Advanced Biological Treatment Processes
Humana Press
Handbook of Environmental Engineering Series
Volume 1: Air Pollution Control Engineering. L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) 504 pp.
(2004)
Volume 2: Advanced Air and Noise Pollution Control. L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira, and Y. T. Hung (eds.)
526 pp. (2005)
Volume 3: Physicochemical Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, Y. T. Hung, and N. K. Shammas (eds.)
723 pp. (2005)
Volume 4: Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, Y. T. Hung, and N. K.
Shammas (eds.) 690 pp. (2006)
Volume 5: Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Technologies. L. K. Wang, Y. T. Hung, and N. K.
Shammas (eds.) 710 pp. (2007)
Volume 6: Biosolids Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) 820 pp.
(2007)
Volume 7: Biosolids Engineering and Management. L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and Y. T. Hung (eds.)
800 pp. (2008)
Volume 8: Biological Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira, Y. T. Hung, and N. K. Shammas
(eds.) 818 pp. (2009)
Volume 9: Advanced Biological Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and Y. T. Hung
(eds.) 738 pp. (2009)
Volume 10: Environmental Biotechnology. L. K. Wang, J. H. Tay, V. Ivanov, and Y. T. Hung (eds.)
(2009)
Volume 11: Environmental Bioengineering. L. K. Wang, J. H. Tay, S. T. Tay, and Y. T. Hung (eds.)
(2009)
VOLUME 9
HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Advanced Biological
Treatment Processes
Edited by

Lawrence K. Wang, PhD, PE, DEE
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA
Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY
Nazih K. Shammas, PhD
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA
Yung-Tse Hung, PhD, PE, DEE
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH
Editors
Lawrence K. Wang
Ex-Dean & Director (retired),
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, USA
Assistant to the President (retired),
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA
Vice President (retired),
Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY, USA


Nazih K. Shammas
Professor and Environmental Engineering Consultant
Ex-Dean & Director,
Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, USA
Advisor,
Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA


Yung-Tse Hung
Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Cleveland State University
Cleveland, OH, USA

ISBN: 978-1-58829-360-2 e-ISBN: 978-1-60327-170-7
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-170-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2008931192
c
 2009 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher
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Preface
The past 30 years have seen the emergence of a growing desire worldwide that
positive actions be taken to restore and protect the environment from the degrading
effects of all forms of pollution—air, water, soil, and noise. Because pollution is a
direct or indirect consequence of waste, the seemingly idealistic demand for “zero
discharge” can be construed as an unrealistic demand for zero waste. However,
as long as waste continues to exist, we can only attempt to abate the subsequent
pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. Three major questions usually
arise when a particular type of pollution has been identified: (1) How serious is the

pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement
justify the degree of abatement achieved? This book is one of the volumes of the
Handbook of Environmental Engineering series. The principal intention of this series is
to help readers formulate answers to the last two questions above.
The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific pollution
problems has been a major contributing factor to the success of environmental engi-
neering, and has accounted in large measure for the establishment of a “methodology
of pollution control.” However, the realization of the ever-increasing complexity and
interrelated nature of current environmental problems renders it imperative that
intelligent planning of pollution abatement systems be undertaken. Prerequisite to
such planning is an understanding of the performance, potential, and limitations of
the various methods of pollution abatement available for environmental scientists
and engineers. In this series of handbooks, we will review at a tutorial level a broad
spectrum of engineering systems (processes, operations, and methods) currently
being used, or of potential use, for pollution abatement. We believe that the unified
interdisciplinary approach presented in these handbooks is a logical step in the
evolution of environmental engineering.
Treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an engi-
neering formulation of the subject flows naturally from the fundamental principles
and theories of chemistry, microbiology, physics, and mathematics. This emphasis on
fundamental science recognizes that engineering practice has in recent years become
more firmly based on scientific principles rather than on its earlier dependency on
empirical accumulation of facts. It is not intended, though, to neglect empiricism
where such data lead quickly to the most economic design; certain engineering
systems are not readily amenable to fundamental scientific analysis, and in these
instances we have resorted to less science in favor of more art and empiricism.
Because an environmental engineer must understand science within the context of
application, we first present the development of the scientific basis of a particular
subject, followed by exposition of the pertinent design concepts and operations,
v

vi Preface
and detailed explanations of their applications to environmental quality control or
remediation. Throughout the series, methods of practical design and calculation are
illustrated by numerical examples. These examples clearly demonstrate how orga-
nized, analytical reasoning leads to the most direct and clear solutions. Wherever
possible, pertinent cost data have been provided.
Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that the
trained engineer should more firmly understand fundamental principles, be more
aware of the similarities and/or differences among many of the engineering systems,
and exhibit greater flexibility and originality in the definition and innovative solution
of environmental pollution problems. In short, the environmental engineer should,
by conviction and practice, be more readily adaptable to change and progress.
Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering has
demanded an expertise that could only be provided through multiple authorships.
Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ, within reasonable limits,
the customary personal style in organizing and presenting a particular subject area;
consequently, it has been difficult to treat all subject material in a homogeneous
manner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space, some of the authors’ favored topics
could not be treated in great detail, and many less important topics had to be merely
mentioned or commented on briefly. All authors have provided an excellent list of
references at the end of each chapter for the benefit of interested readers. As each
chapter is meant to be self-contained, some mild repetition among the various texts
was unavoidable. In each case, all omissions or repetitions are the responsibility of the
editors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication, the
question of using a consistent system of units has been a problem. Wherever possible,
the authors have used the British system (fps) along with the metric equivalent (mks,
cgs, or SIU) or vice versa. The editors sincerely hope that this duplicity of units’ usage
will prove to be useful rather than being disruptive to the readers.
The goals of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series are: (1) to cover
entire environmental fields, including air and noise pollution control, solid waste

processing and resource recovery, physicochemical treatment processes, biological
treatment processes, biosolids management, water resources, natural control pro-
cesses, radioactive waste disposal, and thermal pollution control; and (2) to employ a
multimedia approach to environmental pollution control because air, water, soil, and
energy are all interrelated.
As can be seen from the above handbook coverage, no consideration is given
to pollution by type of industry, or to the abatement of specific pollutants. Rather,
the organization of the handbook series has been based on the three basic forms in
which pollutants and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In addition, noise
pollution control is included in the handbook series.
This particular book Volume 9, Advanced Biological Treatment Processes, is a sister
book to Volume 8 Biological Treatment Processes. Both books have been designed
to serve as comprehensive biological treatment textbooks as well as wide-ranging
reference books. We hope and expect it will prove of equal high value to advanced
Preface vii
undergraduate and graduate students, to designers of water and wastewater treat-
ment systems, and to scientists and researchers. The editors welcome comments from
readers in all of these categories.
The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and support received
from their colleagues and the publisher during the conceptual stages of this endeavor.
We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and effort, and for having
patiently borne our reviews and numerous queries and comments. We are very
grateful to our respective families for their patience and understanding during some
rather trying times.
Lawrence K. Wang, Lenox, MA
Nazih K. Shammas, Lenox, MA
Yung-Tse Hung, Cleveland, OH
Contents
Preface v
Contributors xxi

1. Principles and Kinetics of Biological Processes
Nazih K. Shammas, Yu Liu, and Lawrence K. Wang 1
1. Introduction 1
2. Basic Microbiology and Kinetics 2
2.1. Microbial Growth Requirements 2
2.2. Kinetics of Microbial Growth in an Ideal Medium 4
2.3. Kinetics of Biological Growth in an Inhibitory Medium 5
2.4. Minimum Substrate Concentration 6
2.5. Mathematical Approximation for Wastewater Treatment 7
3. Kinetics of Activated Sludge Processes 8
3.1. Brief Description of Activated Sludge Processes 8
3.2. Kinetics of Completely Mixed Activated Sludge Process 9
3.3. Oxygen Requirements 15
3.4. Biosolids Production 15
4. Factors Affecting the Nitrification Process 17
4.1. Factors Affecting the Half-Velocity Coefficient, K
s
18
4.2. Factors Affecting the Maximum Rate Constant, k 20
4.3. Design Criteria of Nitrification Systems 27
5. Kinetics of the Nitrification Process 32
5.1. Analysis of Nitrification Data 32
5.2. Allosteric Kinetic Model 33
5.3. Application of M–W–C Model to Nitrification 36
5.4. Determination of Kinetic Parameters 37
6. Denitrification by Suspended Growth Systems 44
6.1. Effect of pH 45
6.2. MLSS and MLVSS 45
6.3. Effect of Temperature 46
6.4. Size of Denitrification Tank 46

6.5. Carbonaceous Matter 46
6.6. Other Requirements 47
7. Design Examples 49
7.1. Example 1 49
7.2. Example 2 50
7.3. Example 3 51
7.4. Example 4 52
Nomenclature 52
References 54
2. Vertical Shaft Bioreactors
Nazih K. Shammas, Lawrence K. Wang, Jeffrey Guild, and David Pollock 59
1. Process Description 60
2. Technical Development 63
ix
x Contents
3. Vertreat Bioreactor 67
3.1. Key Process Features and Advantages 68
3.2. Process Applications 68
3.3. Reactor Features 69
4. Process Theory and Design Basis 70
4.1. Process Fundamentals 70
4.2. Biological Properties 72
4.3. Oxygen Transfer 72
4.4. Organic Loading 76
4.5. Solids Separation 78
5. Variations of the Basic VSB 79
5.1. Single Zone Vertical Shaft Bioreactors 79
5.2. Multi-Zone Vertical Shaft Bioreactors 80
5.3. Multi-channel Vertical Shaft Bioreactors 80
5.4. Multi-Stage Vertical Shaft Bioreactors 81

5.5. Thermophilic Vertical Shaft Bioreactors 81
6. Process Design Considerations 81
7. Operation and Maintenance Considerations 84
8. Comparison with Equivalent Technology 85
8.1. Equivalent Conventional Concept 85
8.2. Land Area 86
8.3. Cost 86
8.4. Energy 88
9. Case Studies 89
9.1. Dairy Plant Wastewater Treatment 89
9.2. Refinery Wastewater Treatment 94
9.3. Municipal Wastewater Treatment 100
Nomenclature 105
References 105
Appendix 108
3. Aerobic Granulation Technology
Joo-Hwa Tay, Yu Liu, Stephen Tiong-Lee Tay, and Yung-Tse Hung 109
1. Introduction 109
2. Aerobic Granulation as a Gradual Process 110
3. Factors Affecting Aerobic Granulation 112
3.1. Substrate Composition 112
3.2. Organic Loading Rate 113
3.3. Hydrodynamic Shear Force 113
3.4. Presence of Calcium Ion in Feed 116
3.5. Reactor Configuration 116
3.6. Dissolved Oxygen 117
4. Microbial Structure and Diversity 117
4.1. Characteristics of Aerobic Granule 117
4.2. Layered Structure of Aerobic Granules 119
4.3. Microbial Diversity of Aerobic Granules 119

5. Mechanism of Aerobic Granulation 120
6. Applications of Aerobic Granulation Technology 121
6.1. High-Strength Organic Wastewater Treatment 121
6.2. Phenolic Wastewater Treatment 122
6.3. Biosorption of Heavy Metals by Aerobic Granules 123
Nomenclature 124
References 124
Contents xi
4. Membrane Bioreactors
Lawrence K. Wang and Ravinder Menon 129
1. Introduction 130
1.1. General Introduction 130
1.2. Historical Development 130
1.3. Membrane Bioreactors Research and Engineering Applications 134
2. MBR Process Description 137
2.1. Membrane Bioreactor with Membrane Module Submerged in the Bioreactor 137
2.2. Membrane Bioreactor with Membrane Module Situated Outside the Bioreactor 138
2.3. MBR System Features 139
2.4. Membrane Module Design Considerations 141
3. Process Comparison 142
3.1. Similarity 142
3.2. Dissimilarity 144
4. Process Applications 146
4.1. Industrial Wastewater Treatment 146
4.2. Municipal Wastewater and Leachate Treatments 146
5. Practical Examples 147
5.1. Example 1. Dairy Industry 147
5.2. Example 2. Landfill Leachate Treatment 148
5.3. Example 3. Coffee Industry 150
6. Automatic Control System 151

6.1. Example 4. Cosmetics Industry 152
7. Conclusions 153
7.1. Industrial Applications 153
7.2. Municipal Applications 153
Acknowledgement 153
Commercial Availability 154
References 154
5. SBR Systems for Biological Nutrient Removal
Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang 157
1. Background and Process Description 157
2. Proprietary SBR Processes 159
2.1. Aqua SBR 160
2.2. Omniflo 161
2.3. Fluidyne 162
2.4. CASS 162
2.5. ICEAS 163
3. Description of a Treatment Plant Using SBR 164
4. Applicability 165
5. Advantages and Disadvantages 165
6. Design Criteria 166
6.1. Design Parameters 166
6.2. Construction 171
6.3. Tank and Equipment Description 172
6.4. Health and Safety 173
7. Process Performance 173
8. Operation and Maintenance 175
9. Cost 175
10. Packaged SBR for Onsite Systems 177
10.1. Typical Applications 178
10.2. Design Assumptions 178

xii Contents
10.3. Performance 179
10.4. Management Needs 179
10.5. Risk Management Issues 180
10.6. Costs 180
References 180
Appendix 183
6. Simultaneous Nitrification and Denitrification (SymBio
R

Process)
Hiren K. Trivedi 185
1. Introduction 186
2. Biological Nitrogen Removal 186
2.1. Nitrification 187
2.2. Denitrification 187
2.3. Simultaneous Nitrification and Denitrification 188
3. NADH in Cell Metabolism 189
4. The Symbio
R

Process for Simultaneous Nitrification
and Denitrification 192
4.1. NADH Proportional Control Strategy 193
4.2. NADH Jump Control Strategy 195
4.3. Process Design 198
5. Case Studies 201
5.1. Big Bear, CA 201
5.2. Perris, CA 204
5.3. Rochelle, IL 205

6. Conclusion 206
Nomenclature 206
References 207
7. Single-Sludge Biological Systems for Nutrients Removal
Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas 209
1. Introduction 210
2. Classification of Single-Sludge Processes 211
3. Stoichiometric and Kinetic Considerations 213
3.1. Routes of Nitrogen Removal in Single-Sludge Systems 213
3.2. Stoichiometric and Metabolic Principles 214
3.3. Endogenous Nitrate Respiration (ENR) 215
3.4. Nitrogen Removal by ENR and Aerobic Sludge Synthesis 217
3.5. Nitrogen Removal by Substrate Nitrate Respiration and Anoxic Biosolids Synthesis 219
3.6. Design Alternatives for Compartmentalized Aeration Tanks 221
4. Multistage Single Anoxic Zone 222
4.1. Background and Process Description 222
4.2. Typical Design Criteria 225
4.3. Process Performance 226
4.4. Process Design Features 228
5. Multistage Multiple Anoxic Zones 229
5.1. Background and Process Description 229
5.2. Typical Design Criteria 232
5.3. Process Performance 233
5.4. Process Design Features 236
6. Multiphase Cyclycal Aeration 236
6.1. Background and Process Description 236
6.2. Typical Design Criteria 238
6.3. Process Performance 239
6.4. Process Design Features 240
Contents xiii

7. Phosphorus Removal by Biological and Physicochemical Technologies 240
7.1. Phosphate Biological Uptake at Acid pH 240
7.2. Emerging Phosphorus Removal Technologies 240
8. Coxsackie Wastewater Treatment Plant—A Single-Sludge Activated Sludge Plant for Carbonaceous
Oxidation, Nitrification, Denitrification, and Phosphorus Removal 242
8.1. Background Information 242
8.2. Plant Operation and Parameters 242
8.3. Performance Results 255
8.4. Solids Management 261
8.5. Sludge Chlorination Treatment 261
Acknowledgment 263
Nomenclature 264
References 264
8. Selection and Design of Nitrogen Removal Processes
Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang 271
1. Factors that Affect Process Selection 271
1.1. Wastewater Characteristics 271
1.2. Site Constraints 272
1.3. Existing Facilities 273
2. Costs 274
2.1. Capital Cost 274
2.2. Operational Cost 275
3. Design Considerations 275
3.1. Primary Settling 275
3.2. Aeration Systems 276
3.3. Mixers 277
3.4. Recycle Pumping 277
3.5. Reactor Design 277
3.6. Secondary Settling 278
3.7. Selectors 278

4. Process Design 279
4.1. Introduction 279
4.2. Summary of Design Procedures 280
5. Design Examples 281
5.1. Introduction 281
5.2. Design Example 1: Plant B with Less Stringent Limits 282
5.3. Design Example 2: Plant B with more Stringent Limits 290
5.4. Design Example 3—Plant A with Less Stringent Limits 294
5.5. Design Example 4—Plant A with More Stringent Limits 298
Nomenclature 298
References 300
List of Appendixes 303
9. Column Bioreactor Clarifier Process (CBCP)
Anatoliy I. Sverdlikov, Gennadij P. Shcherbina, Michail M. Zemljak,
Alexander A. Sverdlikov, Donald H. Haycock, Andrew Lugowski,
George Nakhla, Lawrence K. Wang and Yung-Tse Hung 313
1. Background 314
2. Introduction 314
3. Description of Novel Treatment Technology 315
3.1. Concepts of Biological Processes 315
3.2. Distinction of Biosorption and Oxidation Processes in the Pseudoliquified Activated Sludge Bioreactor 316
xiv Contents
3.3. Process Configuration 318
3.4. Operating Process Parameters 323
4. Development and Implementation of Model Pilot Plant 334
4.1. System Capabilities and Need for Technology Refinement 334
4.2. Project Objectives 335
4.3. Methodology 336
4.4. Conceptual and Detailed Design of Mobile Pilot Plant 336
4.5. Manufacturing, Installation, and Testing of the Mobile Pilot Plant 338

4.6. Development of Sampling and Monitoring Program 338
4.7. Testing of the Pilot Plant at Municipal Wastewater Facilities 339
4.8. Detailed Analysis of Pilot Plant Testing Data 340
4.9. Overall System Performance 350
4.10. Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Treatment—Process Applicability 351
5. Computer Modeling 351
5.1. Model Descriptions 351
5.2. Wastewater Characterization 352
5.3. Determination of Model Stoichiometric Coefficients 353
5.4. Process Modeling 353
6. Summary and Recommendations 360
Nomenclature 361
References 361
10. Upflow Sludge Blanket Filtration
Svatopluk Mackrle, Vladimír Mackrle, and Oldˇrich Draˇcka 365
1. Introduction 366
2. Theoretical Principles of Fluidized Bed Filtration 366
2.1. Hydrodynamic Similarity and Dimensionless Numbers 366
2.2. Characteristics of Granular Porous Medium 367
2.3. Flow Through Fixed Porous Medium 368
2.4. Filtration 369
2.5. Single Particle Sedimentation 370
2.6. Turbulent Flow 372
2.7. Coagulation 372
2.8. Hydrodynamic Disintegration of Aggregates 373
2.9. Fluidization in Cylindrical Column 373
2.10. Fluidization in Diffuser 376
2.11. Upflow Sludge Blanket Filtration 378
3. Principles of Integrated USBF Reactors Design 380
3.1. Types of Sludge Blanket 380

3.2. Water Treatment Systems with USBF 382
4. Examples of USBF Integrated Treatment Reactors Implementation 385
4.1. Chemical USBF Integrated Reactors 386
4.2. First Generation of Biological USBF Integrated Reactors 388
4.3. Second Generation of Biological USBF Integrated Reactor 394
5. Advanced Wastewater Treatment Systems 396
5.1. Upgrading of Conventional Municipal WWTP 397
5.2. Decentralized Sewerage Systems 401
5.3. Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse 403
6. Design Example of Advanced Treatment Systems 406
6.1. Upgrading of Classical Municipal WWTP 406
Nomenclature 408
References 410
Contents xv
11. Anaerobic Lagoons and Storage Ponds
Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, and J. Paul Chen 411
1. Introduction 411
2. Process Description 412
3. Applications and Limitations 413
4. Expected Process Performance and Reliability 413
5. Process Design 413
5.1. Minimum Treatment Volume 413
5.2. Waste Volume for Treatment Period 416
5.3. Sludge Volume 416
5.4. Lagoon Volume Requirement 417
5.5. Anaerobic Lagoon Design Criteria 419
5.6. Data Gathering and Compilation for Design 420
6. Energy Consumption and Costs of Anaerobic Lagoons 420
7. Waste Storage Ponds 422
7.1. Process Description 422

7.2. Process Design 422
8. Design and Application Examples 424
8.1. Example 1 424
8.2. Example 2 424
8.3. Example 3 425
8.4. Example 4 427
8.5. Example 5 429
8.6. Example 6 430
8.7. Example 7 430
Nomenclature 431
References 432
12. Vertical Shaft Digestion, Flotation, and Biofiltration
Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, Jeffrey Guild, and David Pollock 433
1. Introduction 433
1.1. Biosolids Treatment 433
1.2. Vertical Shaft Bioreactor and Vertical Shaft Digestion 434
1.3. Vertical Shaft Flotation Thickening Process 436
1.4. Gas-Phase Biofiltration 436
1.5. Biosolids Digestion and Stabilization 437
2. Principles of VSD and Optional Anaerobic Digestion 438
2.1. Theory and Principles of Aerobic Digestion 438
2.2. Theory and Principles of Optional Anaerobic Digestion 440
2.3. Combined Vertical Shaft Digestion and Anaerobic Digestion 440
3. Description, Operation, and Applications of VSD System 441
3.1. Process Description 441
3.2. Process Operation 441
3.3. Process Applications 442
4. Design Considerations of a Complete VSD System 443
4.1. Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion Using Air 443
4.2. Autothermal Thermophilic Digestion Using Pure Oxygen 444

4.3. Flotation Thickening after Vertical Shaft Digestion 445
4.4. Optional Dual Digestion System 447
4.5. Biosolids Dewatering Processes 449
4.6. Gas-Phase Biofiltration for Air Emission Control 449
4.7. Operational Controls of Biofiltration 453
xvi Contents
5. Case Study 454
5.1. Facility Design and Construction 454
5.2. Vertical Shaft Digestion Demonstration Plan 457
5.3. Design Criteria Development for Vertical Shaft Digestion 458
5.4. Capital Costs 472
6. Conclusions 473
References 474
Appendix 477
13. Land Application of Biosolids
Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang 479
1. Introduction 480
2. Recycling of Biosolids Through Land Application 480
3. Description 481
4. Advantages and Disadvantages 482
5. Design Criteria 484
6. Performance 485
7. Costs of Recycling Through Land Application 486
8. Biosolids Disposal on Land (Landfill) 487
9. Biosolids Landfill Methods 487
9.1. Biosolids-Only Trench Fill 487
9.2. Biosolids-Only Area Fill 489
9.3. Co-Disposal with Refuse 491
9.4. Landfilling of Screenings, Grit, and Ash 493
10. Preliminary Planning 493

10.1. Biosolids Characterization 493
10.2. Selection of a Landfilling Method 494
10.3. Site Selection 494
11. Facility Design 497
11.1. Regulations and Standards 497
11.2. Site Characteristics 498
11.3. Landfill Type and Design 499
11.4. Ancillary Facilities 499
11.5. Landfill Equipment 502
11.6. Flexibility, Performance, and Environmental Impacts 502
12. Operation and Maintenance 502
12.1. Operations Plan 504
12.2. Operating Schedule 504
12.3. Equipment Selection and Maintenance 504
12.4. Management and Reporting 506
12.5. Safety 506
12.6. Environmental Controls 506
13. Site Closure 507
13.1. Ultimate Use 508
13.2. Grading at Completion of Filling 508
13.3. Landscaping 508
13.4. Continued Leachate and Gas Control 508
14. Costs of Biosolids Disposal on Land (Landfill) 508
14.1. General 508
14.2. Hauling of Biosolids 509
14.3. Energy Requirements 511
14.4. Costs 512
15. Examples 512
15.1. Example 1. Typical Biosolids Application Rate Scenario 512
15.2. Example 2. Hauling of Biosolids 515

Contents xvii
Nomenclature 516
References 516
Appendix 520
14. Deep-Well Injection for Waste Management
Nazih K. Shammas, Charles W. Sever, and Lawrence K. Wang 521
1. Introduction 522
2. Regulations for Managing Injection Wells 523
3. Basic Well Designs 526
4. Evaluation of a Proposed Injection Well Site 532
4.1. Confinement Conditions 533
4.2. Potential Receptor Zones 534
4.3. Subsurface Hydrodynamics 535
5. Potential Hazards-Ways to Prevent, Detect, and Correct Them 537
5.1. Fluid Movement during Construction, Testing, and Operation of the System 537
5.2. Failure of the Aquifer to Receive and Transmit the Injected Fluids 538
5.3. Failure of the Confining Layer 538
5.4. Failure of an Individual Well 540
5.5. Failures Because of Human Error 540
6. Economic Evaluation of a Proposed Injection Well System 541
7. Use of Injection Wells in Wastewater Management 541
7.1. Reuse for Engineering Purposes 542
7.2. Injection Wells as a Part of the Treatment System 542
7.3. Storage of Municipal Wastewaters for Reuse 543
7.4. Storage of Industrial Wastewaters 543
7.5. Disposal of Municipal and Industrial Sludges 544
8. Use of Injection Wells for Hazardous Wastes Management 544
8.1. Identification of Hazardous Wastes 545
8.2. Sources, Amounts and Composition of Injected Wastes 546
8.3. Geographic Distribution of Wells 549

8.4. Design and Construction of Wells 549
8.5. Disposal of Radioactive Wastes 551
9. Protection of Usable Aquifers 553
9.1. Pathway 1: Migration of Fluids through a Faulty Injection Well Casing 553
9.2. Pathway 2: Migration of Fluids Upward Through the Annulus between the Casing
and the Well Bore 554
9.3. Pathway 3: Migration of Fluids from an Injection Zone through the Confining Strata 555
9.4. Pathway 4: Vertical Migration of Fluids through Improperly Abandoned or Improperly Completed
Wells 557
9.5. Pathway 5: Lateral Migration of Fluids from Within an Injection Zone into a Protected Portion of
Those Strata 560
9.6. Pathway 6: Direct Injection of Fluids into or Above an Underground Source of Drinking Water 562
10. Case Studies of Deep Well Injection 563
10.1. Case Study 1: Pensacola, FL (Monsanto) 564
10.2. Case Study 2: Belle Glade, FL 567
10.3. Case Study 3: Wilmington, NC 569
11. Practical Examples 571
11.1. Example 1 571
11.2. Example 2 573
11.3. Example 3 573
11.4. Example 4 574
11.5. Example 5 575
11.6. Example 6
575
xviii Contents
Nomenclature 575
References 576
Appendix 582
15. Natural Biological Treatment Processes
Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang 583

1. Aquaculture Treatment: Water Hyacinth System 583
1.1. Description 583
1.2. Applications 584
1.3. Limitations 585
1.4. Design Criteria 585
1.5. Performance 585
2. Aquaculture Treatment: Wetland System 586
2.1. Description 586
2.2. Constructed Wetlands 587
2.3. Applications 588
2.4. Limitations 589
2.5. Design Criteria 589
2.6. Performance 589
3. Evapotranspiration System 590
3.1. Description 590
3.2. Applications 592
3.3. Limitations 593
3.4. Design Criteria 593
3.5. Performance 593
3.6. Costs 593
4. Land Treatment: Rapid Rate System 594
4.1. Description 595
4.2. Applications 596
4.3. Limitations 596
4.4. Design Criteria 596
4.5. Performance 597
4.6. Costs 598
5. Land Treatment: Slow Rate System 599
5.1. Description 599
5.2. Applications 600

5.3. Limitations 601
5.4. Design Criteria 602
5.5. Performance 602
5.6. Costs 603
6. Land Treatment: Overland Flow System 605
6.1. Description 605
6.2. Application 606
6.3. Limitations 606
6.4. Design Criteria 606
6.5. Performance 607
6.6. Costs 607
7. Subsurface Infiltration 609
7.1. Description
609
7.2. Applications 612
7.3. Limitations 612
7.4. Design Criteria 612
7.5. Performance 613
References 613
Appendix 617
Contents xix
16. Emerging Suspended-Growth Biological Processes
Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang 619
1. Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment (PACT) 619
1.1. Types of PACT Systems 619
1.2. Applications and Performance 620
1.3. Process Equipment 623
1.4. Process Limitations 623
2. Carrier-Activated Sludge Processes (CAPTOR and CAST Systems) 623
2.1. Advantages of Biomass Carrier Systems 623

2.2. The CAPTOR Process 624
2.3. Development of CAPTOR Process 624
2.4. Pilot-Plant Study 624
2.5. Full-Scale Study of CAPTOR and CAST 624
3. Activated Bio-Filter (ABF) 632
3.1. Description 632
3.2. Applications 633
3.3. Design Criteria 634
3.4. Performance 634
4. Vertical Loop Reactor (VLR) 634
4.1. Description 634
4.2. Applications 635
4.3. Design Criteria 636
4.4. Performance 636
4.5. EPA Evaluation of VLR 637
4.6. Energy Requirements 638
4.7. Costs 638
5. Phostrip Process 638
5.1. Description 638
5.2. Applications 640
5.3. Design Criteria 641
5.4. Performance 641
5.5. Cost 641
Nomenclature 643
References 644
Appendix 648
17. Emerging Attached-Growth Biological Processes
Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang 649
1. Fluidized Bed Reactors (FBR) 649
1.1. FBR Process Description 650

1.2. Process Design 651
1.3. Applications 651
1.4. Design Considerations 653
1.5. Case Study: Reno-Sparks WWTP 653
2. Packed Bed Reactor (PBR) 654
2.1. Aerobic PBR 654
2.2. Anaerobic Denitrification PBR 656
2.3. Applications 658
2.4. Design Criteria 658
2.5. Performance 660
2.6. Case Study: Hookers Point WWTP (Tampa Florida) 661
2.7. Energy Requirement 663
2.8. Costs 664
xx Contents
3. Biological Aerated Filter (BAF) 665
3.1. BAF Process Description 665
3.2. Applications 667
3.3. BAF Media 667
3.4. Process Design and Performance 668
3.5. Solids Production 671
4. Hybrid Biological-Activated Carbon Systems 672
4.1. General Introduction 672
4.2. Downflow Conventional Biological GAC Systems 672
4.3. Upflow Fluidized Bed Biological GAC System (FBB-GAC) 675
References 676
Appendix 681
Appendix: Conversion Factors for Environmental Engineers
Lawrence K. Wang 683
Index 729
Contributors

J. PAUL CHEN, Ph.D. • Associate Professor, Division of Environmental Science and Engi-
neering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
O
LD
ˇ
RICH DRA
ˇ
CKA, Prof. RNDr. DrSc. • Scientific Consultant, Ecofluid Group Ltd., Brno,
Czech Republic
J
EFFREY GUILD, MS • Engineering Manager, NORAM Engineering and Constructors,
Ltd, Vancouver, BC, Canada
D
ONALD H. HAYCOCK • Conestoga-Rovers and Associates, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Y
UNG-TSE HUNG, Ph.D., P. E. , DEE • Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, USA
J
OO-HWA TAY, Ph.D., P.E . • Professor and Division Head, School of Civil and Environmen-
tal Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
S
TEPHEN TIONG-LEE TAY, Ph.D. • Associate Professor, School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Y
U LIU, Ph.D. • Assistant Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
A
NDREW LUGOWSKI • Senior Manager, Conestoga-Rovers and Associates, Waterloo,
Ontario, Canada
S

VATOPLUK MACKRLE, Prof. Ing. CSc • President, Ecofluid Group Ltd., Brno, Czech
Republic
V
LADIMÍR MACKRLE, Dr. Ing. CSc • Vice-President, Ecofluid Group Ltd., Brno, Czech
Republic
R
AVINDER MENON • Formerly Senior Principal Engineer, Industrial Biological Systems,
ONDEO Degremont Inc., Richmond, VA, USA
G
EORGE NAKHLA • Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University
of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
D
AVID POLLOCK, MS • Engineering Technical Director of Environmental Group,
NORAM Engineering and Constructors, Ltd, Vancouver, BC, Canada
C
HARLES W. SEVER • Retired, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
DC, USA
N
AZIH K. SHAMMAS, MSSE, PhD • Professor and Environmental Engineering Consultant,
Ex-Dean and Director, Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, USA; and
Advisor, Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA
G
ENNADIJ P. S HCHERBINA • Senior Manager, Research and Development Institute for
Municipal Facilities and Services, Kiev, Ukraine
A
LEXANDER A. SVERDLIKOV • Senior Manager, Wastewater Treatment Department,
Research and Development Institute for Municipal Facilities and Services, Kiev, Ukraine
xxi
xxii Contributors
A

NATOLIY I. SVERDLIKOV • Senior Manager, Wastewater Treatment Department,
Research and Development Institute for Municipal Facilities and Services, Kiev, Ukraine
H
IREN K. TRIVEDI, MSChE • Director and General Manager, Eimco Water Technologies,
GL & V India Pvt., Ltd., Bombay, India
L
AWRENCE K. WANG, Ph.D., P. E. , DEE • Ex-Dean and Director, Lenox Institute of Water
Technology, Lenox, MA, USA; Assistant to the President (retired), Krofta Engineer-
ing Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA; and Vice President (retired), Zorex Corporation,
Newtonville, NY, USA
M
ICHAIL M. ZEMLJAK • Wastewater Treatment Department, Research and Development
Institute for Municipal Facilities and Services, Kiev, Ukraine
1
Principles and Kinetics of Biological Processes
Nazih K. Shammas, Yu Liu, and Lawrence K. Wang
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BASIC MICROBIOLOGY AND KINETICS
KINETICS OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES
FACTORS AFFECTING THE NITRIFICATION PROCESS
KINETICS OF THE NITRIFICATION PROCESS
DENITRIFICATION BY SUSPENDED GROWTH SYSTEMS
DESIGN EXAMPLES
NOMENCLATURE
REFERENCES
Abstract Biological technologies can be used to treat a vast majority of organic wastewaters
because all organics could be biologically degraded if the proper microbial communities are
established, maintained, and controlled. Before environmental engineers design and operate
biological treatment systems that create the environment necessary for the effective treatment

of wastewater, a sound understanding of the fundamentals of microbial growth and substrate
use kinetics is essential. This chapter covers the above including basic microbiology and kinet-
ics, kinetics of activated sludge process, factors affecting the nitrification process, kinetics of
the nitrification process, denitrification by suspended growth systems and design examples.
Key Words Activated sludge
r
biological treatment
r
denitrification
r
kinetics
r
mathematical
modeling
r
allosteric kinetic model
r
nitrification.
1. INTRODUCTION
Microorganisms are found nearly everywhere in the biosphere and thus are a force in the
environment. In the past decades, bacteria have been intensively exploited in wastewater
treatment processes. It is therefore the task of the environmental engineer and scientist to
understand the role of microorganisms first and then use them to beneficially transform the
From: Handbook of Environmental Engineering, Volume 9: Advanced Biological Treatment Processes
Edited by: L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas and Y-T. Hung, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-170-7_1
c
 Humana Press, New York, NY 2009
1
2 N.K.Shammasetal.
particular environment, such as water or soil. Theoretically, biological technologies can be

used to treat a vast majority of organic wastewaters because all organics could be biologically
degraded if the proper microbial communities are established, maintained, and controlled.
In this regard, many environmental engineering principles have been developed for biological
wastewater treatment. Before environmental engineers design and operate biological treatment
systems that create the environment necessary for the effective treatment of wastewater, a
sound understanding of the fundamentals of microbial growth and substrate utilization kinetics
is essential.
2. BASIC MICROBIOLOGY AND KINETICS
Microorganisms are powerful and cheap bioagents of biological wastewater treatment. The
performance and stability of a biological treatment system relies on the interaction of different
species of living organisms, typically including bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa (1).
2.1. Microbial Growth Requirements
Biological processes designed for wastewater treatment must maintain rich microbial
populations and enough biomass to metabolize the soluble and colloidal organic wastes.
For a successful operation of the biological treatment process, several conditions must be
fulfilled, such as the type and concentration of organic waste (as electron donor), electron
acceptors, moisture, temperature, necessary nutrients, and the absence of toxic and inhibitory
compounds. A sound understanding of these microbial growth requirements is essential for
environmental engineers and scientists to design and manage biological wastewater treatment
systems.
2.1.1. Electron Acceptors
Aerobic and anaerobic processes are the two main biological technologies used for wastew-
ater treatment. Bacterial respirations for aerobic and anaerobic bacteria need different electron
acceptors. The choice of electron acceptors depends on which treatment process is desirable
for a specific wastewater (2). For aerobic biodegradation, dissolved oxygen (DO) serves as
the terminal electron acceptor. However, under anaerobic conditions, a variety of inorganic
compounds can be used as terminal electron acceptors, e.g., NO
3
−
, SO

4
2−,
andsoon.
In aerobic systems, the theoretical oxygen demand of an organic compound can be calcu-
lated from stoichiometry or determined by laboratory test. The theoretical oxygen demand is
the amount of oxygen required to completely oxidize the organic carbon to carbon dioxide and
water. As an example, for the complete oxidation of phenol (C
6
H
6
O) the balanced equation is
written as follows:
C
6
H
6
O
94
+ 7O
2
224
→ 6CO
2
+3H
2
O(1)
From the molecular weights in Eq. (1) the theoretical oxygen demand of phenol is: 224/94 =
2.38 mg O
2
/mg phenol.

Principles and Kinetics of Biological Processes 3
2.1.2. Moisture
Because about 75% of cellular mass is water, and water is a good medium for nutrient trans-
portation, adequate moisture concentration is strongly required in biodegradation of organic
chemicals, especially in bioremediation of contaminated soil (3). It is generally accepted that
the minimum moisture content necessary for bioremediation of contaminated soil is around
40% of saturation (4). In fact, there is no moisture-associated problem in biological wastewater
treatment processes.
2.1.3. Temperature
The performance and response of a biological system depends on temperature variation.
The effect of process temperature on microbial activity or the rate of biodegradation can be
roughly described by the following simple equation:
r
T
= r
20
α
(T −20)
(2)
where
r
T
= biodegradation rate at temperature T
r
20
= biodegradation rate at 20
◦
C
α = temperature-activity coefficient
T = temperature,

◦
C
For most of biological treatment systems, α values are in the range of 1.0 to 1.14 (5).
Different groups of bacteria have various temperature optimums. For example, methanogenic
bacteria are slow-growing bacteria with a generation time of 3 days at 35
◦
C and 50
days at 10
◦
C, indicating that methane-producing bacteria are very sensitive to changes in
temperature (1).
2.1.4. pH
Most bacteria can optimally function only at a relatively narrow pH range of 6 to 8. In
biological treatment system, once the reactor pH falls outside the optimal range, the activity
of microbial population would drop significantly, and such a decline of activity in turn causes
a serious operation problem and may result in the failure of the system (1). Consequently,
it is recommended that on-site operators need to regularly monitor the system pH and pay
attention to its changes.
2.1.5. Nutrients
Typical elementary composition of bacterial cells based on dry weight is 50% carbon, 20%
oxygen, 15% nitrogen, 8% hydrogen, 3% phosphorus and <1% each of sulfur, potassium,
sodium, calcium, iron, and magnesium (6). Microbial metabolism requires these elements
as nutrients for synthesis and energy generation. The most commonly accepted empirical
forms of activated sludge biomass are expressed as C
5
H
7
NO
2
and C

42
H
100
N
11
O
13
P(7).
The empirical formulae of bacterial cells provide a basis for calculation of the N and P
requirements for synthesis of biomass from organic waste.