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Science and Golf II
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1994
WORLD SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS
OF GOLF
Edited by A.J.Cochran
Technical Consultant
Royal and Ancient Golf Club
St. Andrews
UK
and
M.R.Farrally
Department of Physical Education
University of St. Andrews
UK
First published by E & FN Spon.

First edition 1994
Reprinted 2000.
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of
thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
E & FN Spon is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
© 1994 E & FN Spon
ISBN 0-203-47470-8 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-78294-1 (Adobe eReader Format)
ISBN 0 419 18790 1 (Print Edition)
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or
review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this
publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic
reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright
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appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning
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The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy
of the information contained in the book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or
liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
World Scientific Congress of Golf St.
Andrews, Scotland 4–8th July 1994
Held at the University of St. Andrews and approved and grant-aided by the
United States Golf Association and the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St.
Andrews
Administration Committee
A.J.Cochran

M.R.Farrally
D.Kemp
R.Price
J.I.C.Scott
A.S.Strachan
Scientific Committee
P.M.Canaway
A.J.Cochran
M.R.Farrally
L.Hardy
B.B.Lieberman
Y.Maki
R.Price
T.Reilly
M.Schofield
M.Sjogren
J.Snow
B.Stoddart
F.W.Thomas
G.Wiren
Steering Committee
A.J.Cochran
C.Dillman
M.R.Farrally
F.W.Thomas
Congress Director
M.R.Farrally
Department of Physical Education
University of St. Andrews
Congress Administrator

A.McFetridge-Kemp
vi
Contents
Author’s names and addresses xv
Foreword xxi
PART ONE THE GOLFER
1 How has biomechanics contributed to the
understanding of the golf swing?
C.J.Dillman and G.W.Lange
2
2 Usefulness of partial swings in the rehabilitation
of a golfer
L.J.Lemak, G.S.Fleisig, C.M.Welch, B.Marting
and J.E.Zvijac
12
3 Back pain in novice golfers, a one-year follow-up
G.A.Van Der Steenhoven, A.Burdorf and
E.G.M.Tromp-Klaren
20
4 Discrete pressure profiles of the feet and weight
transfer patterns during the golf swing
E.S.Wallace, P.N.Grimshaw and R.L.Ashford
28
5 Ground reaction forces and torques of
professional and amateur golfers
S.W.Barrentine, G.S.Fleisig, H.Johnson and
T.W.Woolley
36
6 The biomechanics of the shoe-ground
interaction in golf

G.Koenig, M.Tamres and R.W.Mann
46
7 A biomechanical analysis of the respiratory
pattern during the golf swing
K.Kawashima, S.Takeshita, H.Zaitsu and
T.Meshizuka
54
8 Spine and hip motion analysis during the golf
swing
59
M.McTeigue, S.R.Lamb, R.Mottram and
F.Pirozzolo
9 Centrifugal force and the planar golf swing
B.Lowe and I.H.Fairweather
70
10 Categorisation of golf swings
M.A.J.Cooper and J.S.B.Mather
77
11 Dynamic model and computer simulation of a
golf swing
S.M.Nesbit, J.S.Cole, T.A.Hartzell, K.A.Oglesby
and A.F.Radich
85
12 A concise method of specifying the geometry
and timing of golf swings
D.L.Linning
93
13 A study of the correlation between swing
characteristics and club head velocity
R.L.Robinson

102
14 Three-dimensional kinematic analysis of the
golf swing
P.A.McLaughlin and R.J.Best
111
15 One move to better ball flight
K.Kanwar and R.V.Chowgule
118
16 Common pre-swing and in-swing tendencies of
amateur golfers
E.Alpenfels
127
17 Golf development in Australia
D.Wall
135
18 Teaching methods and epistemic styles of golf
instructors
R.J.Rancourt and R.Q.Searle
145
19 Possibilities available in teaching using videos
and computers
P A.Brostedt
151
20 Research based golf: from the laboratory to the
course
D.J.Crews
155
21 Contributions of psychological, psychomotor,
and shot-making skills to prowess at golf
166

viii
P.R.Thomas and R.Over
22 Factors affecting the salience of outcome,
performance and process goals in golf
K.Kingston and L.Hardy
174
23 The self-regulatory challenges of golf
D.S.Kirschenbaum
182
24 Promotion of the flow state in golf: a goal
perspective analysis
J.L.Duda
189
25 Mental preparation for golf: achieving optimal
performance
S.Murphy
195
26 Visual performance differences among
professional, amateur, and senior amateur
golfers
B.Coffey, A.W.Reichow, T.Johnson and S.Yamane
203
27 Toward putting performance enhancement: a
methodology using quantitative feedback
P.H.Beauchamp, L.M.Landsberger,
W.R.Halliwell, R.Koestner and M.E.Ford
212
28 A study of golfers’ abilities to read greens
D.Pelz
220

29 How to lower your putting score without
improving
B.Hoadley
227
30 Comparing players in professional golf
P.D.Larkey
235
31 An analysis of 1992 performance statistics for
players on the US PGA, Senior PGA and LPGA
tours
F.Wiseman, S.Chatterjee, D.Wiseman and
N.S.Chatterjee
243
32 The Ryder Cup: an analysis of relative
performance 1980–1993
T.Hale, V.Harper and J.Herb
251
33 The ageing of a great player; Tom Watson’s
play in the US Open from 1980–1993
L.J.Riccio
258
ix
34 A unified golf stroke value scale for quantitative
stroke-by-stroke assessment
L.M.Landsberger
265
35 The search for the perfect handicap
F.J.Scheid
274
36 Outlier identification procedure for reduction of

handicaps
D.L.Knuth, F.J.Scheid and F.P.Engel
280
PART TWO THE EQUIPMENT
37 The state of the game, equipment and science
F.W.Thomas
289
38 Golf shafts—a technical perspective
G.P.Horwood
301
39 The dynamic performance of the golf shaft
during the downswing
J.H.Butler and D.C.Winfield
312
40 An investigation of three dimensional
deformation of a golf club during downswing
A.M.Brylawski
319
41 The attitude of the shaft during the swing of
golfers of different ability
J.S.B.Mather and M.A.J.Cooper
326
42 Golf shaft flex point—an analysis of
measurement techniques
A.Chou and O.C.Roberts
336
43 Kick back effect of club-head at impact
M.Masuda and S.Kojima
345
44 Experimental determination of inertia ellipsoids

S.H.Johnson
353
45 Contact forces, coefficient of restitution, and
spin rate of golf ball impact
P.C.Chou, W.Gobush, D.Liang and J.Yang
359
46 Measurement of dynamic characteristics of golf
balls and identification of their mechanical
models
S.Ujihashi
366
x
47 An analytical model for ball-barrier impact
Part 1: Models for normal impact
B.B.Lieberman and S.H.Johnson
375
48 An analytical model for ball-barrier impact
Part 2: A model for oblique impact
S.H.Johnson and B.B.Lieberman
381
49 The effects of driver head size on performance
T.Olsavsky
388
50 Video monitoring system to measure initial
launch characteristics of golf ball
W.Gobush, D.Pelletier and C.Days
395
51 The relationship between golf ball construction
and performance
M.J.Sullivan and T.Melvin

402
52 A new aerodynamic model of a golf ball in flight
A.J.Smits and D.R.Smith
411
53 An indoor testing range to measure the
aerodynamic performance of golf balls
M.V.Zagarola, B.Lieberman and A.J.Smits
421
54 Changes in golf ball performance over the last
25 years
S.Aoyama
429
55 Does it matter what ball you play?
T.Hale, P.Bunyan and I.Sewell
438
56 The golf equipment market 1984–1994
S.K.Proctor
446
57 Chemistry and properties of a high performance
golf ball coating
T.J.Kennedy III and W.Risen, Jr
453
58 Novel high acid ionomers for golf ball cover
applications
M.J.Sullivan and R.A.Weiss
461
59 A design system for iron golf clubs
S.Mitchell, S.T.Newman, C.J.Hinde and R.Jones
470
PART THREE THE GOLF COURSE AND THE GAME

xi
60 Environmental protection and beneficial
contributions of golf course turfs
J.B.Beard
478
61 The playing quality of golf greens
S.W.Baker
489
62 A method for classifying the quality of golf
green turf
T.A.Lodge and D.J.Pilbeam
502
63 The effects of light-weight rolling on putting
greens
G.W.Hamilton, Jr, D.W.Livingston and A.E.Gover
511
64 Golf ball impacts, greens and the golfer
S.J.Haake
517
65 Improving the performance of golf turf soils by
cultivation
K.W.McAuliffe, R.J.Gibbs and A.Glasgow
525
66 Soil macropore effects on the fate of phosphorus
in a turfgrass biosystem
S.K.Starrett, N.E.Christians and T.A.Austin
532
67 Experimental studies on black layer
W.A.Adams and J.N.G.Smith
538

68 The role of fungi on the development of water-
repellent soils on UK golf greens
C.A.York and N.W.Lepp
545
69 Subterranean insects and fungi: hidden costs
and benefits to the greenkeeper
A.C.Gange
553
70 A golf club on a volcano
J.R.Gomez
561
71 Response of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis
palustris) to natural organic fertilizers
C.H.Peacock and J.M.Dipaola
566
72 Characterization of localised dry spots on
creeping bentgrass turf in the United States
T.K.Danneberger and R.A.Hudson
573
73 Australian bunker sands—quantifying
payability
579
xii
R.B.Dewar, K.Y.Chan and G.W.Beehag
74 Nutrient transport in runoff from two turfgrass
species
D.T.Linde, T.L.Watschke and J.A.Borger
587
75 Impact of golf courses on ground water quality
A.M.Petrovic

598
76 Dislodgeable and volatile residues from
insecticide-treated turfgrass
K.C.Murphy, R.J.Cooper and J.M.Clark
606
77 Fate and mobility of pre-emergent herbicides in
turfgrass
H.D.Niemczyk and A.A.Krause
613
78 Reducing the environmental impact of golf
course insect management
R.L.Brandenburg
625
79 Health risk assessment from pesticide use in golf
courses in Korea—Part two
Y.H.Moon, D.C.Shin and K.J.Lee
633
80 Course design with precision and control
R.A.Ryder
640
81 The role of management planning and
ecological evaluation within the golf course
environment
A M.Brennan
649
82 The development and growth of the U.S. golf
market
J.F.Beditz
656
83 Development of golf courses: market research

and appraisal
W.G.Deddis and J.S.Hanna
665
84 Golf course development in Japan: its abnormal
supply and demand
H.Zaitsu, S.Takeshita, T.Meshizuka and
K.Kawashima
676
85 Market appraisals for new golf projects
M.G.Williamson
684
xiii
86 The database of golf in America: a guide to
understanding U.S. golf markets
J.F.Rooney, Jr and H.J.White
693
87 Targeting for success—the European golf
market
K.R.Storey
707
88 Spectators’ views of PGA golf events
H.Hansen and R.Gauthier
714
89 Golf for all? The problems of municipal
provision
J.R.Lowerson
721
90 Golf, development and the human sciences: the
swing is not the only thing
B.Stoddart

730
91 Discipline and flourish: golf as a civilising
process?
D.Collinson and K.Hoskin
739
92 Golf, media and change in Australia
B.Parker
748
Index 759
xiv
Authors’ names and addresses
The names and addresses in this list are those of the ‘contact authors’ of the papers
in this book, who are not always the first-named authors.
W.A.Adams Aberystwyth University of Wales Institute of Biological Sciences
Sir George Stapledon Building Aberystwyth SY23 3DD Tel. 0970 622302
E.Alpenfels Pinehurst Resort and Country Club Carolina Vista P.O. Box 4000
N.C. 28374–4000 USA Tel. 910 295 8121 Fax 910 295 8110
S.Aoyama Titleist and Footjoy Worldwide Fairhaven MA 02719 0965 USA Tel.
508 979 2000 Fax 508 979 3909
S.Baker Sports Turf Institute Bingley West Yorkshire BD16 1AU UK Tel. 0274
565131 Fax 0274 561891
J.B.Beard International Sports Turf Institute 1812 Shadowood Drive College
Station TX 77840 USA Tel. 409 693 4066 Fax 409 693 4878
P.Beauchamp Canadian Olympic Association 2380 Pierre Dupuy Montreal, Que
H3C 3R4 Tel. 514 861 3371 Fax 514 861 2896
J.Beditz National Golf Foundation 1150 South US One, Suite 401 Florida 33477
USA Tel. 407 744 6006 Fax 407 744 6107
R.Brandenburg Department of Entomology North Carolina State University
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Box 7613 Raleigh, NC 27695 7613
USA Tel. 919 515 2703

A.M.Brennan Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology University of Kent
Canterbury CT27NX UK Tel/Fax 0843 831291
P.A.Brostedt Villagatan 4 114 32 Stockholm Sweden
A.Brylawski Lehigh University Packard Lab 19 Memorial Drive West Bethlehem
PA 18015 3085 USA Fax 610 758 6224
J.H.Butler True Temper Sports 8706 Dearfield Drive Olive Branch MS 38654
USA Tel. 601 895 3535 Fax 601 895 8668
A.Chou Titleist and Footjoy Worldwide 2839 Loker Ave. East Carlsbad CA
92008 USA Tel. 619 929 8850 Fax 619 929 8731
P.C.Chou Drexel University Dept of Mechanical Engineering 32nd and Chestnut
Streets PA 19104 USA Tel. 215 895 2288 Fax 215 895 1478
B.Coffey College of Optometry Pacific University Forest Grove Oregon 97116
USA Tel. 503 224 2323 Fax 503 359 2261
D.Collinson The University of Warwick Warwick Business School Coventry CV4
7AL UK Tel. 0203 524306 Fax 0203 523719
M.A.J.Cooper Dept of Mechanical Engineering University of Nottingham
Nottingham NG7 2RD UK Tel. 0602 513819 Fax 0602 513800
D.J.Crews Arizona State University Dept of Exercise Science and Physical
Education Box 870404 Tempe AZ 85287–1004 USA Tel. 602 965 4718
K.Danneberger The Ohio State University Department of Agronomy 2021
Coffey Road Columbus, OH 43210–1086 USA Tel. 614 292 2001 Fax 614 292
7162
W.G.Deddis University of Ulster Department of Surveying Newtownabbey
County Antrim BT37 0QB Northern Ireland Tel. 0232 365131 ext. 2565 Fax
0232 362826
R.Dewar Australian Turfgrass Research Institute Research Laboratories 68
Victoria Avenue Concord West N.S.W 2138 Australia Tel. 02 736 1233 Fax 02
743 6348
C.J.Dillman Steadman Hawkins Sports Medicine Foundation 181 West Meadow
Drive Suite 1000 Vail, Colorado 81657 USA Tel. 303 479 9797 ext. 271 Fax 303

479 9753
J.L.Duda Dept of Health Kinesiology and Leisure Studies 1362 Lambert West
Lafayette IN 47907–1362 USA Fax 317 496 1239
G.S.Fleisig American Sports Medicine Institute 1313 13th Street South P.O. Box
550039 Birmingham AL 35255–0039 USA Tel. 205 918 0000 Fax 205 918 0800
A.C.Gange Dept of Biology Royal Holloway University of London Egham
Surrey, TW20 0EX UK Tel. 0784 443773 Fax 0784 470756
W.Gobush Titleist and Footjoy Worldwide PO Box 965 Fairhaven MA 02719
0965 USA Tel. 508 979 2000 Fax 508 979 3909
J.R.Gomez c/o Joaquin Mir, 11 Tafira Alta 35017 Las Palmas De Gran Canaria
Canary Islands Spain Tel. 928 35 06 40 Fax 928 35 11 11
S.Haake University of Sheffield Dept of Mechanical and Process Engineering
Mappin Street Sheffield, S1 4DU UK Tel. 0742 768555 Fax 0742 753671
T.Hale West Sussex Institute of Higher Education Bishop Otter College College
Lane Chichester W Sussex, PO19 4PE UK Tel. 0243 787911 Fax 0243 536011
G.W.Hamilton Penn State University University Park PA 16802–3504 USA Tel.
814 865 6541 Fax 814 863 7043
xvi
H.Hansen University of Ottowa Faculty of Health Sciences School of Human
Kinetics 125 University, PO Box 450 Stn A Ottawa, KIN 6N5 Canada Tel. 613
564 5920 Fax 613 564 7689
B.Hoadley 16 Williamson Court Middletown NJ 07748 USA Tel. 908 671 6105
G.Horwood TI Apollo Ltd Oldbury, Warley West Midlands B69 2DF UK Tel.
021 544 7654 Fax 021 544 4519
S.H.Johnson Lehigh University Mechanical Engineering Packard Lab 19
Memorial Drive West Bethlehem Pennsylvania 18015 3085 USA
R.Jones Dept of Manufacturing Engineering Loughborough University of
Technology Leicestershire, LE11 3TU UK Tel. 0509 263171 Fax 0509 267725
K.Kanwar Chapsey Terrace 30 Altamount Road Bombay 400 026 India Tel. 91
22 3861526

K.Kawashima Nihon University Biomechanics Laboratory College of
Agricultural and Veterinary Medicine, Fujisawa Japan Fax 81 466 82 4691
T.Kennedy Spalding Sports Worldwide 425 Meadow Street, Chicopee MA
01021 0901 USA Tel. 413 536 1200 Fax 413 536 4831
K.Kingston Dept of Sport Health and Physical Education University of Wales,
Bangor Gwynedd LL57 2DG UK Tel. 0248 382756 Fax 0248 371053
D.S.Kirschenbaum Center for Behavioral Medicine 676 North St Clair Suite
1790, Chicago Illinois 60611 USA Fax 312 751 6976
D.L.Knuth USGA Far Hills NJ 07931 0708 USA Tel. 908 234 2300 Fax 908 234
9687
A.A.Krause Plant Protection Institute ul. Zwirki i Wigury 73 87–100Torun
Poland
L.M.Landsberger PO Box 491 Westmount Quebec Canada H3Z 2T6 Tel. 514
848 8741 Fax 514 938 1705
P.D.Larkey Carnegie Mellon University School of Public Policy and
Management Pittsburgh Pennsylvania 15213–3890 USA Tel. 412 268 3034
L.J.Lemak American Sports Medicine Institute 1313 13th Street South
Birmingham AL 35255–0039 USA Tel. 205 918 0000 Fax 205 918 0800
B.B.Lieberman 451 West Broadway New York NY 10012 USA Tel. 212 257
5023 Fax 212 257 7983
D.Linning 26 Cinnamon Lane Fearnhead Warrington WA2 0BB UK Tel. 0295
821957
xvii
T.A.Lodge Sports Turf Research Institute Bingley West Yorkshire BD16 1AU
UK Tel. 0274 565131 Fax 0274 561891
B.Lowe 25 Arabin Street Keilor Victoria 3036 Australia Tel. 61 3 336 4615 Fax
61 3 282 2444
M.Masuda Shonan Institute of Technology Department of Electrical Engineering
Tujido, Fujisawa 251 Japan Tel. 81 466 34 4111 Fax 81 466 35 8897
J.S.B.Mather Dept of Mechanical Engineering University of Nottingham

Nottingham NG7 2RD Tel. 0602 513773 Fax 0602 513800
K.W.McAuliffe NZ Turf Culture Institute Fitzherbert Science Centre PO Box
347 Palmerston North New Zealand Tel./Fax 06 356 8090
P.McLaughlin Centre for Rehabilitation Victoria University of Technology PO
Box 14428 MMC Melbourne Australia Tel. 61 3 248 1115 Fax 61 3 248 1009
M.McTeigue SportSense Inc. 1931 B Old Middlefield Way Mountain View CA
94043 USA Tel. 407 624 8400 Fax 415 965 4123
T.Melvin Spalding Sports Worldwide 425 Meadow Street Chicopee MA 01021
0901 USA Tel. 413 536 1200 Fax 413 536 1404
T.Meshizuka 3–11–2–404 Soshigaya Setagaya-ku Tokyo 157 Japan Tel. 03 3484
8915 Fax 03 3484 9821
Y.Moon Dept of Preventive Medicine Yonsei University College of Medicine
CPO Box 8044 Seoul 120 Korea Fax 82 2 392 0239
K.Murphy Turfgrass Science University of Massachusetts Stockbridge Hall
Amherst MA 01003 USA Fax 413 545 1242
S.M.Murphy Athlete Performance Division United States Olympic Committee
One Olympic Plaza Colorado Springs Colorado 80909–5760 USA Tel. 719 578
4516 Fax 719 632 5194
S.M.Nesbit Layfette College Engineering Division Easton PA 18042 USA Tel.
215 250 5435
T.Olsavsky Titleist and Footjoy Worldwide 2839 Loker Avenue East Carlsbad
CA 92008 USA Tel. 619 929 8850 Fax 619 929 8731
B.Parker Australian Golf Digest Australia
C.H.Peacock North Carolina State University Department of Crop Science
Raleigh NC 27695 7620 USA Tel. 919 515 2647 Fax 919 515 2647
D.Pelz 1200 Lakeway Drive Suite 21, Austin Texas 78734 USA Tel. 512 261
6493 Fax 512 261 5391
xviii
A.Petrovic Cornell University Dept of Floriculture 20 Plant Science Building
Ithaca, NY 14853–5908 USA Tel. 607 255 1789 Fax 607 255 9998

S.Proctor Sports Marketing Surveys Byfleet Business Centre Chertsey Road
Byfleet KT14 7AW UK Tel. 0932 350600 Fax 0932 350375
R.J.Rancourt University of Ottawa 145 Jean-Jacques-Lussier PO Box 450 Stn A
Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5 Canada Fax 613 564 7689
L.Riccio 315 East Sixty-Ninth St Apartment 9J New York 10021 USA Tel. 908
234 2300 Fax 908 234 9687
R.Robinson East 3020 Packsaddle Drive Coeur D’Alene Idaho 83814 USA Tel.
208 772 4342
J.F.Rooney 308 Geography Building Oklahoma State University Stillwater
Oklahoma 74078–0177 USA Tel. 405 744 6250 Fax 405 744 5620
R.A.Ryder Ryder Golf Services 50 Gally Hill Road Church Crookham GU13 0QF
UK Tel. 0252 617542 Fax 0252 812082
F.Scheid 135 Elm Street Kingston MA 02364 USA Tel. 617 585 6866 Fax 617
585 8201
A.Smits Dept of Mechanical Engineering Princeton University PO Box CN5263
Princeton NJ 08544 5263 USA Tel. 609 258 5117 Fax 609 258 2276
S.K.Starrett Iowa State University of Science and Technology College of
Agriculture Department of Horticulture Horticulture Building Ames, Iowa
50011–1100 USA Tel. 515 294 2751 Fax 515 294 0730
B.Stoddart Faculty of Communication University of Canberra Kirinari Street PO
Box 1 Belconnen ACT 2616 Australia Tel. 61 6 201 2111 Fax 61 6 201 5119
S.K.Storey Sports Marketing Surveys Ltd. Byfleet Business Centre Chertsey
Road Byfleet KT14 7AW UK Tel. 0932 350600 Fax 0932 350375
M.Sullivan Spalding Sports Worldwide 425 Meadow Street PO Box 901
Chicopee MA 01021 0901 USA Tel. 413 536 1200 Fax 413 536 1404
M.Tamres Department of Mechanical Engineering Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Cambridge MA 02139 USA Tel. 617 253 5334 Fax 617 258 7018
F.W.Thomas USGA Far Hills NJ 07931 USA Tel. 908 234 2300 Fax 908 234
0138
P.R.Thomas Griffith University Faculty of Education Queensland 4111 Australia

Tel. 61 7 875 7111 Fax 61 7 875 5910
S.Ujihashi Tokyo Institute of Technology 2–12–1 Oh-okayama, Meguru-ku
Tokyo 152 Japan Tel. 3 3726 1111 ext. 2158 Fax 3 3726 9174
xix
G.A.Van der Steenhoven State University of Leiden PO Box 2360 2301 CJ
LEIDEN The Netherlands Tel. 071 177461 Fax 071 177084
D.Wall Australian Golf Union 153–155 Cecil Street South Melbourne Victoria
3205 Australia Tel. 03 699 7944 Fax 03 690 8510
E.Wallace Sport and Leisure Studies University of Ulster Newtownabbey Co
Antrim BT37 0QB Northern Ireland Tel. 0232 365131 Telex 747493
T.L.Watschke Penn State University 116 Agricultural Sciences and Industries
Building University Park PA 16802–3504 USA Tel. 814 865 6541 Fax 814 863
7043
M.G.Williamson TMS Advertising Ltd 10A Rutland Square Edinburgh EH1
2AS UK Tel. 031 228 8969 Fax 031 228 8979
F.Wiseman Northeastern University College of Business Administration 414
Hayden Hall Boston MA 02115 USA Tel. 617 373 3260 Fax 617 373 2056
C.York Sports Turf Research Institute Bingley West Yorkshire BD16 1AU UK
Tel. 0274 565131 Fax 0274 561891
M.V.Zagarola Dept of Mechanical Engineering Princeton University PO Box
CN5263 Princeton NJ 08544 5263 USA Tel. 609 258 5117 Fax 609 258 2282
xx
Foreword
The papers contained within this book were presented at the World Scientific
Congress of Golf held at the University of St Andrews from 4th to 8th July, 1994.
The papers and their authors represent a wide diversity not only of sciences
themselves, but also of vocations—including golfers who also happen to be
scientists, scientists who see interesting applications in golf, scientifically
minded coaches and professional scientists working for equipment
manufacturers. The common element is a burning interest in the game and the

desire to find out more and establish hard evidence on their particular aspects of
it.
In producing this book we have followed the same policy as at the first
Congress, held in 1990, namely of issuing it in time for distribution at the
Congress. This imposes quite strict deadlines on authors and reviewers and we
wish to thank all of them for their co-operation.
The papers are grouped into three Parts, entitled The Golfer, The Equipment,
and The Golf Course and the Game. Within each Part, similar topics are located
as near to each other as possible.
Much of the work reported here was done primarily for interest’s sake; but we
believe that coaches, equipment designers, golf course maintainers, designers
and planners and inquiring golfers generally, as well as scientific researchers,
will find something in the book that is of use to them as well as of interest.
Alastair Cochran
Martin Farrally
The World Scientific Congress of Golf acknowledges financial support from
the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews and the United States Golf
Association. It also receives patronage from the International Council of Sport
Science and Physical Education through the World Commission of Sports
Biomechanics.
xxii
Part One
The Golfer
1
How has biomechanics contributed to the
understanding of the golf swing?
C.J.Dillman and G.W.Lange
Steadman-Hawkins Sports Medicine Foundation, Vail, Colorado,
USA
Abstract

Research on the biomechanics of the golf swing has been carried out to
understand and improve a golfer’s performance. A summary of all research
applied to the golf swing was provided in an attempt to interpret current
scientific knowledge for its practical application. Most investigations have
focused on wrist cocking and uncocking, ground reaction forces, and
electromyography of the upper body. These studies alone, do not
completely describe this most interesting and complex skill. For this
reason, it is essential to adopt a more holistic approach to research on the
golf swing through three-dimensional modelling of the golfer for
determining the kinematics and kinetics of the entire link system.
Keywords: Biomechanics, EMG, Golf, Ground Reaction Forces, Wrist
Action.
Introduction
In attempting to understand a complex movement such as the golf swing,
scientists must describe the movement, analyze specific components, and then
compare groups or equipment. The scientist’s goal is to provide evidence that
helps the golfer execute a swing to produce maximum distance, accuracy,
control, and consistency in each golf shot
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. It is the translation of a scientists