KHAI NIEM,
CAU TRUC VA THAO TAC

TUDUYPHEPHAN

Bai viet nay la mot phan ket qua nghien ciJu cOa 6e tai cap co sd: Nghien aiu xay dimg
cong cu danti gia nang life tu duy piie p/ian cho hoc sinh trung hgc ca so; Vien Nghien ciJu Si/
pham - Trudng Oai hoc Su pham IHa Noi chii tri; ThS. NguySn Thj Hang lam chu nhiem.
Phan Trpng Ngo
Nguyen Thj Hang
Tn/dng Dm hpc Supham Ha Npi.

TOIVI TAT
Bdi viet pfidn lich cdch tiep can tu duy phe phdn tit chuc ndng gidm sdt. idem
sodt, thdtn dinh vd ra quyet dinh "phe phdn " cua tu duy. Tit do xdc dinh mot cdu true
dong ciia tu duy phe phdn, vdi cdc pha dupe van hanh bai he thong thao tdc tu duy
tuang ting, dien ra trong he sinh thdi cua tu duy phe phdn. Cdc pha, cdc thao tdc eua
tu duy phe phdn vd cdc yeu to thupc mdi trudng sinh thdi ciia tu duy phe phdn deu co
the dupe tich phdn thdnh nhieu yeu to mang tinh ltrdi nghiem irong cupc sdng cua cd nhdn vd day hpc trong nhd trudng. Cdch tiep can
vd cdu true ve tu duy phe phdn dupe phdn tich trpng bdi viet id nhiing vdn de cdn it
dupe de cdp trong nghien cuu hien nay ve tu duy phe phdn.
Tir l^hoa: Phe phdn: Tu duy phe phdn; Cdu trite tu duy phe phdn: Thac tdc tu
duy phe phdn.
Ngdy nhdn bdi: 31/12/2019; Ngdy duyet ddng bdi: 25/1/2020.
1. fiat van de
Phe phan va tu duy phe phan viia la ciiu canh vua la phuong tien thuc
iiy sir lira chgn trong hoat dong, thich ling va phat trien ciia ca nhan. Phe phan
va tu duy phe phan la mot phln tit ygu trong nhan thiic cung nhu trong moi
hoat dong cua ca nhan va cpng dong.
Trong hoat dong nhan thuc, tu duy phe phan luon gan vdi tu duy giai

quyet van &k va tu duy sang tao; la thanh phln khong the thieu ciia tu duy sang
tao. Sang tao co chiic nang tim Itilm va tao ra cai mdi trong nhan thiic, trong
khoa hoc, cong nghe, nghe thuat va trong cuoc sdng, con phe phan gop phan dac
luc vao viec phat hiSn va hoan thien cai mdi do. Trong hoat dong sang tao, su

TAP CHI TAIM L ? HOC, sa' 2 (251), 2 - 2020


phe phan thuc hien chiic nang giam sat va thSm dinh qua trinh nay sinh y tuong
va y tudng dugc nay sinh. Khong cd phe phan, cai mdi Idiong dugc phat 16.
Ddi vdi hoc sinh, phe phan va tu duy phe phan gop phan quyet dinh su
hinh thanh tri thirc, ky nang, thai do va nang lire trong hoc tap, tu duong.
Khdng CO phe phan, hoc sinh chi dap thu mot chigu nhirng thdng tin tir ngoai
va "cit giil" chung trong tri nhd nhu giil trong binh chua. Khdng cd phe phan,
cac em khdng xac dinh dugc muc do diing hay sai; nong can hay sau sac; phu
hgp hay khdng; tich cue hay tieu cue; cd gia tri hay khong... cua cac kien thirc,
thai dp, hanh dpng cua minh va cua ngudi khac. Vi th6, hpc sinh chua thuc sir
biln nhirng thir dupe hpc ui nha trudng thanh cai cua minh, do minh va yi
minh; cac em chua trd thanh "chu nhan" cua chung; viec hpc dugc chi phdi bdi
khudn mlu tit duy a dua, mot chieu, thieu ddc lap va sang tao.
Trong vai thap nien gSn day, ttr duy phe phan va tu duy sang tao ducrc
nghien ciru kha nhiSu. Tuy nhien, trong khi tu duy sang tao tro nen tuong ddi
ro rang, cd thS thao tac va thiic dSy su phat triln trong cupc sdng (Pham Thanh
Nghi, 2012; Phan Dung, 2010); trd thanh muc tieu cua Chuang trinh giao due
phd thdng mdi (Bg Giao due va Dao tao, 2018), thi phe phan va tu duy phe
phan van cdn rk "mil md". Hang loat vSn de nhu phe pjian la gi? The nao la tu
duy phe phan, ban chSt va cju triic eua no...? Trong giao due nha trudng,
nhu'ng vin di quan trpng nhu cd hay khdng sir khac nhau ve tu duy phe phan 6
hgc sinh cip tidu hpc, trung hpc co sd va trung hgc phd thong? Neu cd thi su
khac nhau la gi va lam the nao dS ung xir phu hgp vdi su phat triin theo tirng

lua tudi...? Rd rang nhung van de tren va nhieu van de khac rat can dugc lam
sang td va dugc thdng nhat d mire dp can thiet; tao ca so cho viec xac dinh npi
dung va phuong phap phat trien tu duy phe phan eho hoc sinh. Bai viet gop
phan vao viec giai dap nhirng van de tren.
2. Noi dung
2.1. Khdi niem tie duy phe phdn
2.1.1. Phe phdn Id mot thupc tinh ciia cd nhdn, mot cong cu nhan thuc
Tir "criticar, trong tieng Hy Lap cd dugc ghep boi hai tit; "Icriticos" va
•"criterion". "Kriticos" la sir danh gia sang sudt va "criterion" nghia la tieu chuin.
"'Critical" cd nghia la "OT ddnh gid sdng sudt dua tren tieu chudn nlidt dinh".
Nhidu nha nghien curu da dinh nghia vd phe phan (McPeck, 1981; Chaffee,
1999; Anderson, 1997; Diane, 2011; Scott, 2008...). Theo Diane, phe phan la
sir xem xet can than, cd tinh toan dua tren bSng chung cu thd, di di den nhan
dinh clidp nhan, bdc ba hoac tam ngieng ddnh gid tinh dung din cua mdt thdng
tin (Diane, 2011). Cdn Scott cho rang, su phe phan dupe xay dung tren nhirng

TAP CHI TAM LY HOC, Sd 2 (251), 2 - 2020


suy nghi, quan diim, niSm tin cua ca nhan, vdi nhitng bang churng xac dang,
nham tim ra nhirng diSm cin phan bac, chirng minh nghi ngd cua minh la dung
va dua ra kit luan mdi tdt hon (Scott, 2008). Nguyen Khac Vien dinh nghTa
don gian; Phe phan la kha nang kilm tra, thao luan ve nhirng y kien, du luan
trudc khi tidp nhan hay gat bd, ciing nhu kiem tra, suy nghi ve thai dp hay each
img xii ciia mot con ngudi, mot tap the (Nguyen Khac Vien, 1991).
Phe phan xuit hien trong qua trinh phat trien nhan thitc, tu duy, tri tue va
thai dp cua ca nhan, bieu hien qua cac cdu hoi vl sao, cdc phdn img co tinh lua
chon trong viec hinh thdnh cdc cdu trite nhan thirc va dcto due ciia tre em tir khi
con nhd den tudi trudng thanh (Piaget, 2013, 2017, 2016). Thieu kha nang phe
phan la trieu chirng thudng gap d nhirng ngudi tri luc kem hoac lao hda sdm;

cdn sir phe phan qua mire can thiet la diu hieu ciia hpi chirng Paranoia (Nguyen
Khic Vien, 1991).
Nhu vay, tuy cd sir khac nhau ve chi tiet va each dien dat nhung nhieu
nha nghien curu thdng nhat cho rang, phe phan (bao gdm ca tu phe phan) la dac
trung ciia eon ngudi, the hien sir gidm sdt, kiem tra, ddnh gid vd sdng Ipc trong
nhdn thirc, khoa hoc, tu tudng, thdi do, dao dire vd hdnh dong ciia minh, ciia
ngudi khde vd cua xd hpi, de di den quyet dinh chdp nhan hay loai bd chiing.
Neu thieu kha nang phe phan hoac cue doan, ca nhan d trong trang thai bat
binh thucmg ve tri lire, lao hda hoac benh ly.
Trong hoat dpng ciia con ngudi, dac biet la trong hoat dong nhan thitc,
phe phdn Id mot phuong thirc, mot cong cii sdng loc cac yeu td trong nhan
thiic, thai dp va hanh dpng cua ca nhan.
Ngay tir co dai, Socrates, sau dd la Plato da diing lap luan, ly le (reason)
de phan bdc ngudi khac hay tu phan bac nhitng didm sai, phien dien, khong
phii hgp cua cac khai quat chua diiy du trong qua trinh hinh thanh tri thuc, thai
dp, dao dire hay hanh dpng (Socrates - theo Plato, 2004), Aristotes sir dung phe
phan de hinh thanh logic hoc theo phuong phap suy luan diln djch (Aristotes trong Honderich, 2002). Descartes (2005) da phat triSn nguyen ly hodl nghi
khoa hoc trong phe phan ly tinh. Dinh cao cua viec sir dung phe phan la cdng
cu nhan thuc, dugc the hien trong cac tac phim kinh dien cda Kant (Phe phan
ly tinh thuan tiiy, 2005; Phe phdn my hoc, l<)i)l va Phe phdn thtec hdnh dao dire,
2007). Ngay nay, trong bit ky cdng trinh ly luan hay thuc tien cd uy tin nao ve
triet hpc, khoa hgc, cdng nghe, nghe thuat, van hda, nhan hgc, dao dire, kinh te,
xa hpi V.V., deu ed sir phe phan sau sic cua tac gia cac cdng trinh dd.
2.1.2. Xdc dinh mot dinh nghia co tinh lam viec ve tu duy phe phan
2.1.2.1. Diem qua cac dinh nghia v§ tu duv phe phan

TAP CHf TAM ly HOC, Sd' 2 (251), 2 - 2020


Sir phe phan dugc thuc hien bang tu duy phe phan. Cd rat nhieu dinh

nghia ve tu duy phe phan. Cd thd khai quat thanh bdn nhdm chinh:
(i) Tu duy phe phdn duac hliu id loai tu duy hud'ng din gidi quyet van
di theo cdc chien luac tu duy cua ed nhdn. Trong tac pham "How we think ,
Dewey (1997) da md ta tu duy cua ca nhan la mot he thdng phuc hgp va tich
cue, nhim thdng hidu vin dS va san sinh ra cai mdi, trong dd cdt loi la tuduy
phdn lu (reflective thinking) va suy luan logic Tu duy phi phdn chinh Id su
suy xet chit dpng. Hen tuc, than trong vi mdt niim tin, mpt gid dinh khpa hpc
CO tinh din ly le bdo ve no vd nhung kit ludn xa han (Dewey, 1997). Theo Diane,
tu duy phe phan la tu duy cd muc dich, bao gdm giai quyit van de, hinh thanh
suy luan, tinh toan va dua ra' quyet dinh dung, cd he thdng va nhiing kha iiang cd
thi xay ra (Diane, 2011). Sternberg cho ring, tu duy phe phan la mot chien luge
tri tue ma con ngudi sii dung trong viec giai quydt vin dd, ra quyet djnh va hgc
hdi nhiing khai niem, quan niem mdi (Sternberg, 1994);
(ii) Tu duy phe phdn Id su phdn tu ciia tu duy. Theo hudng nay, tu duy
phe phan dugc dinh nghia la tu duy vl tu duy ciia ca nhan, dl dua ra suy nghi
tdt hon, dua tren mot tu tudng khach quan (Brooker va Paul, 1998); la tu duy
dang thim dinh chinh minh (Watson, 2009); la naiig lire suy nghi vl tu duy cua
minh; nhan ra mat manh, mat ylu ciia nd, tu dd, td chiic lai trong hinh thirc da
dugc cai thien (Lauren, 2004); la tu duy phan anh/phan tinh cd suy luan, tap
trung vao viec quyet dinh cai gi nen tin hay nen lam (Ennis, 1987);
(iii) Dinh nghia Tu duy phe phdn vol tu cdch Id qud trinh phdn tich,
ddnh gid, phu dinh hay khdng dinh cdc thong tin, dU lieu, cam xitc hay hdnh
dong ciia minh vd cua nguai khde. Theo Crocker, tu duy phe phan la qua trinh
bien chiing gdm phan tich va danh gia cac thdng tin theo cac gdc nhin khac
nhau, nham lam sang td va khang dinh lai tinh dung dan cua thong tin dd
(Crocker, 1992). Bono cho rang, tu duy phe phan vach ra nhirng mau thuan
hoac khdng nhat quan tdn tai trong ly luan hay trong hanh dgng ciia mdt ddi
tupng nao dd (Bono, 1985). Beyer djnh nghia, tu duy phe phan cd nghia la dua
ra nhOng danh gia/lap luan hgp ly vl cac tuyen bd, y tuong mdi, nhitng tranh
luan, nghien ciru, v.v. (Beyer, 1995);

(iv) Ngoai ra, mdt sd ngudi dinh nghia tu duy phe phdn theo cdch khdi
qudt nhirng nang lire, ky ndng, nhimg thao tdc cdn duac trlin khai. Russell coi
tu duy phe phan la nang luc phe phan cua ca nhan vdi cac dac trung: nang luc
hinh thanh y kien, quan diem rieng; tim kiem giai phap; nang lire nhan ra va
phan bac cac gia djnh (Russell, 1992). Trong tai lieu "Critical thinking skills"
(Ky nang tu duy phe phan), Cottrell da khai quat tu duy phe phan la qua trinh
suy xet phirc tap, bao gdm mot loat ky nang va thai do: nhan biet lap trudng;

TAP CHI TAM L t HOC, SS2 (251), 2 - 2020


danh gia, so sanh cac chiing cit, cac dir lieu; nhan bilt y dd; tai hien vin dl;
hinh thanh kit luan va trinh bay quan diim rieng (Cottrell, 2005).
2.1.2.2. Dinh nghia cd tinh lam viec ve tu duv phe phan
N I U xem xet rieng tirng djnh nghia hien cd ve tu duy phe phan se nhan
thay mot sd diim bit hgp ly: Md rdng qua muc pham vi ciia tu duy phe phan,
din din lam md ranh gidi giiia tu duy phe phan vdi cac loai tu duy khac (nhdm I);
hoac quy gian qua mire vao cac thao tac phan tu cua tu duy, cho dii phan tu la
cdt loi ciia tu duy phe phan (nhdm II); Cae dinh nghia dua vao tinh chat phe
phan hoac ky nang trien khai (nhdm III va nhom IV) tuy da tiem can toi mot so
thao tac cua tu duy phe phan, nhung chua lam ro chuc nang cua loai tu duy
nay; chua nhan manh su thong hieu va phan tu - la cae yeu td cdt loi ciia tu duy
phe phan. Vi vay, de cd dinh nghia vira ed tinh he thdng vita cd the thao tac
hda trong thue tien vl tu duy phe phan va phat trien nd, can tich hop mang tinh
phe phdn cae djnh nghia da cd, tren ca sd xac dinh dugc "tpa dp" eua nd trong
he thdng tu duy.
Tu duy la mot he thdng (Bohm, 2011), bao gdm nhieu cap do: tu duy
v6 thitc va tu duy y thitc. Tu duy y thirc la ttr duy bdc cao, dugc dac trung bdi
cdc thao tdc tri 6c (phdn tich, tong hop, triru tugng hda, so sanh, khai quat, suy
luan, phan loai, v.v), dugc dien ra trong "trudng y thirc" cua chu the. Tu duy

bac cao co nhieu cap dp: Tu duy phii thupc, mot chieu; tu duy doc lap, tu duy
phe phdn va tu duy sdng tao. O cap dp phe phan va sang tao, bao gid ciing cd
su phan tu, tire la su quay trd lai ciia tu duy, phan anh, xem xet lai su van hanh
ciia cae thao tac tu duy va san pham cua chung. Phdn ttr Id cot loi ciia tu duy
phe phdn (Dewey, 1997).
- Thir hai, tu duy la mot he thdng nhieu kieu, nhieu loai vdi cac chirc
nang khac nhau: Tu duy gidi quyet vdn de; tu duy sdng tao va tu duy phe phdn.
Tu duy giai quyet van de co chirc nang tim kiem va hinh thanh cac gldl phdp
phii hap de giai quyet hieu qua cac tinh hudng (van de) cua cupc sdng. Tu duy
sang tao cd chitc ndng tim kiem vd hinh thdnh cdc y tuong mai, cdc gldl phap
mai. De giai quyet mdt van de (tu duy giai quyet van de) hoac nay sinh y tudng
mdi (tu duy sang tao), mot mat, chii the phai thuc hien cac thao tac tri dc theo
nhieu hudng, vdi cac mire do khac nhau; mat khac, cac thao tac tri dc do va san
pham cua chiing deu phai dugc y thurc chu the gidm sdt, kiem sodt, tham dinh
vd ra quyet dinh chon loc, lite Id phdt duac "phe phdn". Dd chinh la chirc nang
ciia tu duy phe phan. Tu duy phe phan khong true tiep lam ndy sinh giai phap
phii hgp hay nay sinh mot y tudng mdi (nhu tu duy giai quyet van de hoac tu
duy phe phan), nhung gdp phin hinh thanh chiing bJng co che giam sat, danh
gia va sang Ipc, got giua nhirng giai phap va y tudng thd dl tao ra giai phap tdi

TAP CHi TAM L f HOC, SO' 2 (251), 2 - 2020


uu hay y tudng mdi. Tu duy phe phan la "mat trai" cua tu duy giai quyet tinh
hudng hay cua tu duy sang tao, giup tu duy giai quyit van de va tu duy sang
tao "nghiem can" ban.
Tir tpa do cua ta duy phe phan trong he thing tu duy cua ca nhan cd the
xac dinh mot djnh nghia cd tinh lam viec ve tu duy phe phan nhu sau:
Tu duy phe phdn Id cdp dp, loai hinh tu duy bac cao co chitc nang gidm
sdt, thdm dinh vd ra quyit dinh cd tinh sdng loc trang hoat dpng euci chu the,

dupe thuc hien qua su nhdn thitc vdn di: ddo ngitpc vdn de: thdu hieu vdn de,
ddnh gid, sdng Ipc vdn di vd quyit dinh lira chpn ciia chii the theo chudn. lu
duy phe phdn hoat dpng trong he sinh thdi ddc thu cua he thong tu duy cd nhdn.
Djnh nghia tren tuy "gai gdc" nhung phan anh dugc chuc nang, tinh he
thing cua tu duy phe phan, ciu true cua nd va cd the thao tac hda dupe trong
thuc tien, nhat la trong phat trien tu duy hoc sinh.
2.1.3. Hai cdp dp eua tu duy phe phdn
Cd hai each phan bac cdp dp (khdng phai miic do xet theo mdt thang
danh gia) tu duy phe phan: phan theo y thuc tham gia vao tu duy va theo thao
tac trong hoat ddng ciia tu duy.
Theo muc dp y thiic trong tu duy, cd hai cap dp: Tu duy true giac va Tu
duyy thirc (Freud, 2012).
Tu duy true giac la tu duy dien ra trong "trudng tam ly", dudi nguong y
thirc, lien quan tdi cac trung khu dudi vd ciia nao bd. Su phe phan cd tinh true
giac la nhu'ng phe phan true tiep, bpc phdl, dap img vdi nhirng kich thich
(thdng tin) tir ben ngoai va ben trong. Phe phan true giac khdng dugc kiem soat
va tac dgng cua y thuc. Khac vdi tu duy true giac, tu duy y thuc la tu duy cua
ca nhan hoat dgng trong "trudng y thirc", dugc kiem soat va dieu khien bdi y
thirc, lien quan tdi cac trung khu ciia vd nao. Phe phan cd y thirc duoc kiem
soat va tac dpng ciia y thuc, cdn dugc gpi la tu duy phe phan bac cao.
Dua vao thao tac trong hoat dgng cua tu duy, cd hai cip do: Tu duy tiin
thao tdc va tu duy thao tdc. Tu duy tien thao tac (chua cd thao tac) la tu duy
phu thugc vao hinh anh tri giac va xep ke cac hinh anh. Tu duy thao tac dugc
van hanh bdi cac thao tac tri dc nhu phan tich - tdng hgp, nhdm gdp, phan loai,
phan hang... (Piaget, 1950). Su phe phan trong tu duy tiln thao tac la phe phan
cam tinh, dien ra tren co sd xep ke va so sanh cac hinh iinh tri giac va kinh
nghiem cam tinh. Phe phan trong tu duy thao tac dugc thuc hien qua cac thao
tac tu duy, dien ra trong "truong y thitc", chiu sir tac dpng va kiem soat cua y
thirc, dd la tu duy phe phan bac cao.


TAP CHi TAM L ? HOC, SO' 2 (251), 2 - 2020


2.2. ciu true vd thao tdc cua tu- duy phe phan bac cao
Cd thi xem xet tu duy phe phan bac cao theo each tiep can ciu true tinh
vdi cac thanh td ciia nd, ciing cd thi tiep can theo cau trite dgng. Mdt ciu triic
tinh cho bilt cac thanh phin ciia tu duy phe phan, nhung khdng phan anh sir
van dpng cua nd va su tuong tac giiia cac thanh phan trong qua trinh van dgng.
Trong khi dd, van dgng mdi la sir sdng cua tu duy. Neu xet theo gdc do nay,
cau triic hoat dgng ciia mot vdng (mot chu trinh) tu duy phe phan diln ra theo
ba pha vira song song, vira ndi tiep va dan xen, tuong tac chat che vdi nhau:
Pha nhan thirc - thdu hieu dir lieu phe phdn; Pha thdm dinh - sdng loc die lieu
va Pha hinh thdnh - cong bo cdc ludn cir phe phdn. Cac pha dugc thuc hien
bang cac thao tac diln ra trong moi trudng sinh thai eua tu duy phe phan. Cd
the tdm tat ciu true va thao tac ciia mot vong (mgt chu trinh) tu duy phe phan
theo so do sau:
Hoai nghi khoa hoc ^

Nang lye khach quan

Scf dd 1: Cdu triic, thao tdc vd he sinh thdi ciia mot vdng tu duy phe phdn
2.2.1. Cdu true hoat dong ciia vdng tu duy phe phdn bdc cao
2.2.1.1. Su than hilu cua chu thi ve van de duac phe phan

TAP CHf TAM l y HOC, Sd 2 (251), 2 - 2020


Ddi tugng dupe phe phan cua tu duy la nhirng van de trong nhan thirc,
thai dp, hanh ddng ciing nhu cac trang thai tiim - sinh ly khac cua chu the va
cua ngudi khac, cua xa hpi, dugc ggi chung la vdn de, du lieu hay thong tin.

Tuy nhien, sir phe phan khdng true tilp tac dpng vao doi tugng dd, ma la gian
tiep thdng qua nhan thirc cua chu thi vl chung. Thuc chat la chu the dira vdo
hieu biet ciia minh vi ddi tuang di phe phdn ddt tupng. Vi vay, sy thdu hieu
vdn de, dir lieu hay thong tin vira la tiln dl, la co so dir lieu, vua la muc dich
cua tu duy phe phan. Sir hliu blit sdu sdc vd thdu cam van de se giup chu the
xac dinh dupe luan cit phe phdn (khing dinh/phii djnh; tan thanh/phan bac;
ung hg/phan ddi v.v.) ciing nhu hinh thanh dugc ludn cir thay the. Ngugc lai,
sir hieu biet ndng can, phien dien se dan den cac phe phan phien dien, ciim^ tinh
va sai lam ve ddi tugng dugc phe phan. Tao ra su hicu biet thau dao van de can
phe phan la pha dau tien va keo dai trong sudt qua trinh hoat ddng cua vdng tu
duy phe phan. Thau hilu vin dl la ket qua ciia cae thao tac tri tue; ket qua eua
sir dao ngugc ddi tugng va phan tu trong tu duy phe phan.
2.2.1.2. Tham dinh muc dd diing - sai; phii hop - khdng khu hap; mdi cu v.v. cua cac dir lieu trong ddi tuang can phe phan
De cdng nhan, khang djnh hoac phan bac, phu dinh mgt van de hay dii
lieu nao dd, chu the phai tra Idi dugc rat nhieu cau hdi: Van de (hay dir lieu)
diing hay sai? Phu hop hay khdng? Mdi hay khdng? Tdi uu hay khdng? Toan
dien hay phien dien? Bien chung hay sieu hinh? Cd Igi hay cd hai?... Dap an
cua nhirng ciiu hdi nhu vay la ket qua thdm dinh ciia tu duy, vai nghia la thdm
tra vd gidm dinh nhirng vdn de hay dir lieu theo chudn.
Viec tham dinh van dl trong tu duy cd the xay ra rit nhanh theo true
giac (trong tu duy true giac), nhung trong tu duy y thirc hay tu duy thao tac, dl
tham djnh mgt van de nao dd, chil thi phai thuc hien nhilu thao tac danh gia
van de va sang Ipc dir lieu, thdng tin theo chuin cua minh. Qua trinh danh gia
va sang loc van de Uong tu duy phe phan ludn ludn dupe ddi ehilu vdi chuin,
qua dd xac djnh dugc mite dp dung - sai; phu hgp - khdng phu hgp; tdi uu khong tdi uu; mdi, ddc dao hay da phd biln v.v. cua cac luan dl nhan thirc va
hanh dgng ciia chu thi cung nhu cua ngudi khac. Thim djnh tinh chan ly cua
mpt vin de trong tu duy phu thupc rit nhilu vao sir thiu hilu vin dl cin phe
phan; phu thudc vao cac thao lac tu duy, nang luc phan tu cua tu duy va vao
nang luc khach quan cua chu thi.
2.2.1.3. Hinh thanh va cdng bd luan diim phe phan

Mpi phe phan deu dugc thue hien bdi cac Uiyen ngdn bang loi, bang hanh
dpng (thuc nghiem) hay bSng ngdn ngii co thi, thi hien quan niem, each nhin
hay quan diem eua chu thi, gpi chung (mpt each tuong ddi) la ludn diim, bao
10

TAP CHI TAM L? HOC, S6'2 (251), 2 - 2020


gdm mgt ludn di (mdt gia thuylt, nhan djnh ve dir lieu can phe phan), ludn cir
(cac churng cu-, du lieu, tai lieu v.v., dugc su dung lam bang chirng phuc vu cho
cac luan diim), ludn chirng (la nhiing ly le, lap luan, suy luan, phan doan...) dl
giai thich, khai thac cac luan cii, nham chung minh, khang djnh luan de.
Cd hai loai luan diim trong tu duy phe phan: ludn diim phe phdn, la
luan diem ciia chu thi hudng din phe phan van de, dir lieu ciia minh hoac cua
ngudi khac (khing djnh/phu dinh; tan thanh/phan bac; ung hp/phan doi...) va
ludn diem thay the, la luan diem dugc hinh thanh tren ca sd phe phan luan
diem da ed va thay the eho luan diem dd.
Hinh thanh va Cdng bd luan diem (luan diem phe phan va luan diim
thay the) ddi hdi chu thi phai ed sir thiu hieu viin de, dir lieu va thau hilu cac
luan diem dugc phe phan, bao ham ca nam bat dupe nhirng an y, tu tudng, lap
trudng, thai do hay dung y cua ngudi khac an chira sau nhirng luan diim dd.
Mudn vay, chu the khdng chi can ed cac thao tac tri tue, nang luc thau cam,
phan tu, nang lire khach quan, ma cdn phai cd niem tin bdn thdn, khuynh
hudng phe phdn va ndng luc nhay ben: ndng luc phdn dodn, suy ludn va ndng
luc quyet dinh dua tren su lua chpn, sang Ipc. Viec cong bo luan diem phe
phan ciing nhu luan diem thay the ddi hdi chii the phai cd ndng lire dien dat,
trinh bdy, thuyet phuc vol nhitng lap ludn, nhiing chirng cir logic theo cac tieu
chuan ro rang.
2.2.2. Cdc thao tdc trong hoat dpng ciia tu duy phe phdn
Cac pha cua tu duy phe phan dugc thuc hien bdi cac thao tac. Trong dd

cd 5 nhdm chinh sau day:
2.2.2.1. Cac thao tac nhan thirc cua chit the trong tu duv phe phan
Thau hieu van de hay cac dir kien, cac luan cir dupe phe phan la ket qua
hoat dpng nhan thirc eua chd the, la san pham cua tu duy. Cd hai chien luge tu
duy dan den sir thau hieu: (i) Chiin luac phdn tich su vat tu- Idn den nhd, tir
phirc tap den don gian theo nguyen ly tich phan ciia Descartes (2005) '. Trong
thue tien, chien luge nay cd the dugc trien khai theo quy trinh (cac mire dp):
tiep nhan (nhan biet) -> dien dat lai (hieu) -> phan tieh/ting hgp -> lam thu
(van dung) -> danh gia (Bloom, 1956); (ii) Hinh thdnh cdc gestalt trong nhdn
thirc, theo chiln lupc tir tdng thi, khai quat (gestalt tdng thi), den cu the, thanh
phin trong cac tinh hudng cu thi (Wertheimer, 1959).
2.2.2.2. Cac thao tac dao nguoc van de
Cac thao tac dao ngugc vin dl (dao ngugc luan cu, phan tu, v.v.) cd y
nghia dac biet quan trgng trong viec xuit hien va phat triln tu duy thao tac; la

TAP CHf TAM Lt HOC, Sd 2 (251), 2 - 2020


tieu chi quyit djnh cua viec chuyin tir tu duy tiin thao tdc len miic tu duy ihao
tdc. Tu duy thao tac xuat hien khi tre cd thao tac dao ngugc, tre em nhan ra
dugc cai bdt bien cua vat, khi hinh anh ben ngoai vl nd thay doi; tu duy cua ue
chuyin tir tiln thao tac len ta duy thao tac. Khi dd, phe phan mang chit lugng
moi: phe phan cd tinh chit ly tinh (Piaget, 1950). Sy dao ngugc bao gid cung
dien ra trong moi trudng y thiic, dupe theo doi bdi y thirc. Thao tac dao ngugc
bieu hien qua su ddo ngirpc ddi tupng va su phdn tu ciia tu duy hay M duy
phan tu. Dao ngugc ddi tugng la dao ngugc lai ddi tugng trong tu duy cdn
phan tu la sir quay trd lai cua tu duy dl phan anh chinh cae thao tac ciia minh
tren ddi tugng, gidng sy phan ehilu qua guang soi, hay nhu cua ddng anh sang
phan chieu lai, lam cho cac thao tac ta duy va san phim cua nd dugc y thiic
mgt lan niia. Nho dd, tu duy nhan thuc rd han ban than minh cung nhu san

pham ciia minh. Trong qua trinh dao ngugc ddi tapng va phan tu, chii the
thudng xuat hien sy so sanh cac trang thai, hinh thai cua ddi tupng va ciia ta
duy cung nhu xuit hien cac cau hdi: Nhu thi nao? Vi sao? Cd each nao khac
khong? Phuong an (phuong phap, gia thuylt) da tdt nhii (tdi uu) chua? v.v.
Day chinh la ca sd de chii thi ra quyit djnh khing dinh hay phu dinh nhirng
hieu biet, nhirng kham pha cua minh hay cua ngudi khac; hinh thanh gia thuyet
cho cac phan doan mdi.
2.2.2.3. Cac thao tac danh gia van de. dir lieu
Danh gia la dinh dang, luong gid mdt dii lieu nao dd trong "truong tit duy";
"trudng y thirc", dua theo chuan tuong irng: dung - sai; phii hgp - khdng phii
hop; khai quat - cu thi; mdi - khdng mdi; gia trj - khdng gia tri, v.v. Ttr do
"ggi" cho chu the hudng sang Ipc, lira chpn dir lieu theo muc dich ciia minh.
Danh gia vira la chuc nang, vira la thanh phin, vua la khau then chdt trong ta
duy phe phan; la ca sd de chu thi sang Ipc va ra quyit djnh lua chgn cac
phuong an, phuong phap, gia thuylt, su kien, v.v. trang phe phan.
Danh gia la thuat ngii phirc hgp va da nghia. Tuy nhien, mpi hinh thilc
danh gia dIu cd chung cac thao tac sau: (i) Thao tdc huy dpng, tap htyp cac
ngudn thdng tin, dQ lieu danh gia; (ii) Ly gidi dU lieu hay thong tin. Thyc chit
la phan tich cd chgn Ipc cac thdng tin, cac luan dl, luan cii va luan chimg; sii
dung cac churng cii, cac lap luan, ly le nhu suy luan, dien djch, v.v. dl lam sang
td cac do lieu, luan cu, luan chung da co; (iii) Thao tdc so sdnh vol chudn. Cac
thao tac dugc siidung trong so sanh: Nhan bilt sy gidng nhau, ddng nhit, khac
biet va mau thuan giQa luan cir, dir lieu, cac luan churng so vdi chuin khach
quan. Hang loat pham chat tu duy lien quan tdi thao tac so sanh nhu sy sic sao,
nhay ben cua tu duy, kha nang nhan ra sy gidng nhau, sy khac biet; ddng nhit
va mau thuan giira cac du lieu, thdng tin va giua chiing vdi chuin; (iv) Lupng
gid dir lieu hodc thong tin. Viec djnh gia dii lieu hay thdng tin dugc danh gia

12


TAP CHf TAM L ? HOC, So 2 (251), 2 - 2020


phu thugc nhilu vao mire do thiu hieu van de dugc danh gia va vao chuin
danh gia, tire la cac khudn mlu tu duy, tri thurc, kinh nghiem ciia chu thi, thu
nhan dugc qua nhan thiic va trai nghiem; phu thugc vao cac thao tac phan tich tdng hgp, dao ngugc va so sanh. Nhitng yeu td nhan each nhu nang lye khach
quan, su cdi md, niim tin khoa hoc, gia trj, quan diem, thai dp cua chu thi
cung anh hudng nhilu toi sy djnh gia cua tu duy phe phan.
2.2.2.4.Thao tac sang loc. du bao trong tu duv phe phan
Sang Igc la each ndi hinh anh vl hang loat thao tac nham xac djnh do
chan thyc, phii hgp cua cac dir lieu, thdng tin dugc phe phan. Dua tren cac thao
tac phan tich hay tong hop cac dii lieu, chit the tien hanh each thao tdc so sdnh;
thao tdc doc - hieu; phdn loai, phdn hang (xep thir bdc) v.v. tir dd giup chu the
xac dinh dugc nhiing luan diim chinh, nhOng chi tiet "dat gia", phti hgp, can
thiet V.V., phuc vu eho viec phe phan nhirng luan cir, luan chirng cua ngudi
khac va cua minh; dong thdi la co so de hinh thanh gia thuyet va cac luan cir
thay thi. Viec sang Igc cac dii kien trgng tu duy phe phan cQng dat ra yeu cau
chii thi phai "nam bat" dugc "y" ngam an trong cac luan diim can phe phan,
tac la phai du dodn dugc chieu huong phat trien cac quan diem, tu tudng, y do
cua ngudi khac thdng qua cac dir lieu.
Chat lugng va hieu qua cua sang Igc cac dir kien phu thugc nhieu vao
kha nang chii y, sac sao tu duy; nang lye phan doan, kha nang thim sau vao
ban chat quan diem cua ngudi khac cung kha nang "dgc" y nghi eua ngudi
khac. Ngoai ra, chii the can cd ky nang dat cdu hoi phe phdn khi tien hanh cae
thao tac, dang cd gi gidng va khac nhau? Nhu vay ed dung? Cd phii hop?...
2.2.2.5. Cac thao tac hinh thanh va cdng bd luan diem phe phan
Luan diem phe phan hay luan diim thay the, tuy khac nhau vl tinh chat
phe phan va kien tao nhung deu gidng nhau ve thanh phan va logic: Luan de,
luan cir va luan chung. De hinh thanh mgt luan diem mang tinh phe phan hay
thay the, chii thi deu phai nam virng Iggic cac thanh phan dd. Hinh thanh luan

de phai cd cac thao tac hay ky nang ddt vdn de phe phdn, ky nang neu gid
thuyet phe phdn, ky nang Ml cau hoi phe phdn. Viec xac dinh cac luan cu ddi
hdi phai cd thao tdc tim kiem, huy dong, tap hap cac chung cir, phdn loai cac
dii lieu, phdn biet cac cit lieu thyc va cii- lieu gia; cir lieu ehinh xac va cu lieu
mo hd; cir lieu cot loi va eii Ii6u phu... Viec hinh thanh luan chimg can eO cac
thao tac lap luan, cac thao tac suy luan logic (diln djch, quy nap, loai suy...).
Nhung lap luan, suy luan, khai quat, so sanh... diing trong viec xay dyng cae
luan chirng can cd muc tieu rd rang: Phe phan hay thay thi? Chu thi can c6 kha
nang xac djnh ban chat cua cac mdi quan he giira cac dfl- lieu, giira cac lap luan

TAPCHITAMLyHOC,S62 (251),2 - 2020


cua ngudi khac ciing nhu cua minh; kha nang xac djnh cac dilu kien can va du
cho mpt lap luan phe phan...
Cdng bd luan diim phe phan va luan diim thay the la khau cudi cun|
cua mgt vdng khau tu duy phe phan. Trong nhilu trudng hgp, viec cdng bo
luan diem phe phan tac dpng, anh hudng manh tdi chieu hudng va hieu qua cua
phe phan, tham chi lam sai lech ehilu hudng cua phe phan. Viec cdng bd lu?n
diem trong ta duy phe phan ddi hdi trudc hit, chu thi can cd lap trudng kien
djnh, nhat quan va rd rang vl logic cua cac dii kien va cac lap luan; su dpc lap
va lien ket giira cac lap luan; su bieu cam cua ngdn ngu ndi va viet. Ben canh
dd, nhilu phim chit tam ly ca nhan cQng tac dpng din qua trinh cdng bd luan
diim phe phan nhu kha nang kiem soat cam xuc, nang luc khach quan, xu
hudng phe phan ciia nhan each, v.v.
2.2. S. Sinh thdi hoat dpng ciia tu duy phe phdn
Su tiln hda cua nhan thuc luan khoa hpc da chuyin tur each tiep can cau
true sang tilp can he thing va tilp can mang trong khoa hgc va trong cudc song
(Capra, 2017). Nhd dd, quan niem vl he sinh thai phat triln ted nen phd bien.
Theo dd, mpi su vat, hien tugng dIu van dgng, phat ttiln teong su tuang tac, phu

thudc lin nhau nhu mpt he thing sdng, mgt he sinh thai eua su phat trien.
Tu duy ndi chung, tu duy phe phan ndi rieng hoat dpng trong mgt he
sinh thai cua minh. Toan bp cac pha, cac thao tac cua tu duy phe phan dugc
diln ra trong su tuong tac lin nhau va tuang tac vdi cac dieu kien cu the, hien
hiru cua moi trudng ben trong va ben ngoai chii the, tao ra he sinh thdi ciia tu
duy phi phdn.
Sinh thdi hpat dpng ciia tu duy phi phdn khde vai sinh thai hoat dpng
ciia tu duy gldl quyet vdn de vd tu duy sdng tap. De nay sinh giai phap phii hpp
va hieu qua trong cac tinh hudng Idiac nhau cung nhu de nay sinh y tudng mdi,
tu duy giai quyet van de hay tu duy sang tao ddi hdi mgt sinh thai hoat dpng ed
tinh tu do, da chieu, linh hoat va dam chat chu quan. De thuc hien chiic nang
giam sat, tham dinh va ra quyet dinh co tinh sdng loc trong boat dgng cua ta
duy phe phan can cd sir lien ket giira hpdi nghi khpa hpc, ndng luc khdch quan,
ndng lire phdn tu, khuynh hudng phi phdn va niim tin phi phdn ciia chii thi.
Suta-ongtac manh me cua cac thanh phan tren vdi nhau va vdi cae yeu to khac
cua chu the vdi tinh hudng thyc dien ra su phe phan, tao thanh sinh thai boat
dpng ciia tu duy phe phan, tac ddng tryc tiep tdi chieu hudng va ket qua cua tu
duy phe phan. Vi vay, xac dinh, danh gia tinh chit va mite dp ciia tu duy phe
phan cUng nhu phat triln tu duy phe phan cua ca nhan, khong chi tap trung vao
cac thanh phin, cac thao tac cua tu duy phe phan ma phai dat chung trong mdi
taong tac vdi cac don vi khac cua he sinh thai cua nd.

14

TAP CHi TAM uy HOC, So' 2 (251), 2 - 2020


3. Ket luan
Tu duy giai quyit vin dl, tu duy sang tao va tu duy phe phan la ba cdng
cu nhan thiire va sang tao, giup ca nhan thich ung tich cue vdi sy thay ddi cua

mdi trudng sdng va gdp phin sang tao cac gia tri v|t chat va tinh thin cho xa
hgi. Trong dd, tu duy giai quyet van de giup chu the hinh thanh cac gidi phdp
phii hap dl giai quyit hieu qua cac van de ciia cudc song. Tu duy sang tao hinh
thdnh cdc y tudng, cdc gldl phdp mai, gdp phan thuc day su phat trien cua ca
nhan va xa hdi. Tu duy phS phan ludn gan lien vdi tu duy giai quyit vin dl va tu
duy sang tao; giam sat, danh gia va sang Igc, gpt giiia nhirng giai phap va y
tadng thd de tao ra giai phap tdi uu hay y tucmg mdi; giup boat dgng tu duy cua
ca nhan dugc y thirc hon, cd muc tieu rd rang hon, dung hudng hon va hieu qua
han. Vi vay, trong day hgc phat trien hpc sinh, tat yeu phai huong den phat triln
tu duy phe phan ciing vdi cac loai tu duy khac. Viec phat trien tu duy phe phan
cho hpc sinh cd the dugc thue hien theo nhieu each tiep can khac nhau. Tuy
nhien, teong dd cd each tiep can cua quy trinh phe phan vdi 3 pha: pha thau hliu
doi tuong phe phdn, pha thdm dinh cdc dU' liiu cdn phe phdn v?. pha hinh thdnh
cdc ludn diem phi phdn vd ludn diem thay the. Cac pha phe phan tren dugc thuc
hien bdi he thing thao tac tu duy tuong irng. Trong dd, mdi thao tac cd thi dupe
tich phan thanh nhieu yeu td mang tinh ky thuat va dugc huan luyen, dugc trai
nghiem trong mdi trudng sinh thai ciia ta duy phe phan.
Chu thich
(1) Phuong phap tu than cua Khdng Tur: Cach vat (Phan tich su vat) -> Tri tri (Xem
xet den cung mpi vat) —> Thanh y (Hinh thanh tri thiic xac dang) —> Chinh tam (Tu
duong nhan tam) —> Hoan thien nhan each toan dien —> Te gia —> Trj quoc -> Binh
thien ha (Khdng Tir - Dai hpc).
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