việt Huy </small>

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<b>CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...1 </b>

<b>1.1 Rationale and novelty of the research ...1 </b>

<b>1.1.1 Rationale ...1 </b>

<b>1.1.2. Novelty ...2 </b>

<b>1.2. Overview of the study ...2 </b>

<b>1.3. Aims and scope of the study ...3 </b>

<b>1.3.1. Aims of the study ...3 </b>

<b>1.3.2. Scope of the study ...3 </b>

<b>CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW/THEORETICAL BACKGROUND...6 </b>

<b>2.1 Theoretical background of translation ...6 </b>

<b>2.4. The concepts and kinds of translation equivalence ...17 </b>

<b>2.4.1. The quantitative approach and its translation equivalences ...17 </b>

<b>2.4.2. The qualitative approach and its subdivisions of translation equivalences ...18 </b>

<b>2.5. Common errors in translation and interpretation ...19 </b>

<b>2.5.1. Word for word ...19 </b>

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<b>2.6.2. Lack of background knowledge ...26 </b>

<b>CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...28 </b>

<b>3.1. Sample and sampling ...28 </b>

<b>4.1. Major findings and discussion from questionnaire ...30 </b>

<b>4.2. Major findings and discussion from document observations ...32 </b>

<b>4.2.1. The estimated results of the pre-test and post- test ...32 </b>

<b>4.2.2. The document observations ...32 </b>

CHAPTER V: STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING STUDENTS’ <b>TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING ABILITIES ...41 </b>

<b>5.1. Suggested solutions for students ...41 </b>

<b>5.1.1. Improve vocabulary, grammar structures ...41 </b>

<b>5.1.2. Enhance communication, listening and writing skills ...41 </b>

<b>5.1.3. Enrich background knowledge ...43 </b>

<b>5.1.4. Better information retention skills ...44 </b>

<b>5.1.5. Double-check the translation ...45 </b>

<b>5.2. Suggested solutions for teachers ...45 </b>

<b>5.2.1. Teaching staff ...46 </b>

<b>5.2.2. Lectures and textbooks ...46 </b>

<b>5.2.3. Teaching methods ...46 </b>

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<b>6.1. A summary of major findings and discussion ...48 </b>

<b>6.2. Suggestions for further studies ...48 </b>

<b>REFERENCES ...50 </b>

<b>APPENDIX 1...52</b>

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Table 1. The results of the pre-test Table 2. The results of the post-test

Table 3. The typical semantic equivalence errors in student‘s English -

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1. ESL: English as Second Language

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<b>TRƯỜNG ĐẠI H C M HÀ N I </b>Ọ Ở Ộ

<b>THÔNG TIN K T QU NGHIÊN C</b>Ế Ả <b>ỨU CỦA ĐỀ TÀI 1. Thông tin chung: </b>

<b>- Tên đề tài: Research on typical translation and interpreting errors made by </b>

final-year students of the Faculty of English, Hanoi Open University and

<b>strategies for enhancing students‘ translation and interpreting abilities. </b>

- Sinh viên th c hiự ện: Vũ Việt Huy

Hoàng Th Ngị ọc Huyền Nguyễn Th An Giang ị

- L p: K26A1 ớ Khoa: Ti ng Anh ế Năm thứ: 4 S ố năm đào tạo: 4 - Người hướng d n: Thẫ <b>ạc sĩ Võ Thành Trung </b>

<b>2. M</b>ục tiêu đề<b> tài: </b>

Khảo sát sinh viên năm 4 chuyên ngành Biên Phiên ịch Khoa tiếng Anh d Trường Đại học Mở Hà N i v chộ ề ất lượng b n d ch. ả ị

Nghiên c u v các l i dứ ề ỗ ịch điển hình của sinh viên năm thứ 4 khoa Ti ng ế Anh chuyên ngành Biên phiên dịch, Trường Đạ ọi h c Mở Hà Nội. Nghiên c u các k thu t nâng cao chứ ỹ ậ ất lượng d ch thu t cho sinh viên ị ậ

năm thứ tư chuyên ngành Biên phiên dịch Trường Đại học Mở Hà N i. ộ

<b>3. Tính m i và sáng t o: </b>ớ ạ

Nhận th y b mơn tiấ ộ ếng Anh chưa có nhiều đề tài nghiên cứu v lề ỗi d ch ị thuật, nhóm tác gi chúng tơi quyả ết định tìm hi u và tiể ến hành nghiên cứu v lề ỗi dịch nói và d ch vi t nh m hị ế ằ ỗ tr sinh viên phát tri n khợ ể ả năng dịch thu t c a ậ ủ mình.

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Đưa ra kết luận về lỗi sinh viên thường mắc phải trong dịch thuật của sinh viên năm thứ 4 khoa Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành Biên phiên dịch, trường Đạ<b>i học Mở Hà N i. </b>ộ

Đưa ra những phương pháp nâng cao hiệu quả biên phiên dịch sinh viên năm thứ 4 khoa Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành Biên phiên dịch, trường Đạ ọi h c M<b>ở Hà Nộ </b>i.

<b>5. Đóng góp về mặt kinh t - xã h i, giáo d</b>ế ộ ục và đào tạ<b>o, an ninh, qu c </b>ố

<b>phòng và kh </b>ả năng áp dụ<b>ng c</b>ủa đề<b> tài: </b>

Bằng chứng cho th y r ng d ch thuấ ằ ị ật đóng một vai trị quan trọng, địi hỏi khả năng phân tích, kiến thức thấu đáo và nhận thức về văn hóa của cả ngơn ng g c và ngôn ngữ ố ữ đích, cũng như sự nh y c m và t nh c a ạ ả ế ị ủ người dịch. và s sáng t o. ự ạ

Kết qu nghiên cả ứu này s giúp sinh viên nâng cao chẽ ất lượng h c tọ ập Biên - Phiên d ch t ti ng Anh sang ti ng Viị ừ ế ế ệt và ngượ ạc l i.

<b>6. Công b khoa h c c a sinh viên t k t qu nghiên c u c</b>ố ọ ủ ừ ế ả ứ ủa đề<b> tài </b>(ghi rõ tên t p chí n u có) ạ ế hoặc nhận xét, đánh giá của cơ sở đã áp dụng các k t quế ả nghiên c u ứ (nếu có):

Ngày tháng năm 2023.

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<b>thực hi</b>ện đề<b> tài </b>

(ký, h và tên)ọ

<b>Nhận xét c</b>ủa người hướ<b>ng d n v nh</b>ẫ ề <b>ững đóng góp khoa học của sinh viên thực hi</b>ện đề<b> tài </b>(phần này do người hướng dẫn ghi):

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<b>BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO TRƯỜNG ĐẠI H C M HÀ N I </b>Ọ Ở Ộ

<b>THÔNG TIN V SINH VIÊN </b>Ề

<b>CHỊU TRÁCH NHI M CHÍNH TH C HI</b>Ệ Ự ỆN ĐỀ<b> TÀI </b>

<b>I. SƠ LƯỢC VỀ SINH VIÊN: </b>

Họ và tên: Vũ Việt Huy Sinh ngày: 20 tháng 09 năm 2001 Nơi sinh: Thành phố Hạ Long, Qu ng Ninh ả

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Ngành h c: Ngôn ng Anh Khoa: Ti ng Anh ọ ữ ế

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<b>ACKNOWLEDGMENTS </b>

Throughout the writing of this report I have received a great deal of support and assistance.

First and foremost, we owe a debt to our supervisor, instructor Vo Thanh Trung, M.A, that I will never be able to pay back for the lessons he gave us as well as for his steadfast support, priceless encouragement, and tireless supervision, particularly throughout the time we spent researching and finishing this work.

Second, we would like to give special and sincere thanks to our teachers at the English faculty at Hanoi Open University for providing us with a wonderful learning atmosphere.

Last but not least, we would like to express our deep gratitude to our parents and friends for their unfailing support, astute advice, and sympathetic ear.

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<b>CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION </b>

<b>1.1 Rationale and novelty of the research </b>

<b>1.1.1 Rationale </b>

The need for languages is rising as a result of the expanding economy, the movement toward integration, and the tendency toward globalization. One crucial element of the globalization and integration process is translation.

Integration and cooperation benefit increasingly from translation. Translation is crucial for successful cooperation because, when working with foreign partners, language is the largest barrier that makes the work more challenging.

The need for translation services is growing across all industries, including school, production, and medicine. The usage of text songs is a need for equipment as part of the integration process, particularly for English. Additionally, in addition to businesses, people now frequently employ service algorithms when they need to validate translated papers such diplomas and identity cards.

Foreign trade benefits from translation since it shortens the gap between nations. Helping translators can better understand one another through cultural activities and international exchanges, especially when it comes to art and culture.

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Translation is more than just trying to be understood; it also needs to be appropriate for the culture, done correctly, and use native context. Therefore, translating requires a great deal of social and cultural knowledge in addition to linguistic proficiency.

In addition, the translation of text between languages is usually formulaic and necessitates that the translator be familiar with the remote origin in order to interpret as properly as possible. Translation is a profession that requires high levels of execution. This is a supporting statement for your recent graduates and recent hires in the workforce.

With that reality and meaning, our research group chose the topic “Research on typical translation and interpreting errors made by final-year students of the Faculty of English and strategies for enhancing students‟ translation and interpreting abilities at the Faculty of English, Hanoi Open University” as a student scientific research topic for 2022 2023. –

<b>1.1.2. Novelty </b>

Realizing that the English department has not had many research topics on translation errors, our group of authors decided to investigate and conduct research on errors in spoken and written translation in order to assist students in developing their translation abilities.

<b>1.2. Overview of the study </b>

Numerous researches have been conducted on the translation errors made by university students, but few have outlined the different types of errors and

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provided cutting-edge remedies for students. This study and poll concentrate on typical errors that translators frequently commit, offering advice for those learning the craft. The following are the two primary research queries:

<small>1. </small> A research on the typical translation errors made by Hanoi Open University students specializing in English translation and interpretation.

<small>2. </small> Studying ways to assist learners in improving the quality of their translations

<b>1.3. Aims and scope of the study 1.3.1. Aims of the study </b>

Surveying fourth-year students majoring in Translation and Interpretation at the Faculty of English of the Hanoi Open University regarding the quality of their translations

A study of typical translation errors made by Hanoi Open University's fourth-year English Department students majoring in Translation and Interpretation.

Research on techniques to enhance translation quality for Hanoi Open University's fourth-year students majoring in Translation and Interpretation.

<b>1.3.2. Scope of the study </b>

<b>Students majoring in Translation and Interpretation, Faculty of English, </b>

Hanoi Open University.

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<b>1.4. Research methods </b>

All aspects of this study were obtained by: Analytical techniques - synthesis of theories Investigation techniques

Survey technique

<b>1.5. Contributions of the study 1.5.1. Scientific contributions: </b>

Evidence suggests that translation plays a crucial role, requiring analytical abilities, thorough knowledge, and cultural awareness of both the source and target languages, as well as sensitivity and delicacy on the part of translators and creativity.

<b>1.5.2. Practical contributions: </b>

The results of this research will help students improve the quality of Translating - Interpreting from English to Vietnamese and vice versa.

<b>1.6. Main contents </b>

The four sections of my study are as follows:

Chapter I: Introduction is the introduction of the study including rationale, aims of the study, research question, scope of the study, methods of study, and design of the study.

Chapter II: Literature review supplies the readers with the theoretical background including the theory of translation, interpretation and error.

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Chapter III: The study's methodology is presented in this chapter. Subjects, study tools, and data collection and analysis procedures are all described.

Chapter IV: The chapter offers analysis of the data gathered, presents conclusions, and offers suggestions.

Chapter V: The conclusion provides an overview of the results and analysis and makes some recommendations for additional research.

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<b>CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW/THEORETICAL BACKGROUND </b>

<b>2.1 Theoretical background of translation 2.1.1 Definition of translation </b>

There are various experts who convey their own definition related to translation. Generally, translation is a process of rendering meaning, ideas, or messages of a text from one language to other language. The accuracy, clarity and naturalness of the meaning, ideas, or messages are some considerations within the translation process

The following quotes taken from different sources provide an overview of the range of diversity on the concept of translation:

1. Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber 1974: 12)

2. Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language). (Catford 1965: 20)

3. Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of another equivalent text in a second language. (Hartmann & Stock 1972: 713)

4. Translation is the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another (source language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalencies. (Dubois 1973, cited in Bell 1991:5)

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5. Translation is a procedure which leads from a written SL text to an optimally equivalent TL text, and which requires the syntactic, semantic, stylistic and text pragmatic comprehension by the translator of the original text. (Wilss 1982a: 112)

6. Translation, as the process of conveying messages across linguistic and cultural barriers, is an eminently communicative activity, one whose use could well be wider range of teaching situations than may currently be the case. (Tudor, cited in Duff 1989: 5)

7. Translating is a communicative process which takes place within a social context. (Hatim & Mason 1990: 3)

8. Translating is the transformation of a text originally in one language into an equivalent text in a different language retaining, as far as possible, the content of the message, and the formal features and the roles of the original text. (Bell 1991: XIII).

From the above definitions, we can see how complex the concept of translation is.

<b>2.1.2. Methods of translation </b>

Currently, there are many translation methods applied in the field of language translation. Some of the methods mentioned by Newmark, in his 'A Textbook of Translation' are given below:

<b>2.1.2.1. Word-for-word translation </b>

This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the target language immediately the source language words. The source language word

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order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or to construe a difficult text as a presentation process.

The mood also comes at a cohesive level. The nouns and the adjectives used throughout the text make cohesion. The cohesion of such foregrounded elements gives the mood positive or negative or neutral. The choice between words like ―pass away” and ―dead” indicates the value of the person. This subtle difference in choice will make a translation good or bad.

After passing through all these minute details in the cohesive level, the level of naturalness has to be ensured. We must ensure whether the translation makes sense and if it reads naturally. This can be made out by disengaging ourselves from the source text, by reading the translation as though no original text existed. The naturalness has to be acquired by using most frequent syntactic structures, idioms and phrases and words that are likely to appear in that kind of stylistic context.

The heart of translation theory is translation problem and the translation theory broadly consists of a large number of generalities of translation problems. So, the translation problems shall be studied in the next chapter.

<b>2.1.2.2. Literal translation </b>

The source language grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest target language equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.

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<b>2.1.2.3. Faithful translation </b>

A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the target language grammatical structures. It 'transfers' cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical 'abnormality' (deviation from the source language norms) in the translation. It attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text realization of the source language writer.

<b>2.1.2.4. Semantic translation </b>

Semantic translation differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the source language text, compromising on the 'meaning' where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version.

Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents. It may make other small concessions to the readership. The distinction between *faithful' and 'semantic' translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator's intuitive empathy with the original

<b>2.1.2.5. Adaptation </b>

This is the 'freest' form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters and plots are usually preserved, the source language culture converted to the target language culture and the text

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is rewritten. The deplorable practice of having a play or a poem literally translated and then rewritten by an established dramatist or poet has produced many poor adaptations, but other adaptations have 'rescued' period plays.

<b>2.1.2.6. Free translation </b>

Free translation produces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original. A so called "intralingual translation', often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all.

<b>2.1.2.7. Idiomatic translation </b>

Idiomatic translation reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.

<b>2.1.2.8. Communicative translation </b>

Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the reader.

<b>2.2 Theoretical background of interpretation 2.2.1. Definition of interpretation </b>

Interpreting consists of presenting in the target language, the exact meaning of what is uttered in the source language either simultaneously or consecutively, preserving the tone of the speaker

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The definition provided by the National Association for Interpretation is: ―Interpretation is a communication process that forges emotional and intellectual connections between the interests of the audience and the inherent meanings in the resource.‖ (NAI Board of Directors, 2000)

According to Webster, interpretation is: the act or the result of interpreting: explanation

a particular adaptation or version of a work, method or style.

a teaching technique that combines factual with stimulating explanatory information “natural history interpretation program.”

<b>2.2.2. Types of interpretation </b>

According to Duff (1989), there are 6 types of interpretation.

<b>2.2.2.1. Simultaneous interpreting </b>

Also known as cabin translation, parallel interpretation is the most skilled form of interpretation. The interpreter must memorize the information that the speaker of the source language is speaking, and translate it into the recipient's language immediately. Parallel interpretation requires the interpreter to accurately convey the other person's statement in a very short time. The parallel form of translation requires many skills.

<b>2.2.2.2. Consecutive interpreting </b>

This form of interpretation requires interpreters to switch languages after the speaker has finished conveying the information (usually 1-5 minutes). You need to take notes carefully to remember all the main ideas, then convey the

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information in the receiving language correctly. Serial translation is also known as chasing translation. Serial interpretation is also known as chasing translation.

<b>2.2.2.3. Liaison interpreting </b>

This is the most common form, usually taking place at small negotiation meetings. This form of interpretation is done by switching the language back and forth by a single interpreter.

<b>2.2.2.4. Relay interpreting </b>

In a conference meeting where more than three languages (e.g. English – Laos Cambodia Vietnam) are spoken, the organizers arrange cabins and – – equipment so that everyone hears the language they desire.

Suppose, in a specific meeting, when a Vietnamese representative speaks, the interpreter in the Vietnamese cabin must translate into English. Meanwhile, interpreters in Laos cabins in Cambodia will have to listen to English and then move on to Laos and Cambodia. Relay interpretation involves quite a few stages.

<b>2.2.2.5. Whispering interpreting </b>

This interpretation is the same form of translation as in parallel. What's different here is that the translator performs a translation of the source language for a small group and whispers in the listener's ear.

<b>2.2.2.6. Sign language interpreting </b>

This is an interpretive method that converts spoken language into sign language and vice versa.

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<b>2.3. Theoretical background of error 2.3.1. Definition of error </b>

There are various definitions related to error:

Error can be defined as a deviation from accuracy, correctness; a, as in action, are of several types and can only be minimized, not removed.

Errors are defined as a learner language form that deviates form, or violates, a target language rule. "Errors are considered evidence of the learners' developing competence in the foreign language." For example, they may indicate that learners are applying rules from their own first language to the use of English, or that they are applying rules which they have internalized but which are in some way intermediate between their own first languages and the language they are learning", (Parrot, 1993).

<b>2.3.2. Types of error </b>

According to Corder (1973) and Haryono (2011), there are four main types of errors based on the surface taxonomy. They are omission, addition, mis-formation and mis-ordering.

<b>2.3.2.1. Omission errors </b>

Omission errors refer to non-occurrence of necessary structures; that is, the absence of an item that should appear in a well-formed sentence.

Examples: 1) She a student. 2) It is orange.

In the above sentences, the learner omitted the verb to be (is) in sentence 1 and the indefinite article (an) in sentence 2. The correct forms of these sentences are: 1) She is a student. 2) It is an orange.

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<b>2.3.2.2. Addition errors </b>

Addition errors mean addition of some unnecessary or incorrect elements that should not appear. That means the learner presents an item that should appear in a well-formed sentence.

Examples: 1) There are two sheeps in the field. 2) He did not played football yesterday.

In the first sentence, the learner added the letter (s) to irregular plural nouns (sheep) and added the marker (ed) to the verb (play) that referred to the past in the negative sentence 2. The correct forms of these sentences are: 1) There are two sheep in the field. 2) He did not play football yesterday.

<b>2.3.2.3. Mis-formation errors </b>

Mis-formation errors refer to the supplement of the wrong morpheme; that is, the use of the wrong form of grammatical element.

Examples: 1) These pen is mine. 2) Me play game everyday.

In the first sentence, the learner uses the wrong form of plural demonstrative (these) before a singular noun (pen) and uses the object pronoun (me) as the subject in the second sentence. The correct forms of these sentences are: 1) This pen is mine. 2) I play games everyday.

<b>2.3.2.4. Mis-ordering errors </b>

Mis-ordering errors refer to the wrong position of morphemes in a sentence. That means that the words in the sentence are put in the wrong order.

Examples: 1) read they a story. 2) I bought a car black.

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In the above sentences, the learner put the words in the wrong order, for example, in the first sentence, the learner put the verb (read) before the subject (they), and the second sentence, learner also put the adjective (black) after the noun (car). The correct order of these sentences is: 1) They read a story. 2) I bought a black car.

<b>2.3.3. Causes of error </b>

There are mainly two major sources of errors in second language learning. The first source is interference from the native language while the second source can be attributed to intralingual and developmental factors.

The native language of learners plays a significant role in learning a second language. Errors due to the influence of the native language are called interlingual errors. Interlingual errors are also called transfer or interference errors. The view that the native language plays a mostly negative role was emphasized as early as the forties and tile fifties by Fries (1945) and Lado (1957). Although recently researchers tend to minimize interlingual errors and emphasize intralingual and developmental errors (cf. Dulay and Burt 1974), negative transfer or interference is still acknowledged as an important factor in second language learning (cf. Jordens 1977; Kellerman 1979; Touchie 1983). Intralingual and developmental errors are due to the difficulty of the second/target language. Intralingual and developmental factors include the following:

Simplification: Learners often choose simple forms and constructions instead of more complex ones. An example of simplification might involve the use of simple present instead of the present perfect continuous.

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Overgeneralization: This is the use of one form or construction in one context and extending its application to other contexts where it should not apply. Examples of overgeneralization include the use of comed and goed as the past tense forms of come and go and the omission of the third person singular under the heavy pressure of all other endless forms as in s he go.

It should be noted that simplification and overgeneralization are used by learners in order to reduce their linguistic burden.

Hypercorrection: Sometimes the zealous efforts of teachers in correcting their students' errors induce the students to make errors in otherwise correct forms. Stenson (1978) calls this type of error "induced errors." For example, the teacher's insistence that ESL learners produce the phoneme /p/ correctly prompts them to always produce /p/ where the phoneme /b/ is required. Thus ESL learners say pird and pattle instead of bird and battle. Faulty teaching: Sometimes it happens that learners' errors are

teacher-induced ones, i.e., caused by the teacher, teaching materials, or the order of presentation. This factor is closely related to hypercorrection above. Also, it is interesting to note that some teachers are even influenced by their pupils' errors in the course of long teaching.

Fossilization: Some errors, especially errors in pronunciation, persist for long periods and become quite difficult to get rid of. Examples of fossilized errors in ESL learners are the lack of distinction between /p/ and /b/ in English and the insertion of the resumptive pronoun in English relative clauses produced by these learners.

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Avoidance: Some syntactic structures are difficult to produce by some learners. Consequently, these learners avoid these structures and instead use simpler structures. ESL learners avoid the passive voice while Japanese learners avoid relativization in English.

Inadequate learning: This is mainly caused by ignorance of rule restrictions or under differentiation and incomplete learning. An example is omission of the third person singular as in: s He want.

False concepts hypothesized: Many learners' errors can be attributed to wrong hypotheses formed by these learners about the target language. For example, some learners think that is the marker of the present tense. So, is they produce: He is talk to the teacher. Similarly, they think that was is the past tense marker. Hence they say: It was happened last night.

<b>2.4. The concepts and kinds of translation equivalence </b>

Pym (1992) placed a strong focus on the usage of equivalency in translation since it is seen to be the most important factor in translation. Equivalence is essential to translation on the one hand, and translation itself can define equivalence on the other. Experts, scholars, translation theorists, and translators all have diverse ideas on what constitutes equivalency. There are two different types of methodologies for the translation process: quantitative and qualitative approaches.

<b> 2.4.1. The quantitative approach and its translation equivalences </b>

Kade (1968) asserted that there are four different types of equivalence in the quantitative approach. "One-to-one equivalency" is the first kind. The single

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word or phrase in the source language can be changed to its counterpart in the target language, according to this statement. "One-to-many equivalency" is the second. When more than one word or phrase from the target language is utilized for a single source language expression, this might occur. Lastly, "one-to-part-of-one equivalence" refers to when a target language concept or expression refers to a portion of a concept in a single source language. Lastly, nil-equivalence happens when there is no expression in the destination language for a phrase in the source language.

<b>2.4.2. The qualitative approach and its subdivisions of translation equivalences </b>

Several translation theorists also make use of the ideas of equivalence while discussing the qualitative method. It is separated into several methodologies.

<b>2.4.2.1. Functional-based approach </b>

The functional-based approach has two types of equivalence, according to Nida and Taber (1982): (1) Formal equivalence: This phenomenon occurs when the message's form and content are as closely aligned in the source language and the target language as is possible. (2) Dynamic/functional equivalence: This type of equivalence emphasizes the concept of "identical effect" more. In reality, with dynamic equivalence, the translators must convey the content in a way that affects the target readers in the same way as it affects the original language.

<b>2.4.2.2. Form- based approach </b>

Mona Baker (1992, pp. 11 12) introduces six different types of – equivalence using a form-based approach: (1) equivalence at the word level, (2)

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equivalence above the word level, (3) grammatical equivalence, (4) textual equivalence, which includes word order and themes, (5) contextual equivalence, which includes cohesion, and (6) pragmatic equivalence. She learned that different languages may have different grammatical rules, and it may be challenging to locate a direct equivalent in the target language.

<b>2.4.2.3. Meaning-based approach </b>

Koller (1979), using a Meaning-based methodology, took into account five different equivalence types: (1) Denotative equivalence, (2) Connotative equivalence, (3) Text-normative equivalence, (4) Pragmatic equivalence (5) Formal equivalence.

Newmark (2006, p. 72) advised adding comments, amendments, or glosses in the translated texts during translation practice to cope with the cultural equivalent (cultural terms). The notes can be included at the end of the text, in a glossary, or between lines of the text (using brackets or parentheses). Newmark also highlighted the application of functional equivalence (or dynamic equivalence). According to Bayar's definition of "cultural equivalency" in 2007, it "aims at the replication of whatever cultural traits the source text has into the target text."

<b>2.5 . Common errors in translation and interpretation 2.5.1. Word for word </b>

Word for word translation (or sometimes direct/interlinear translation) focuses mainly on translating words from the source text into the target language while the word order of the original is preserved (Newmark, 1988). This method

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of translation can be seen in those cases where some value of humor is needed. It is also very useful for the translator to understand and analyze the original text before translating it into the target language. For instance, word for word translation “Bạn đang làm gì thế?‟‟ into English can be ―You are doing what?” whereas the correct version must be ― What are you doing?‖. Another example is that the sentence “She is deaf to all his advice‟‟ can be translated in Vietnamese according to word for word translation “Cô ta điếc với tất cả những lời khuyên của anh ta‟‟. The translation sounds unnatural. The correct translation should be “Cơ ta bỏ ngồi tai mọi lời khun của anh ta”.

<b>2.5.2. Grammatical errors </b>

Different languages have unique grammar and syntax rules. While translating, translators must remember differences in spelling, subject-object-verb agreement, and sentence construction. Here are some common grammatical errors when translating by Duff (1988: 22).

<b>2.5.2.1. Tense </b>

In English, each tense has its own formula and usage, but if you do not have a solid knowledge of tenses, it will lead to the use of grammatically incorrect sentences. For example: When describing an action that happened before another action in the past, they often use the past simple when they should use the past perfect. For example, the sentence ―Before he went out, he locked the door‖ should be rewritten as ―Before he went out, he had locked the door.”

<b>2.5.2.2. Error about part of speech </b>

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English is a language with a vast vocabulary. Learning and knowing all the meanings of words is not easy and understanding their usage is much more difficult. As a result, translating an article from English to another language requires careful word selection.

When translating this sentence “ Từ thành phố Hồ Chí Minh đi về phía đơng chừng 20 km, chúng ta gặp một vùng sinh thái tuyệt diệu.” should not be translated as follows: “Traveling about 20 km eastwards from Ho Chi Minh city, tourists will catch sight of a marvelously ecological system.” Instead we should translate it as follows: “Traveling about 20 km eastwards from Ho Chi Minh city, tourists will catch sight of a marvelous ecological system‟‟

In the above example, the learners use the adverb "marvelously" instead of the adjective "marvelous" because they think that the adverb modifies the adjective "ecological" but actually modifies the whole noun phrase "ecological system".

<b>2.5.2.3. Preposition </b>

Lack of articles and article misunderstanding are the two most common usage mistakes.

First, Vietnamese people often have difficulty determining when to use the article "the", for example writing "number of students" instead of "the number of students".

Second, Vietnamese people frequently misunderstanding between the definite article "the" and the indefinite article "an/a" (for example, ―A capital of

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