Part 2: Critical Thinking Skills

LINGUISTICS:

Opinions

Facts and

languages would at least be able to sound like a person, but no: °Siri and her/his thousands of
cousins, from telephone-answering programs to translators on the Internet, are stitched-together
beings. *Their parts come from massive and intricately coded databases of real human speech.
®°Every syllable—and many whole words—originally existed in real breath as a real utterance
by a real person. "When the computer voice needs to construct an utterance, it searches its
database at near light speed, grabs the recorded bits it needs, and arranges them in the proper
order. *°This process is called concatenative speech synthesis, the piecing together of statements
from preexisting parts. ‘However, the whole of real speech is more than the sum of its parts,
and what computers cannot do is overlay a string of consonant or vowel sounds with the hardto-define qualities that lend emotion and personal reality to speech. *“Will someone eventually
get a computer generated voice to sound real? }*Such a voice would need not only natural stress,
pitch, and tone, but humanlike voice quality (imbre), sounding breathy or husky or tired or
eager at just the right times.

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database at nearlight speed, grabs the recorded bits it needs, and arranges them in the proper

order. ‘°This process is called concatenative speech synthesis, the piecing together of statements
from preexisting parts. ‘"However, the whole of real speech is more than the sum of its parts,
and what computers cannot do is overlay a string of consonant or vowel sounds with the hardto-define qualities that lend emotion and personal reality to speech. “Will someone eventually
get a computer-generated voice to sound real? ‘*Such a voice would need not only natural stress,
pitch, and tone, but humanlike voice quality (timbre), sounding breathy or husky or tired or
eager at just the right times.

the =

created or

Show

submitted


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answers

at which ve mơ

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ee

before another event


:
oe
©
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ow
wee
status of the phoneme. In its milder forms, generative phonology is accepted by most linguists.
*“ According to the theory, there is a set of base phonemes that the brain draws on in order to
generate speech. *°On its way to becoming spoken, a base phoneme may be altered by some
mental rules for creating typical “well-formed” spoken words. *°For example, if the vowel
phoneme /e/, as in pet, is to be pronounced before a nasal consonant like the /n/ in pen, the
vowel gets nasalized to become [e"]. *’ The nasalized vowel is the output—the spoken product of
the input as influenced by the language’ phonological rules. ““English does not have a separate
phoneme for “nasalized e”, but we actually expect that pronunciation in certain contexts. “This
is not controversial. °°Where some hard-core generative linguists go wrong is in forgetting that
this is all just a theory, just a guess that base phonemes exist in a speaker's head and that there is
a set of rules in the brain. ?'No one really knows what happens in a speaker's brain, at least not

with today’ research tools. **Some generativists treat our guesses about currently unknowable
processes as if they were proven reality, an attitude that is more appropriate to religion than to
science.

1

Sentences1,2,3,4

2

Sentence5,6,7,8

3

Sentences 11,17, 19, 21

4

Sentence 25 , 29, 30, 32

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phoneme for “nasalized e”, but we actually expect that pronunciation in certain contexts. '”This
is not controversial. "Where some hard-core generative linguists go wrong is in forgetting that
this is all just a theory, just a guess that base phonemes exist in a speaker's head and that there is
a set of rules in the brain. ?/No one really knows what happens in a speaker's brain, at least not
with today’ research tools. **Some generativists treat our guesses about currently unknowable
processes as if they were proven reality, an attitude that is more appropriate to religion than to

science.

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answers


1.

Asmall amount of__

ina person's voice may indicate that he or she is emotionally upset.

shakiness
pitch
intensity

music
2

Why does the quality of your friend's voice convey distress "all by itself"? (Choose two answers.)
He is not able to speak any words.
You are speaking by phone and cannot see each other.
You know each other so well that he doesn't have to say anything to be understood.
You are not talking about any emotionally charged topic.


3

What feature of your response indicates that it is a question?
rising intonation at the end
almost steady intonation at the beginning
normal grammar

the word "okay"
4

According to the reading, all suprasegmentals __..
are consonants and vowels
are considered "prosody"
are musical notes
occur "over"

5

for a question

a sequence

of words

What is true about prosody, according to the reading?
It conveys

most of the meaning


It is governed
It is always

of a sentence.

by rules.

an accurate

indicator of emotion.

It operates outside the system of language.
6

Which of the following might create suprasegmental features that are hard to predict? (Choose two answers.)
illness
a noisy environment

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Supporting Skill 2: Identifying and Understanding Statements of Opinion
More

Practice

B

Most of the reading is meant to present fact. However, some passages are meant to express opinion.
Read the passage again. Click on four sentences or parts of sentences that are presented as

statements of opinion. Not all paragraphs use statements of opinion.
1

Imagine that you are on the phone to a friend and you detect a slight shakiness in his voice.

You are

discussing a nonemotional topic, like your plans for the day. The topic seems unlikely to upset anyone, yet his
unsteady voice indicates that he is troubled. You ask, "Everything okay?"

2

There is quite a lot in this simple exchange. First, your friend's vocal shakiness conveyed, all by itself , some kind
of emotional distress. His words didn't communicate this. Nor over the phone could you see his eyes, his posture,
or any facial expressions. Indeed, you have no indication other than the little vocal quiver that he might be upset.
Secondly, your reaction question, "Everything okay?" was almost certainly delivered with a rising tone at the end
(see Figure 1). That was necessary to make it sound

like a question because (as is often the case in conversation)

you did not use full question grammar, with a form of be before the subject. If you had said it with falling
intonation at the end, your friend may have found it very strange, as if you were making an inappropriate

statement (minus a verb) that everything was all right (see Figure 2).

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3


Many important features of what you both said were neither consonants nor vowels (which we call segmentals).
Features that are not consonants or vowels form an extra layer of input that only spoken language has. This layer
includes stress (strong or weak), pitch (high or low "notes"), tone (patterns of rising or falling pitch), and other
sound characteristics (called acoustic features). Many of these features are called suprasegmentals ("things over
the top of segmentals"). They occur over a stretch of many consonants and vowels strung together into phrases or
longer statements. Figures 1 and 2 show how one suprasegmental feature, tone, stretches over an entire
statement.

4

Some suprasegmentals are governed by the rules of a language. They form the system, called prosody, of a
language's normal patterns of stress, tone, pitch, pauses, and other features. It is not inaccurate to say that
prosody is the characteristic "music" of a language. Other suprasegmentals, including your friend's vocal
shakiness, occur less predictably and operate outside the system of prosody. They occur in response to the
peculiar circumstances of a spoken event. Besides whatever troubles might have caused your friend's emotional
upset (the death of a relative? the loss of a job?), countless factors could come into play. Maybe a speaker has a
cold, which has swollen her vocal cords so her voice has a lower-than-normal overall pitch. Maybe a room is noisy,
so the intensity of a speaker's speech goes up, creating unusual stress patterns and perhaps a scratchy quality to
the voice. The possible relevant variations are too numerous to list.

Show

submitted

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answers


k&

More Practice A

0/6

The following passages are based on the readings in this unit. Click on at least one hedging structure in
each one. Click on the light bulb icon to study the Language Skill Presentation.

1.

Spoken language often

2

Some experiments have investigated whether listeners can identify vocal signs of emotion in a foreign language they

0%

communicates emotion beyond the meaning of a speaker's words.

do not know. Interestingly, there might be some evidence that listeners can.
3

If you had said the it with falling intonation at the end, your friend probably would have

found it very strange.

4

Will someone eventually get a computer-generated voice to sound real? Maybe , if such syntax-based features could
be built into it.


5

Itis not inaccurate

6

Itmay seem

to say that prosody is the characteristic "music" of a language.

that American English is difficult, but its system of phonemic sounds is actually quite tidy.

Reread the following paragraph from "The Relationship of Sound and Meaning." Click on the hedging
words and phrases in the passage. Click on the light bulb icon to study the Language Skill Presentation.

Much more evidence, however, would have to be gathered
The kiki / bouba study, and others like it, are limited

before such a sweeping conclusion could be made .

by a number of factors. The sound-symbolism hypothesis is

not the only possible explanation for the results. Perhaps the study participants, though from different cultures,
had mostly grown up watching cartoons or hearing stories where rounder characters had names like bouba and
spikier characters had names like kiki. In English, certainly, the name boubais a lot like the word b/ob, and the word
spiky is a lot like kiki. In other words, learned associations, not natural or innate ones, could have influenced the

results.


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1

A language with a lot of phonemes is difficult to learn. (can)
A language with a lot of phonemes can be difficult to learn.

2

Communicating over the telephone is less satisfying than face-to-face conversations. (usually)
Communicating over the telephone is usually less satisfying than face-to-face conversations.

3

Inthe future, most mechanical speech tasks—such as taking food orders—will be performed by computers. (most
likely)

In the future, most mechanical speech tasks—such as taking food orders—will most likely be performed by
computers.

4

Every person benefits from learning a foreign language. (in general / most / can)
In general, most people can benefit from learning a foreign language.

5


Learned associations, not natural or innate ones, influenced the results of the kiki / bouba experiment. (appear /
could)

It appears that learned associations, not natural or innate ones, could have influenced the results of the kiki
/ bouba experiment.

6

Relationships among different academic fields are intrusive, yet a broad relevance is what makes linguistics exciting.
(may / part of)
Relationships among different academic fields may be intrusive, yet a broad relevance is part of what makes
linguistics exciting.

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apparently

asageneralrule

could

frequently

isitpossible

itappears

may


might

perhaps

would

1

Some people say that emoji symbols will someday take the place of most written statements. I suppose this could
happen but it's not likely.

2

Asageneralrule

the tongue is involved in making a consonant sound, but this is not always true.

3

Many bird species communicate using complex systems of songs, chirps, and other vocalizations. Is it possible

that

the animals are somehow "talking" to each other?

4

Features of speech like tone, volume, and timbre frequently


communicate emotion better than the speaker's

words.

5

Apparently

there are quite a few languages in which "hard" sounds like /k/ and /t/ are associated with spiky or

sharp objects.

6

Iwould

expect that someday soon computer-generated voices will sound real.

7

It appears

that all human languages have subjects and verbs, though these might

not function the same way in

every language.

8


Iknow you think the project will be boring, but you could

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be surprised at how much you learn.


Language Skill: Understanding Structures Used for Hedging

More Practice C
Read the passage. Click on eight instances of hedging. Click on the light bulb icon to study the

Language Skill Presentation.

0/8
0%

A team of mathematicians is addressing the age-old question: Do any animals other than humans have a real
language? The idea that language ability sets humans apart from all other creatures is perhaps one of the most
widely accepted characterizations of our species. Of course, bees, whales, birds, and a host of other animals
communicate, but arguably not all communication involves language. Could it be that we just haven't properly
understood the clicks, cheeps, and songs used by other animals? The team has been using mathematical
analysis to try to answer this question.
In the past, a set of equations called Markov processes was probably the mathematical tool of choice. In most
cases, these are able to predict what an animal's next beep or click would be, as long as there is enough data about
the animal's recent past sounds. A Markovian analysis might be able to say something like "This bird produces a
sequence of notes—A, Bb and C#—no later than every 20 consecutive notes." If the bird has chirped 18 times
without producing that sequence, and its last two notes have been A and B, there is a very high probability that the
next note will be C#. However, recent studies suggest that some whale calls and bird songs may be too complex
to be described by Markov processes, and even higher-level equations cannot explain some calls of orangutans and

rock hyraxes (a gopher-like South African animal). Thus, most mathematicians and linguists urge caution. Even if we
had better mathematical techniques to analyze complex animal communication, they say that the flexibility and
novelty of human language is not likely to be approached by any nonhuman species.

1

Bergdahl explains that consonants and vowels are called segmentals because they are important segments.

2

Panini points out that you will get "a breathy sound somewhat like an [h]."

3

Glesser and Tomei state that the nasal cavity can also be opened up to further influence vowel quality.

4

Glesser and Tomei add, "Some consonants ... have vibrating folds."

5

Walski asks, "Are they vowels?"

6

Matabole explains that some click languages have more than 85 phonemic consonants.

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1

In Paragraph 1, the statement, "no one on Earth has the slightest idea how to communicate with them" explains why
a war Starts
a linguist is the hero

a physicist is needed
the aliens are visiting Earth
2

According to the author, how are linguists different from other professionals who act as consultants for movies?
They tend to speak multiple languages.
They don't usually appear as the hero of a film.
They are not called upon as expert consultants very often.

They do not use analytical methods in their work.
3

Which of the following is NOT presented as a statement of fact?
In the 2016 movie Arrival, alien ships appear at 12 locations around Earth and silently hover over the ground.
Thus most [linguists] were probably delighted to see their field not only portrayed but lionized in a hit

film.
The notes [Coon] took as she tried to make sense of the puzzle actually appear in the movie as notes taken by
Louise Banks.
Even earlier, linguist Victoria Fromkin had invented a language called Pukani for a 1970s TV show called Land of

4


tne Lost.
According to Bjarni Gunarsson, how is the character of Louise Banks different from most characters of linguists in
movies?

She is able to translate from one language into another.
She is a female linguist.
She plays a likeable character.
She analyzes languages the way real linguists do.
5

What was an essential principle of Arriva/'s plot that Jessica Coon disagreed with?
that the language you speak limits your ability to think in certain ways
that human languages differ but only with a certain range of variability
that the alien language would reflect thought patterns very different from those of humans
that humans and aliens could somehow find ways of communicating with each other

6

What does Blair Rudes mean when he refers to his reconstructed language as "the Blair Rudes dialect of Virginia
Algonquian"?
that he now sometimes uses the language to communicate with descendants of the Powhatan people
that his role as a movie consultant totally reshaped his life
that he is not entirely sure the real language was the same as his reconstructed language
that he doesn't want to take on any more tasks as difficult as reconstructing VA

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BUSINESS


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ETHICS: Implication and Inference


is or was an academic
is from the Netherlands

worked for many different companies
traveled to many countries
Geert Hofstede's research in the 1960s and1970s__.

compared the attitudes of men and women
was conducted in different languages
is based on survey data

included questions related to the workplace
The employees involved in his study probably__.
no longer work for IBM
came from different parts of the world
were business executives
expressed different cultural values
Americans __.
participated in Hofstede's research study
tend to value taking care of themselves and their immediate families
may not be afraid to express their opinions at work
enjoy criticizing their superiors
Hofstede determined that South Koreans __..

tend to value their interdependence on others

don't often have opinions about their work
are not expected to criticize their superiors

view their workplace as a collective unit
Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory ___.
may need to be revised over time

does not apply to all members of a culture
could help businesspeople understand global business partners
is the best wav to understand a different culture

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mmediate far

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answers

people or

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5


a system

of organization
in which people

are divided into levels of importance
a situation in which some groups in society
h ave less m oney,
than


inf luence, ‹ DỊ

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ity.

others

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a range oor series ofrelated things, in which

each thing is only slightly different from the
one before or after, so that there are no
dividing

points

react, and affect each other

believing

that everyone is equal and

Nave equal rignts
Show

submitted

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answers

should


OT

TT

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ET ET

TT

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more egalitarian environment. Attitudes
=
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about power dynamics become apparent
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when people are asked for their opinions
about behaviors such as voicing opinions in meetings and taking on leadership roles. Those who
work in a high power-distance nation generally believe that employees should be careful about
voicing their opinions and never challenge their superiors. High power-distance workplaces are
said to favor a “top down” management approach, in which the boss is the unquestioned leader.
By contrast, working in a low power-distance nation means that you may be welcomed to voice

an opinion, regardless of your position in the organization. In such a “bottom up” management
approach, autocratic bosses are seen as both unfair and unreasonable.

(to be continued)

"Power distance" is a category in Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory that is connected to people's attitudes about
inequality.
True ¥

False
Countries that rank low in the power-distance dimension prefer equality in the workplace.
True

False x
High power-distance workplaces are organized in a "bottom-up" way, with power concentrated at the top.
True

False ¥
In low power-distance cultures, employees prefer autocratic bosses.
True
False

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More

Practice C

Read the paragraph again. Then read the statements and choose True or False.

Cultural Dimensions: Power Distance (continued)
While many countries fall in the middle of Hofstede’s power distance continuum, there
are certain countries with a large percentage of people who follow a top-down management
approach, and other countries where most people favor a bottom-up approach. In a meeting
in Denmark, for example, most employees would have no problem being assertive and offering
alternatives to suggestions made by their boss. Contrast this with Malaysia, where, in the
same type of meeting, the Malay employees would likely wait for their boss to speak and then
follow the boss’ directive. Speaking out against the boss could be seen as extremely negative,
unacceptable behavior. Some nations, such as Argentina and Japan, fall right in the center of
this continuum. According to Hofstede’s research, they favor a power structure that includes
elements of both hierarchical and egalitarian approaches.

1

Most employees in Denmark prefer a top-down approach to management.
True x
False

2

Malaysia ranks higher in the power-distance continuum than Denmark does.
True


False x
3

Japanese employees may be less assertive in general than workers from Denmark.
True ¥v

False

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1/3
33%


In

en countries, managers are more

ely
to be respectful of employees’

|

Despite the factthat it continues to retain

|

personaltime


` restrained ¢countries, on the other bane

and enthusiasm

Hotel clerks and others who work in

siasm or friendliness in interactions
With

customer service i in restrained Bocleues are

VUeSTS

not likely to smile or show outwa

In indulgent societies, however, pees
Fe
CT
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1 riendliness and enthusiasm by smiling may.
be

ve ry

importa ant

in

the


customerser

excitement or friendliness when interacting
with the public

ce

NG!
|
InduStrY

Though Hofstede's cultural dimension
theory is helpful in manyways, the ‹original

Ki

Vis

al decades old in a world

that has become increasingly more

les
FIODAlIZeC

Some yee

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workers'

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free time

according

f

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recent

studies

:



Residents of nations with long-term orientations tend to look toward the future. ¥
Residents of nations with long-term orientation have little or no concern for the past.
2

Having a short-term versus a long-term orientation will influence the type of goals a business will set. ¥
A businessperson's short- or long-term orientation will determine the type of business he or she invests in.

3

Someone from a country with a short-term orientation is not likely to save for the future.
Someone from a country with a short-term orientation is more likely to choose immediate gratification
over delayed gratification. ¥

4

Confucian philosophy is still reflected in the cultural values of some countries in East Asia.
The teachings of Confucius are still being actively taught in China, South Korea, and Japan today. x

>

A South Korean executive is likely to invest in the long-term growth of a company. ¥
A South Korean executive has little interest in his company's short-term profits.

6

Chinese, Japanese, and Korean businesspeople may be more comfortable delaying profits than their
American counterparts. 7
Asian businesses are successful because they value thrift and persistence over immediate rewards.

X⁄.....n...


the ability to give up an immediate reward
in order to wait for a later one

|

|

IWfWGEISVERIETGI0GEH00III)

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wise and careful use of

the HP

”

so that none

made š a business in a certain


Lele
More Practice A

0/6

Read the following sentences. Click on the noun clauses. Click on the light bulb icon to study the
Language Skill Presentation.

1

0%

From his research, Hofstede created a framework to describe how people from different countries express their
cultural values in the workplace .

2

The cultural domain of "masculinity-femininity" is part of social psychologist Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions
theory and is based on what are considered to be traditional male and female traits .

3

Similarly, what you see on the surface when you visit a culture

4

Those who work in a high power-distance nation generally believe that employees should be careful about voicing

is only part of a culture's whole identity.

their opinions and never challenge their superiors .
5

Someone new to a low power-distance culture may not know if it is all right to make suggestions to a boss or

6

Workers from long-term-oriented cultures may be interested in what you plan to do several years from now .


manager .

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More Practice B

0/6

Match each sentence containing a noun clause with its paraphrase. Click on the light bulb icon to study
the Language Skill Presentation.
Italian workers, by contrast, might judge

r

yased on how well they

m

relative

SS

to

-

others
SEE


around
==

opinions and never

ieve tha

Iring a ay i power -distante etre.

nem

=

Those who work in a high power-distance

jsens,

Working

0%

:

‘Ou

WorkK

atin


an

Organiza ation

:

mployees

challenge the

concerned with custo

SUDeETIOTS

Ifaan American businessman stayed ina

n italy,

no rel in F

aCCOIomplish

by what

ssia, he migght pe ver) frustré ted
he perceived as a lack

helpfulness and friendliness

:


O

from

VOUT

the staff

This cultural domain is meant to describe
Bod, nso ecu tures, » pe eople are more
:
-Om|
/ement,
whereas other cultures place a higher value
[I1

colleagues,

_.'

5

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[

Working inin alow MO

distance nation


tie organization

Customer C82150 SO ee ates
=
t sc
‘ieties may be more
indulgen
in

NOW:

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ine’

/

interact

with

on
intereste

CUSTOMEYS.

:

In this dimension of culture, the E05) is to
ee P aa


jisagree with their supervisor

it


Languaøge Skill: Understanding Noun Clauses

More Practice C
Reorder the words to make sentences with noun clauses. Click on the light bulb icon to study the

Language Skill Presentation.

ne

ee
ee ng eran italy
(Ee
eT
lS
Masculinity-femininity is a dimension that measures the degree to which a culture is competitive or
cooperative.

eee AS on RVR: SAN AS RHODES CSRS ON OMT RAINS SET
aapproaches
culture
goal setting
How a culture approaches goal setting is indicated by the category of short-term versus long-term
orientation.


” _ (q0ldgsiobadgviautbolbavloblu0äabocgsldbiedLacccptableuslisolDeo0o02/0016409u0560660LIS,
What | restrained
2. person in a
culture |
What a person in a restrained culture considers to be deviant behavior may be considered acceptable by
someone in a more indulgent culture.

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0/5
0%


acceptable by someone in a more indulgent culture

pam

SAI

A

TSE ALE Re RTT

SACOM

OT Re TERE OTSA

Some recent research indicates that indulgence is one of the values that is increasing in many societies.

ee een


ASTRA EEA ESTATE TAD SENSES EM Re 1S LUT

TAM EEE

The indulgence versus restraint dimension measures the extent to which a culture is interested in enjoying

life versus following strict social norms.

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Language Skill: Understanding Noun Clauses

More Practice D

0/6

Drag the words and phrases to make sentences with noun clauses as the subject, object, or object of
the preposition. Click on the light bulb icon to study the Language Skill Presentation.

0%

1
In a high distance culture, how much free time you have may be mostly determined by your manager.

» eee eee
eee
No. 28/6012 1200221)421)


eee es eee
ee eee ee eee ae

ee tow te eave

Knowing whether or not a society is indulgent versus restrained is important for managers because it helps
them to determine how to behave in certain situations.

ea

ee

a a ee ee

ee

ee

ee

ols

In customer service interactions, the differences between indulgent societies and restrained societies may
be apparent in how strangers are treated.

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