WeidongHuang Editor
Handbook
of Human
Centric
Visualization
Handbook of Human Centric Visualization
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Weidong Huang
Editor
Handbook of Human Centric
Visualization
Foreword by Peter Eades
123
Editor
Weidong Huang
CSIRO ICT Centre
Marsfield, NSW, Australia
ISBN 978-1-4614-7484-5 ISBN 978-1-4614-7485-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7485-2
Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London
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Foreword
Visualization research promises to help humans to explore and comprehend infor-
mation, thus making vast stores of data useful to humankind.
Much of this visualization research follows a simple pattern: (1) “here is an
important data set,” (2) “here is a picture of this data set,” (3) “wow, the picture
looks cool!”
Huang’s book does contain some of the world’s coolest pictures of data. But
the book goes further: it considers the much deeper questions of how humans read
visualizations, and why we use visualization. The very nature of visualization is
examined. Visualization is not just a technology; it is a human communication
mechanism.
In particular, the question of what kind of scientific methodology should be used
to evaluate visualizations is considered in detail.
Such topics are beyond the gamut of Computer Science, and can only be
answered by a multidisciplinary approach. The book has chapters written by
researchers in a variety of disciplines, from psychologyto business, from philosophy
to engineering.
The book is revolutionary in its scale and breadth.
Peter Eades

September 3, 2012.
v

Preface
We visualize data for human appreciation and understanding. In other words, all
visualizations are meant to be human centric. However, human centric visualizations
do not come automatically.
To ensure that a visualization is human centric, we need proper theories and
principles to guide the process of the visualization design. Once the visualization is
produced, we need methods and measures to verify whether the design objectives
are indeed achieved. Rapid advances in display technology and computer power
have enabled researchers and practitioners to produce visually appealing pictures.
However, the effectiveness of those pictures in conveying the embedded information
to end users has been relatively less explored.
Handbook of Human Centric Visualization aims to contribute to the human
side of the visualization research. It addresses issues related to design, evaluation,
and application of visualizations. Topics include visualization theories, design
principles, evaluation methods and metrics, human factors, interaction methods,
and case studies. This cutting-edge book is an edited volume whose contributors
include well-established researchers worldwide, from diverse disciplines including
psychology, education, visualization, and human-computer interaction.
This book consists of twenty-nine chapters, which are grouped into the following
seven parts:
I. Visual Communication
II. Theory and Science
III. Principles, Guidelines, and Recommendations
IV. Methods
V. Perception and Cognition
VI. Dynamic Visualization
VII. Interaction

The main features of this book can be summarized as follows:
1. Provides a comprehensive overview of human centric visualization
2. Represents latest developments and current trends in the field
vii
viii Preface
3. Presents visualization theories
4. Covers design principles and guidelines
5. Presents evaluation methodologies and case studies
6. Includes contributions from leading experts and active researchers from a range
of disciplines
This book is designed for a professional audience composed of practitioners,
lecturers, and researchers working in the field of computer graphics, visualization,
human-computer interaction and psychology. Undergraduate and postgraduate stu-
dents in science and engineering focused on this topic will also find this book useful
as a comprehensive textbook or reference.
Weidong Huang
Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief
Weidong Huang, CSIRO, Australia
International Advisory Board
Margaret Burnett, Oregon State University, USA
Chaomei Chen, Drexel University, USA
Philip Cox, Dalhousie University, Canada
Mary Czerwinski, Microsoft Research, USA
Joseph H. Goldberg, Oracle, USA
John Howse, University of Brighton, UK
Mao Lin Huang, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Andreas Kerren, Linnaeus University, Sweden
Christof K
¨

orner, University of Graz, Austria
David H. Laidlaw, Brown University, USA
Giuseppe Liotta, University of Perugia, Italy
Richard K. Lowe, Curtin University, Australia
Katerina Mania, Technical University of Crete, Greece
Kim Marriott, Monash University, Australia
Helen Purchase, University of Glasgow, UK
Mary Beth Rosson, Penn State University, USA
Jack van Wijk, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
ix

Acknowledgement
I wish to thank all authors who submitted their valuable work for consideration.
Without their effort and contribution, this book would not have been possible. I
received 84 exciting chapter proposals in total covering almost every aspect of
human centric visualization. Unfortunately,due to limitations on the size of the book
and the range of topics to be addressed, many good proposals were not considered
further.
I thank our valued members of the International Advisory Editorial Board. Their
world class reputation and generous support for this project have helped to attract
the high-quality submissions and receive the overwhelming responses from the wide
scientific community.
Editing a book like this is a time-consuming and sometimes lonely process.
However, throughout this process, I have consistently received positive feedback
and support from many individuals. Some recommended potential authors. Some
helped or offered to help in shaping the book. All this has helped to keep my spirits
high throughout the project. I thank them all. I would also like to extend my special
thanks to Chaomei Chen, Jian Chen, Mary Czerwinski, Andreas Kerren, Stephen
Kosslyn, Fred Paas, Helen Purchase, Barbara Tversky, Jack van Wijk, and Kang
Zhang for their help in one way or another.

I thank Professor Peter Eades for writing the foreword.
My sincere thanks and appreciation are also extended to Springer editors Susan
Lagerstrom-Fife and Courtney Clark for their professional help and support.
Weidong Huang
xi

Contents
Part I Visual Communication
Visualizing Thought 3
Barbara Tversky
Gryphon: A ‘Little’ Domain-Specific Programming Language
for Diffusion MRI Visualizations 41
Jian Chen, Haipeng Cai, Alexander P. Auchus, and David H.
Laidlaw
Viewing Abstract Data as Maps 63
Emden R. Gansner, Yifan Hu, and Stephen G. Kobourov
Part II Theory and Science
Individual Differences and Translational Science in the Design
of Human-Centered Visualizations 93
Tera Marie Green, Richard Arias-Hernandez, and Brian Fisher
Evaluating Visualization Environments: Cognitive, Social,
and Cultural Perspectives 115
Christopher D. Hundhausen
On the Prospects for a Science of Visualization 147
Ronald A. Rensink
Part III Principles, Guidelines and Recommendations
Toward a Better Understanding and Application
of the Principles of Visual Communication 179
Juhee Bae and Benjamin Watson
xiii

xiv Contents
Pep Up Your Time Machine: Recommendations for the Design
of Information Visualizations of Time-Dependent Data 203
Simone Kriglstein, Margit Pohl, and Michael Smuc
Using Textbook Illustrations to Extract Design Principles
for Algorithm Visualizations 227
J.
´
Angel Vel
´
azquez-Iturbide
Part IV Methods
Conceptual Design for Sensemaking 253
Ann Blandford, Sarah Faisal, and Simon Attfield
An Introduction and Guide to Evaluation of Visualization
Techniques Through User Studies 285
Camilla Forsell and Matthew Cooper
User-Centered Evaluation of Information Visualization
Techniques: Making the HCI-InfoVis Connection Explicit 315
Carla M.D. S. Freitas, Marcelo S. Pimenta,
and Dominique L. Scapin
Eye Tracking on Visualizations: Progressive Extraction
of Scanning Strategies 337
Joseph H. Goldberg and Jonathan I. Helfman
Evaluating Overall Quality of Graph Visualizations Indirectly
and Directly 373
Weidong Huang
Visual Analysis of Eye Tracking Data 391
Michael Raschke, Tanja Blascheck, and Michael Burch
User Studies in Visualization: A Reflection on Methods 411

Melanie Tory
Part V Perception and Cognition
On the Benefits and Drawbacks of Radial Diagrams 429
Michael Burch and Daniel Weiskopf
Measuring Memories for Objects and Their Locations
in Immersive Virtual Environments: The Subjective
Component of Memorial Experience 453
Matthew Coxon and Katerina Mania
Human-Centric Chronographics: Making Historical Time Memorable 473
Liliya Korallo, Stephen Boyd Davis, Nigel Foreman,
and Magnus Moar
Contents xv
Visualizing Multiple Levels and Dimensions of Social
Network Properties 513
Cathleen McGrath, Jim Blythe, and David Krackhardt
Part VI Dynamic Visualization
Adaptive Diagrams: A Research Agenda to Explore How
Learners Can Manipulate Online Diagrams to Self-Manage
Cognitive Load 529
Shirley Agostinho, Sharon Tindall-Ford, and Sahar Bokosmaty
Dynamic Visualisations and Motor Skills 551
Juan Cristobal Castro-Alonso, Paul Ayres, and Fred Paas
Dynamic Visualizations: A Two-Edged Sword? 581
Richard K. Lowe
Simultaneous and Sequential Presentation of Realistic
and Schematic Instructional Dynamic Visualizations 605
Michelle L. Nugteren, Huib K. Tabbers, Katharina Scheiter,
and Fred Paas
How Do You Connect Moving Dots? Insights from User
Studies on Dynamic Network Visualizations 623

Michael Smuc, Paolo Federico, Florian Windhager,
Wolfgang Aigner, Lukas Zenk, and Silvia Miksch
Part VII Interaction
Interaction Taxonomy for Tracking of User Actions in Visual
Analytics Applications 653
Tatiana von Landesberger, Sebastian Fiebig, Sebastian Bremm,
Arjan Kuijper, and Dieter W. Fellner
Common Visualizations: Their Cognitive Utility 671
Paul Parsons and Kamran Sedig
Distribution of Information Processing While Performing
Complex Cognitive Activities with Visualization Tools 693
Paul Parsons and Kamran Sedig
Human-Centered Interactivity of Visualization
Tools: Micro- and Macro-level Considerations 717
Kamran Sedig, Paul Parsons, Mark Dittmer, and Robert Haworth

Contributors
Shirley Agostinho Research interests: Learning Design (a formalism for docu-
menting teaching and learning practice to facilitate sharing, adaptation, and reuse by
teachers); how learners can apply cognitive load theory design principles in online
learning environments to manage their cognitive load. University of Wollongong,
Wollongong, Australia
Wolfgang Aigner Research interests: information visualization; visual analytics;
human-computer interaction; user-centred design; interaction design. Vienna Uni-
versity of Technology, Vienna, Austria
Richard Arias-Hernandez Simon Fraser University, Surrey, Canada
Simon Attfield Research interests: sensemaking; interacting with information;
visual analytics. Middlesex University, London, UK
Alexander P. Auchus Research interests: memory disorders and dementia. Uni-
versity of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, USA

Paul Ayres Research interests: cognitive load theory, multimedia learning, educa-
tional psychology. University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Juhee Bae North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA
Ann Blandford Research interests: situated use of technology; sensemaking;
interacting with information; visual analytics. University College London, London,
UK
Tanja Blascheck University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Jim Blythe University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
Sahar Bokosmaty Research interests: application of cognitive load theory design
principles in the teaching and learning of mathematics. University of Wollongong,
Wollongong, Australia
xvii
xviii Contributors
Sebastian Bremm Research interests: visual analytics, visual feature descriptor
analysis, visual tree comparison, multivariate data. Technische Universit
¨
at Darm-
stadt, Darmstadt, Germany
Michael Burch Research interests: information visualization, software visual-
ization, dynamic graph visualization, evaluation, visual analytics. University of
Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Haipeng Cai Research interests: scientific visualization and programming lan-
guage design. University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, USA
Juan Cristobal Castro-Alonso Research interests: cognitive load theory, multi-
media learning, instructional design, animations, motor skills. University of New
South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Jian Chen Research interests: human-centred computing issues in scientific
visualization, information visualization, and three-dimensional user-interaction.
University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, USA
Matthew Cooper Research interests: interactive visualization and virtual and

augmented reality. Link
¨
oping University, Link
¨
oping, Sweden
Matthew Coxon Research interests: human memory and learning: visuospatial
working memory; learning with augmented reality; and learning in virtual environ-
ments. York St. John University, UK
Stephen Boyd Davis Research interests: theory and practice of representation; uses
of spatiality; chronographics; design research. Royal College of Art, London, UK
Mark Dittmer Research interests: human-centred informatics; interactive visual-
izations; human-information interaction. Western University, London, Canada
Sarah Faisal Research interests: visualization; visual analytics. University Col-
lege London, London, UK
Paolo Federico Research interests: information visualization; visual analytics;
human-computerinteraction; dynamic networks. Vienna University of Technology,
Vienna, Austria
Dieter W. Fellner Research interests: visual computing, digital libraries, semantics
in modelling, visual analytics. Technische Universit
¨
at Darmstadt, Fraunhofer IGD,
Darmstadt, Germany
Sebastian Fiebig Research interests: visual analytics, visual tracking of user ac-
tions, data mining, statistical inference, insight provenance. Technische Universit
¨
at
Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
Brian Fisher Simon Fraser University, Surrey, Canada
Nigel Foreman Research interests: spatial cognition; neuropsychology; virtual
reality applications; research paradigms; ethics and international psychology. Mid-

dlesex University, London, UK
Contributors xix
Camilla Forsell Research interests: perceptually motivated constraints on visual-
ization and development of new methods and metrics for evaluation. Link
¨
oping
University, Link
¨
oping, Sweden
Carla M.D. S. Freitas Research interests: graph visualization, social networks
analysis, volumetric and illustrative visualization, and visualization evaluation.
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Emden R. Gansner AT&T Labs – Research, New Jersey, USA
Joseph H. Goldberg Research interests: eye tracking for usability evaluation; visu-
alization design and evaluation; visual and cognitive complexity. Oracle America,
Applications UX, Redwood Shores, USA
Tera Marie Green Simon Fraser University, Surrey, Canada
Robert Haworth Research interests: Human-computer interaction; interactive
visualizations; digital cognitive games. Western University, London, Canada
Jonathan I. Helfman Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, USA
Yifan Hu AT&T Labs – Research, New Jersey, USA
Weidong Huang Research interests: visual perception and cognition; HCI;
Visualization and human factors. CSIRO ICT Center, Marsfield, NSW, Australia
Christopher D. Hundhausen Washington State University, Pullman, USA
Stephen G. Kobourov University of Arizona, Arizona, USA
Liliya Korallo Research interests: uses of virtual environments (VEs) in Educa-
tion; spatial cognition and applications to teaching and learning of chronology; VEs
in assessment and treatment of mental health conditions. Middlesex University,
London, UK
David Krackhardt Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA

Simone Kriglstein Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
Arjan Kuijper Research interests: visual computing, mathematical basis of com-
puter vision and image analysis, scale-space. Technische Universit
¨
at Darmstadt,
Fraunhofer IGD, Darmstadt, Germany
David H. Laidlaw Research interests: applications of visualization, modelling,
computer graphics, and computer science to other scientific disciplines. Brown
University, Providence, USA
Richard K. Lowe Research interests: animations and multimedia learning, visual
literacy and learning, learning from pictures and diagrams in education. Curtin
University, Sydney, Australia
Katerina Mania Research interests: Perceptual and selective rendering algo-
rithms, human-centred simulation engineering, fidelity metrics of synthetic scenes,
xx Contributors
neuro-correlates of fidelity, eye tracking in synthetic worlds, 3D interface design,
serious games, visualization, digital cultural heritage, latency psychophysics, syn-
thetic characters. Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece
Cathleen McGrath Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, USA
Silvia Miksch Research interests: visual analytics; information visualization; in-
teraction methods; time-oriented data; plan management. Vienna University of
Technology, Vienna, Austria
Magnus Moar Research interests: locative media; novel interfaces; children’s use
of new technologies. Middlesex University, London, UK
Michelle L. Nugteren Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Nether-
lands
Fred Paas Research interests: cognitive load theory, instructional design, training
of complex cognitive and motor skills, multimedia learning, embodied cognition.
Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
University of Wollongong, Sydney, Australia

Paul Parsons Research interests: human-centred informatics; interactive visualiza-
tions; visual analytics; human-information interaction; design of cognitive activity
support tools. Western University, London, Canada
Marcelo S. Pimenta Research interests: user-centred design, usability evaluation,
software visualization. Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre,
Brazil
Margit Pohl Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
Michael Raschke University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Ronald A. Rensink Research interests: visual perception, information visual-
ization, visual attention, visual memory, machine vision, philosophy of science.
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
Dominique L. Scapin Research interests: user-centred design, human-computer
interaction. INRIA Rocquencourt, Le Chesnay Cedex, France
Katharina Scheiter Knowledge Media Research Center, T¨ubingen, Germany
Kamran Sedig Research interests: human-centred informatics; interactive visu-
alizations; visual analytics; human-information interaction; design of cognitive
activity support tools; digital cognitive games; information-rich artefacts. Western
University, London, Canada
Michael Smuc Research interests: information design, human-information inter-
action, visualization evaluation, graph comprehension, dynamic network analysis.
Danube University Krems, Krems, Austria
Huib K. Tabbers Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Contributors xxi
Sharon Tindall-Ford Research interests: cognition and instruction; how human
movement can facilitate learning (from a cognitive load theory perspective). Uni-
versity of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
Melanie Tory University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada
Barbara Tversky Research interests: spatial cognition and language, event per-
ception and cognition, diagrammatic reasoning, visual communication, sketching,
gesture. Columbia Teachers College, New York, USA

Stanford University, Stanford, USA
J.
´
Angel Vel
´
azquez-Iturbide Research interests: educational software for pro-
gramming education; innovative instruction for programming education; software
visualization. Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid, Spain
Tatiana von Landesberger Research interests: visual analytics, visual graph anal-
ysis, multivariate data. Technische Universit
¨
at Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
Benjamin Watson North Carolina State University, Raleigh, USA
Daniel Weiskopf Research interests: visualization, visual analytics, GPU methods,
computer graphics, and special and general relativity. University of Stuttgart,
Stuttgart, Germany
Florian Windhager Research interests: knowledge visualization, dynamic net-
work analysis, information design, time topography. Danube University Krems,
Krems, Austria
Lukas Zenk Research interests: dynamic network analysis, organizational net-
works, network visualization, innovation management. Danube University Krems,
Krems, Austria
Part I
Visual Communication
Visualizing Thought
Barbara Tversky
Abstract Depictive expressions of thought predate written language by thousands
of years. They have evolved in communities through a kind of informal user
testing that has refined them. Analyzing common visual communications reveals
consistencies that illuminate how people think as well as guide design; the process

can be brought into the laboratory and accelerated. Like language, visual commu-
nications abstract and schematize; unlike language, they use properties of the page
(e.g., proximity and place: center, horizontal/up-down, vertical/left-right) and the
marks on it (e.g., dots, lines, arrows, boxes, blobs, likenesses, symbols) to convey
meanings. The visual expressions of these meanings (e.g., individual, category,
order, relation, correspondence, continuum, hierarchy) have analogs in language,
gesture, and especially in the patterns that are created when people design the
world around them, arranging things into piles and rows and hierarchies and arrays,
spatial-abstraction-action interconnections termed spractions. The designed world
is a diagram.
1 Introduction
Communication in the wild is a sound and light show combining words, prosody,
facial expressions, gestures, and actions. Although it is often presumed—think of
the “letter of the law” and transcripts of trials–that meanings are neatly packaged
This paper is reprinted with permission from Topics in Cognitive Science, 2011,3, 499–535.
B. Tversky (
)
Columbia Teachers College, 525 W. 120th, New York, NY 10025, USA
Department of Psychology Bldg 420, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford University, Stanford,
CA 94305-2130, USA
e-mail:
W. Huang (ed.), Handbook of Human Centric Visualization,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-7485-2
1, © Springer ScienceCBusiness Media New York 2014
3
4 B. Tversky
into words joined by rules into utterances, in fact, other channels of communication
carry significant aspects of meaning, despite or perhaps because of the fact that
they cannot be neatly packaged into units strung together by rules (e.g., [25,
46, 68, 92, 93]). Prosody, as in irony or sarcasm, can overrule and even reverse

meanings of words, as can facial expressions. Pointing can replace words, for things,
for directions, and more, so that natural descriptions, narratives, or explanations
cannot be fully understood from the words alone (e.g., [34]). Gestures go beyond
pointing, they can show size, shape, pattern, manner, position, direction, order,
quantity, both literally and metaphorically. They can express abstract meanings,
mood, affect, evaluation, attitude, and more. Gestures and actions convey this rich
set of meanings by using position, form, and movement in space. Communication
can happen wordlessly, as in avoiding collisions on busy sidewalks or placing items
on the counter next to the cash register to indicate an intention to buy. In fact, the
shelf next to the cash register is designed to play a communicative role. Standing
next to a circle of chatting acquaintances can be a request to join the conversation.
Opening the circle is the group’s wordless response. Rolling one’s eyes can signify,
well, rolling one’s eyes. Communication in the wild combines and integrates these
modes, usually seamlessly, with each contributing to the overall meaning (e.g., [25,
35, 46, 68, 92, 140, 142]).
Gestures and actions are especially convenient because their tools, like the
tools for speech, are free, and they are always with us. But gestures, like speech,
are fleeting; they quickly disappear. They are limited by what can be produced
and comprehended in real time. These limitations render gestures abstract and
schematic. Visualizations, on paper, silk, parchment, wood, stone, or screen, are
more permanent, they can be inspected and reinspected. Because they persist,
they can be subjected to myriad perceptual processes: compare, contrast, assess
similarity, distance, direction, shape, and size, reverse figure and ground, rotate,
group and regroup; that is, they can be mentally assessed and rearranged in multiple
ways that contribute to understanding, inference, and insight. Visualizations can
be viewed as the permanent traces of gestures; both embody and are embodied.
Like gesture, visualizations use position, form, and actions in space to convey
meanings (e.g., [155]). For visualizations, fleeting positions become places and
fleeting actions become marks and forms. Here, we analyze the ways that place
and form constrain and convey meaning, meanings that are based in part in actions.

Traces of visual communication go far back into prehistory. Indeed, they are
one of the earliest signs of culture. They not only precede written language, but
also served as the basis for it (e.g, [42, 114]). Visual communications come in
myriad forms: animals in cave paintings, maps in petroglyphs, tallies on bones,
histories on columns, battles in tapestries, messages on birch bark, journeys in
scrolls, stories in stained glass windows, dramas in comics, diagrams in manuals,
charts in magazines, graphs in journals. All forms of communication entail design,
as the intent of communication is to be understood by others or by one’s self
at another time. Communication design, then, is inherently social, because to be
understood by another or by self at another time entails fashioning communications
to fit the presumed mental states of others or of one’s self at another time.