PART

III

Sentence
Stmcture

169


CHAPTER

Types of Sentences

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Thai manuscript

Clauses
Clauses are the building blocks o f sentences. A clause is a group o f words that

contains (at least) a subject and a verb.
These are clauses:

These are not clauses:

ecology is a Science

to protect the environment

because pollution causes cancer

after working ail day

There are tvvo kinds o f clauses: independent and dependent.

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Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences

hưỉependent Cỉauses
An independent claiise contains a subject and a verb and expresses a compleíe
thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by itselí. An independent clause is funned vvith

subject

verb (+ complement)

Students normally spend four years in college.
I will declare my major’ now, but I may change it later.

Many international students experience cuỉture shock
when they tome to the United States.

Independent Cỉauses
A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, whiỉe, if, íhaí, or who. A
dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a
sentence by itselí. A dependent clause is íormed with

suborđinator + subject

verb (+ complement)

. although students normally spend four years In college.
if I đeclare my major now...
when they come to the United States...
who was accepted at Harvard University
that the experiment was a success...

A partial list o f subordinators tbllovvs in the chart o f clause connectors. Stuđy th
chart, and then refer to it when you do Practice I .

Clause Connectors
Three groups o f vvords are used to connect clauses in order to form different kinds c
sentences. They are subordinators (subordinating conjunctions), coordinators (cooi
dinating conjunctions), and conjunctive adverbs.

’ declare my major: officially register a major field o f study vvith the university


Part III Sentence Structure


CLAUSE CONNECTORS
SUBORDINATORS (SUBORDINATING C0NJUNCT10NS)
aíter

before

that

when

vvhich

aỉthough
as
as if
as soon as
because

even though
hovv
if
since
so that

though
unỉess
until
what


vvhenever

vvhiỉe
who
vvhom
vvhose

vvhere

vvherever
\vhether

COORDINATORS (COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS)
You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS:
for

and

nor

but

or

yet

so

C0NJUNCT1VE ADVERBS
accordingly


furthermore

in contrast

meanwhiỉe

besides
consequently
for example

hence
hovvever
in addition

ỉndeed
instead
likewise

moreover
otherwise
nevertheless therefore
nonetheless thus

on the other haind

PRACTICE I

lỉìdependeiu and Dependent Ciaiises
Write ỈNDEP next to the independent clauses and put a period (.) after them. Write DEP

next to the dependent clauses.
____ 1. Jet ỉag affects most ỉong-distance travelers
____ 2. Which is simply the urge to slcep at inappropriate times
____ 3. During long journeys through several time 70nẹs, the body's iniicrclock
is
disrupted
____ 4. For some reason, travel from west to east causes greater jet lagthantravel fro)m
east to vvest
__5. Also, changes in vvork schedules can cause jet lag
____ 6. When hospita! nurses change from a day shiíìt to a night shift,for example
____ 7. Although there is no sure vvay to prevent jet ỉag
____ 8. There are some ways to minimize it
____ 9. Because jet lag is caused at least partialỉy by ỉost o f sleep, not just a change ini
the time o f sleep
____ 10. A traveler should plan to arrive at his or her destination as late as possible
____ 11. Upon arriving, he or she should iinmediately go to bed
____ 12. Then the traveler should start to live in.the new time frame immediately
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Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences

Khuls o/Seníences
A sentence is a group of vvords that you use to comrnunicate your iđeas. Every
scntence is íormed from one or more clauses and expresses a complete thoưght.
There are basically four kinds o f sentences in English: simple, compound, compỉex,
and compound-compĩex. The kind o f sentence is determined by the kind o f cỉauses used
to form it.

Sùnpie Sentences

A simple sentence is one independent clause.
/ eỉỹoy pỊaving tennis \vith mv/riends every> \veekenci.
ỉ Cìỹoy plaỵing tennis and ỉook fon\'cird to it every \veekend.
M yfriends and ỉ pỉay íennis and go bo\vling evcỉy \ị'eekend.

Notice that the second sentence has two verbs, enjoy and ỉook /onvarci to. This is
called a compound verb. Because there is only one clause, this is a simple sentence. The
third sentence has a compound subject as vvell as a compound verb, but it is still a simple
sentence because it has only one cỉause.

PRACTICE 2
Simpỉe Sentences
1. Write two simple

sentenceswith one subject and one verb.

2. Write two simple senlencesvvith one subject and two verbs.
3. Write two simple sentericesvvith tvvo subjects and tvvo verbs.

Contpound Sentences
A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together. There are
three vvays to join the cỉauses:
1. With a coordinator

! enjov tennis, but 1 hate golf.

2. With a conjunctive adverb

1enjoy tennis; hoNvever, I hate í;olf.


3. With a semicolon

1enịoy tennis; 1 hate goir

Let's study each type of compound sentence in more detail.

ỉ, Compoiitui Setìíences with Coordinaíors
A compound sentence can be formed as follows:
Independení clause, + coordinator + independent clause
Notice that there is a comma after the ĩirst independent clause. The following
sentences iỉlustraíe the meanings o f the seven "FAN BOYS' coordinators.

17*


Part III Sentence Structure

for
and

Women live longer than men, for they take better care o f their Health.
(The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.)
Women follow more healthíul diets, and they go to doctors more oíten.
(The tvvo clauses express equal, similar ideas).

nor

Women don't smoke as much as men do, nor do they drink as much
alcohol (Nor means "and not," It joins two negative independent clauses.
Notice that question vvord order is used after nor,)


but

Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as
vvomen do. (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.)

or

Both men and vvomen should ỉimit the amount o f fat in their diets, or they
risk getting heart disease. (The two clauses express altemative
possibilities.)

yet

VVomen used to be known as the "vveaker sex," Jet in some ways, they are
stronger than men. (The second clause is a surprising or unexpected
contrast to the first clause.)

so

Men are ỉess cautious than vvomen, so more men die in accidents. (The
second clause is the result o f the ĩirst clause.)

PRACTICE 3

Compoimd Sentences wỉíh Coordìnators
A. Add another independent cỉause to the íollovving independent clauses to form
compound sentences. Be sure to vvrite a complete clause containing a subject and a
verb. Circle the coordinator and add punctuation.
Example

The college campus is located in the center o f the citv, @ it is verv easv to do mv
shopping___________________________________________________________________
ì . Students can attend day classes and_________________________________________
2. Students can live in dormitories or
3. í have finished my math homevvork but
4. I have studied English for six years yet
5. My adviser suggested a word Processing class for
6. Some students do not like to Nvrite term papers nor
7. The instructor gave us eight vveeks to vvrite our term papers yet

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Chapter 10 Types o f Sentences
8. Most students had not even chosen a topic nor _______________________________
9. The instructor vvas very upset for
10. My roommate scored very lìigh on the English placement test so

B. For each pair o f sentences belovv, choose a coordinator that best fits the meaning.
and join the two independent clauses to form a compound sentence. Use each FAN
BOYS coordinator once. Write your new sentences on a separate sheet o f paper,
and punctuate them correctly.
Example
Nuclear accidents can happen. Nuclear poNver plants must have strict safety Controls.
Niiclear accidents can happen, so nuclear povver plants must have strict saíetv Controls.
1. The accident at the nuclear power plant at Three Mile Isỉand in the United States created
fears about the safety o f this energy source. The disaster at Chernobyl in the former
Soviet Union confirmed' them.
2. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The cost o f installation is very
high.

3. Energy needs are not going to decrease. Energy sources are not going to increase.
(Use nor and question word order in the second clause, deleting the vvord noí.)
4. Buming fossil íuel causes serious damage to our planet. We need to develop other
sources o f energy.
5. Ecologists knovv that burning íossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer. Peopỉe
continue to do it.
6. Poorer nations especially wịlỉ continue this harmful practice. They don't have the
money to develop "clean” energy sources.
7. All nations o f the world must take action. Our children and grandchildren wiỉl
suffer the consequences.
c. On a separale sheet o f paper, write sevcn compound sentences o f your ovvn, using each
coordinator once.

2, Compouĩui Seníences with Conjuncíìve Adverhs
A compound sentence can also be íornied as follows:
I independent clau se ;

co n ju n ctive adverb, + independent cỉau se

Notice the punctuation: a semicolon íoỉlovvs the firsí independent clause, and a
comma follows the conjunctive adverb. Also, just like the FAN BOYS coordinators,
conjunctive adverbs express relationships betvveen the clauses. The following chart
shovvs the coordinators and conjunctive adverbs that express similar meanings.

confirmed: proved that they vvere correct
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Part lfl Sentence Structure


C o m p o u n d S e n te n c e : w ith C O IIju n c iìv e A d v e rb s

C0NJUNCT1VE
ADVERBS

COORDINATORS

besides
íurthermore

and

moreover
also
hovvever

but

nevertheless

yet

nonetheless

or

otherwise

SENTENCE
Community colleges offer preparalion

for many occupations; moreover, they
prepare students to transfer to a fouryear coilege or university.
Many community colỉeges do not have
dormitories; hovvever; they provide
housing referral services.
Students must take fmal exams; otherwise, they vvill receive a grade o f
incompỉete.

accordingly
consequently
hence

so

therefore

Native and nonnative English speakers
have different needs; thereíore, most
schools provide separate English
classes for each group.

thưs

PRACTICE 4
A. Add another independent clause to each independent clause that follows to íorm
compound sentences. Be sure to add a complete clause containing a subject and a verb.
Circle the conjunctive adverb and add punctuation. Notice that some o f these sentences
are from Practice 3A on pages 174-175.

Example

The college campus is ỉocated in the center o f the city; |therefore,| it is verv easv to do
mv shopping___________________________________________________________________
1. Students can attend day classes m oreover_____________________________________
2. Students can live in dormitories othervvise
3. I have fínished my maữ homevvork hovvever
4 .1

have studied English for six years nevertheỉess

5. The instructor gave us eight vveeks to vvrite our term papers nonetheless
6. M y roommate scored very high on the English placement test consequentỉy

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Chapter 10 Types of Sentences
B. On a separate sheet o f paper, combine the pairs o f sentences in items 2, 4, 5, and 7 írom
Practice 3B on page 175, using conjunctive adverbs Instead o f Coordinators. Punctuate
your new sentences correctỉy.

Exampĩe
Nuclear acGÌdents can happen. Nưcỉear power piants should have strict sety
Controls.

Nucỉear ơccicients can happerì: thereiịre, nucỉear power plants should have strict
saieív controỉs

c. On

a separate sheet o f paper, write four compound sentences, using each o f these

conjunctive adverbs once: /uríherm ore, however, iherefore, and oíhenvise.

i. Compound Senteuces with Semicoỉons
A compound sentence can also be formed with a semicolon alone;
Independent clause; independent ciause
My older brother studies law; my younger brother studies medicine.
Poland was the first Eastern European country to turn away from
communism; others soon followed.

This kind o f compound sentence is possỉbỉe onỉy vvhen the two ỉndependent cỉauses
are closely reỉated in meaning. Ị f they aren't closely related, they shouỉd be vNTÌtten as
tvvo simple sentences, each ending vvitlì a period.

PRACTICE5

Compound SetUences Wỉíh Semicoỉons
A. Place a semicolon betvveen the two independent clauses in the íolỉovving compouncl
sentences.
1. The American way o f ỉife apparentỉy does not foster’ marital happiness hair o f
aỉl American marriages end in divorce.
2. Motherhood causes some vvomen to qiiit their jobs others continue vvorking
despite having young children to care for.
3. Three hundred guests attended his vvedding two attended his íuneral.
B. Write three compound sentences o f yoiir ovvn, using a semicolon to jo in the
independent clauses.

PRAGXrCE

Comhiniỉĩg Simpie Seníences
Use what you have learned about forming compoưnd sentences to improve the

followỉng mini-essay, vvhicli contains many short, simple sentences. Combine sentences
vvherever possibỉe. Try to use each o f the three methods at least once. There is not just
one correct vvay to combine the sentences: there are many possible vvays.
ĩoster: encourage

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Part III Sentence Structure
Robots

robot is a mechanical device that can períorm boring, dangerous, and dlfficult
tasks. ^First of all, robots can pertorm repetitive tasks vvithout becoming tired or bored.
^ h e y are used in automobile íactories to weld‘ and paint. “^Robots can also íunction in
hostile environments. ^ h e y are useíul for exploring the ocean bottom as welí as deep
outer space. ®Finally, robots can pertorm tasks requiring pinpoint accuracy. ^!n the
operating room, robotic equipment can assist the surgeon. ®For instance, a robot can kiỉl
a braln tumor. ®lt can operate on a fetus“ with great precislon.
^°The íield of artiíicial intelligence Is giving robots a limited abiỉity to think and to
make decisions. ^^However, robots cannot think conceptually. '^Robots cannot íunction
independently. ^^Humans have to program them. ^^They are useless. (Use

otherwise to

combine sentences 13 and 14.) ^^heretore, humans should not worry that robots wi!l
take over the world-at least not yet.

Wríting Technìque Questỉons
1. What is the main idea o f each paragraph? What sentences State the main ideas?
2. What method o f organization is used to develop the first paragraph?


Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one (or more) dependent
cỉause(s). In a complex sentence, one idea is generally more important than the other One.
The more important idea is placed in the independent clause, and the less important idea
is placed in the dependent clause.
There are three kinds o f dependent clauses: adverb, adjective, and noun. The
follow ing chart presents an overvievv o f them. You vviỉl study all o f these kinds o f clauses
in greater detaiỉ in Chapters 11,12 and 13.

DEPENDENT CLAƯSES
ADVERBSCLAUSES
A dependent adverb clause begins Nvith an adverbiaỉ subordinator such as when,
while, because, although if, so that. etc.
1. Although women in the United States could own property, they could not vote until
1920.
2. In the United States, women could not vote untiỉ 1920 although they could own property.

Notice that there are two possible positions for an adverb clause: beíore or after
the inđependent cỉause. I f it comes beíore the independent clause, it is foỉỉowed
by a comma (sentence 1). I f it comes after the independent clause, no comma is
used (sentence 2)

' weld: join metaỉ by applying heat
" fetus: unbom baby

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Chapter 10 Types of Sentences


A D JE C T lV E C LA yS E S
A dependent adjective (relative) clause begins vvith a relative pronoun such
who, whom, which, whose, or that, or with a relative adverb such as where
when. An adjective clause functions as an adjective; that is, it modifies a noun
pronoun. The position and punctuation o f dependent adjective clauses
discussed in Chapter 13

as
or
or
is

3. Men who are not married are called bachelors.
4. Last year we vacationed on the Red Sea, which íeatures excellent scuba diving.

A dependent noun clause íunctions as a noun and begins vvith a w/7-question
word, that, whether, or sometimes if. A dependent noun clause can be either a
subject (sentence 5) or an object (sentence 6). No commas are necessary.
5. That there Is a hole in the ozone laỵer of the earth's atmosphere is well known.
6. Scientists believe that excess chloroíluorocarbons in the atmosphere are responsible
for creating it.

PRACTICE 7
A. STEP 1

Underline the independent clause o f each sentence with a solid line.

STEP 2


Underline the dependent clause vvith a broken line.

STEP 3

Write SUB above the subordinator. Refer to the chart on page 172 for a
lisí o f subordinators.

Example
SUB

Because the cost o f educations is rising, manv students mưst vvork part-time,
1. When students from other coưntries come to the United States, they often suffer from
culture shock.
2. Because the cost o f education has risen, many students are having financial problems.
3. Please tell me vvhere (he studenl ìion is.
4. Engineers, vvho have an aptitude for drafting and mechanics, must also be artistic and
imaginative.
5. While the contractor follows the blueprint, the engineer checks the construction in
progress.
6. Since the blueprint presents the details o f the engineer’s plans, it must be interpreted
accurately by the contractor.
7.Students shouỉd declare a major by their ịunior year unỉess they have not made up their
minđs.
8. Even though students decỉare a major now, they can change it later.
9. Last year, the government reported that drug use is increasing.
10. Doctors are concemed about drug use by young people, who think that smoking
marijuana is risk-free.

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Part III Senteiice Structure
B. STEP 1 Add a logical independent cỉause to each o f the following dependent cỉauses.
STEP 2 Punctuate each sentence correctly.
Ì . __________________ untiỉ i pay niy tuition.
2 . _______________________________________ unless ỉ take tvvelve units.
3 . ________________________________________ that Computer engineering is a popuỉar maịor.

4 . ________________________________ vvho is chair o f the Communications Department.
5. Because 1 had to look for a part-time jo b __________________
6 . ___________________________________ i f I want to get to school on time.
7 . _________________________________________ \vhether I should take advanced
calculus.
8 . ___________________________________ whom I met at the social club meeting last
month.
9 . ______________________________________ vvhen I left my country.
10. _____________________________________ that my college adviser recommends.

Compound-Compỉex Sentences
A compound-complex sentence is a combination o f tvvo or more independent clauses
and one (or more) dependent clauses. Many combinations are possible, and their
punctuation requires careful attention.
1 .1
wanted to travel after I graduated from college; hovvever, I had to go to work immediately.
2. Atter I graduated from college. I wanted to travel. but I had to go to work immediateỉy.
3. ỉ wanteđ to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work Immediately because ị
had to support my family.
4. I couldn't decide where I should work or what I should do. so I did nothing.

• Punctuate the compound part o f a compound-complex sentence like a compound

sentence; that is, use a semicolon/comma combination (sentence 1), or put a
comma before a coordinator joining tvvo clauses (sentences 2, 3, and 4).
• Punctuate the compỉex part like a complex sentence. With adverb clauses, put a
comma after a dependent adverb clause (sentence 2) but not before them (sentence
3). With noun cỉauses, use no commas (sentence 4).

PRACTICE 8

Compound-Compỉex Sentences
Punctuate these compound-complex sentences.
STEP 1 Underline the independent cỉauses vvith a solid line and the dependent clauses
vvith a broken line.
STEP 2 Add commas and/ or semicoỉons as necessary.
1. I f housework and chiỉdcare are included vvomen vvork more hours per vveek than men
every place in the vvorid except North America and Australia but they also earn less than
men everyvvhere.

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Chapter 10 Types of Sentences
2. In Africa, NVomen vvork harder than men because they work 67 hours per vveek but
men vvork only 53.
Although Latin American vvomen vvork 60 hours Latin men work only 54 and in
Asia vvomen work 62 hoiirs to men's 48.
4. Men in Western Europe work the least they put in only 43 hours per week
although women average 48.
5. The report started that even vvhen men’s vvorking hours vvere reduced they used the
extra time for leisure activities rather than for housevvork or childcare.


Contpound Sentences (Coordination) versus Compíex
Sentences (Subordination)
Good vvriting requires a mixture o f all four kinds o f sentences: simple, compound,
complex, and compound-complex. A composition vvith only short, simple sentences is
boring and inefĩective, as is vvriting that uses too many compound sentences. W rỉting
vvith complex sentences and participial phrases’, structures that use subordination, is
General ly considered more mature, interesting, and effective in styíe.
Compare the tvvo models that follow. The ĩirst model is an exampỉe o f
overcoordination, or vvriting with too many compound sentences. In the second modeỉ,
some o f the coordinalỉon has been replaced by subordination-compỉex sentences in
sentences 5, 6, 7, 9,11 and 12 and participial phrases in sentences 5 and 10. Notice,
hovvever, that coordination has been preserved vvhere the ideas expressed are equal
(sentences 1,4 and 8).

IVIODEL

Overcoordhtation
The People's Princess
^Diana, Phncess of Wales, was born in Noríolk, England, in 1961, and she died
in Paris, Prance. in 1997. ^People around the world were fascinated by the
transíormation of this shy kindergarten teacher into an independent, selí-assured
young woman. ^Her sudden death in a car crash vvhile being chased by
photographers prompted worỉdwide discussion and grieí.
^Diana Spencer was born to a wealthy. upper-class Engllsh íamily, and she
was educated in private schools ín England and Switzerland. ^She ỉoved chlldren,
so she became a klndergarten teacher. ®She led a quiet ỉife in London, but then
she met Charles, Prince of VVales, and her life changed dramaticalỉy. ^She and
Charles marrled in 1981, and her ỉife as the wife of the íuture king of England
began. ®She gave birth to two sons and became active in charity work. ®Diana's life
shouid have been a happy one, but it was not to be. ^°She and Charles began

having mahtal problems, and they separated in 1992, and they agreed to divorce in
1996.
^Dlana worked very hard at her job as princess, and she supported many
causes, especially those related to children and AIDS victims. ’^She lived for only a
short time, but she touched people all over the vvorld because of her beauty, her
compassion for others, and her style.___________________________________________

Panicipial phrases are presented in Chapter 14

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Part 111 Sentence Structure

mm

Subordinatỉon
The People's Princess
^Diana, Princess of Wales, was born in Nortoỉk, Engiand In 1961 and died in
Paris, Prance in 1997. ^People around the world were íascinated by the
transíormation of this shy kindergarten teacher Into an independent, self-assured
young woman. ^Her sudden death in a car crash while being chased by
photographers prompted worldwide discussion and grieí.
^Diana Spencer was born to a wealthy, upper-class English íamily and
educated in private schools In England and Switzerland. ^Because she loved
children, she became a kindergarten teacher, leading a quiet lie in London.
®However, when she met Charles. Prince of Wales, her life changed dramaticaỉly.
^After she and Charles marrled in 1981, her life as the wife of the íuture king of
England began. ®She gave birth to two sons and became active in charity work.
®Although Diana's life should have been a happy one, it was not to be. ’°She and

Charles began having mahtal problems, separating in 1992 and to divorce in 1996.
^^Diana, who vvorked very hard at her job as princess, supported many causes,
especialiy those related to children and AIDS vlctims. ’^Even though she ỉived for a
short time, she touched people all over the world because of*her beauty, her
compassion for others and her style.

PRACTICE9

Subordination
Change the foỉlowing compound sentences to complex sentences by subordimating
one o f the clauses. Use the subordinator given. Note: Be sure to add the subordinaitor to
the correct clause so that the resulting sentence is ỉogical.

Example
It vvas raining, so I took an umbrelỉa to work. (because)
Not logical:

It vvas raining because I took an umbrella to vvork.

Logical:

1 took an umbrella to vvork because it was raíning.

1. In the fom ier Soviet Union, men and vvomen had access to equal education anid job
opportunities, for that reílected the Soviet philosophy. (since)
2. The 19^7 Soviet constitution declared that vvomen and men had equal rightíS and
responsibilities, and vvomen joined the workforces. (after)
3. Also, millions o f Russian men vvere avvay in the m ilitary during W orld War .II, so
Russian vvomen filled their places at vvork. (because)
4. Soviet, vvomen vvorked fulỉ time at their jobs, but they also had the priimary

responsibility for taking care o f the family. (although)
5. They fmished their work, and they hađ to shop, cook the evening meal, and perrhaps
vvash, iron, or mend the family's cỉothes. (as soon as).

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ChapterlO Types of Sentences
PRACTICE 10
C o m h ỉỉtin g S e n te n ce s in D ìffe r e n t

Use what you have leamed about the four kinds o f sentences to improve these
paragraphs, vvhich contains too many short, simple sentences. Use different methods o f
combining the seniences. You may want to refer to the chart on page 172 for a list o f
coordinators and subordinators.
Nonverbaỉ Communication
^Nonverbal communication, or body language, is used everyvvhere in the
world. ^It is a very powerful means of communication.

communicates much

more than spoken vvords. ^One example of nonverbal communication is what
occurs

betvveen parents and child.

^parents smile

at their child.


^hey

communicate love, acceptance, and reassurance. ^The child feels comíortable and
safe. ®The smiie signifies approval. ^ h e child is happy and well-adjusted.
^°Another exampỉe of such communication is the ỉmage a person projects in
public.

woman is vvalking alone on an unfamiliar and possibly dangerous

Street, ^^she vvants to appear conĩident. ^^She should walk briskly. ^^She may be

tired. ^^She should walk with her shoulders straight and her head heid high. '®Her
eyes shouỉd be íocused straight ahead. ^^Someone is looking at her.
’®She should return the gỉance vvíthout hesitation.

contrast. a nervous

woman wilỉ appear aíraid. ^°She waỉks slovvly with her shoulders drooping and her
eyes looking downward. ^^Indeed, body ianguage can express more than spoken
language.

is a very strong method of communication. ‘23f
^'^People use their body

signaỉs carelessly. ^^They can sometimes be misinterpreted.

Review
These are the important points in this chapter so far:
1. Clauses are the main building blocks o f sentences. There are two kinds o f clauses:
independent and dependent.

1

.........

............ .................

.. .

■

An independent clausc
• expresses a complete thought.

English grammar is easy.

• can be a sentence by itse!f.
A dependent cỉause
• becins vvith a subordinator.

Adverb: ... because grammar is easy...

• cannot be a sentence by itself.

Adjective: .... vvhich is in Spanish...

• is one o f three types: adverb, adjective,
or roun.

Noun: ... that grammar is easy...


183


Part 111 Sentence Structure

2. There are four kinds o f sentences in English: simple, compoiind, complex, and
compound-complex. Each kind is punctuated differently.
A simple sentence has one
M
J
T
independent clause.

r,
Englislì Qrammar is easy.
o
J

A compoiind sentence has two
independent clauses joined by
a coordinator.

Grammar is easy. so 1 leamed it quickỉy.

a conjunctive adverb.

Grammar is easy, cherefore, I learned it quickly.

a semicolon.


Grammar is easy; I learned it quickly.

A complex sentence has one

With an adverb clause:

independent and one (or more)
dependent clauses. The
purctuation depends on the kind

Because grammar is easy. Ilearnedit quickỉy.
, ,
. .
.^ ,I ,
'
srammar quickly because it is easy,

o f dependent ciause(s).

With an adjective clause;
One o f my favorite film s is Like
Chocolate, vvhich is in Spanish.

Waỉer for

With a noun clause:
She doesn’t agree that grammar is easy.
A compound-complex sentence Because grammar is easy, I learned it quickly, biit
has tvvo indepenđent clauses and it took me several years to master' vvriting.
one (or more) dependent clauses.

3. Allhough good vvriters use all four kinds o f sentences, the use o f subordination
(complex and compound-complex sentences) is considered a more mature,
interesting, and effective \vriting síyle.

Paralleỉism
Parallelism is an important element in English \vriting, especially vvhen yoii are Ịisting
and comparing and contrasting items or ideas. Parallelism means thai each item in a
list or comparison ĩollovvs the same grammatical pattern. Ị f you are vvriting a list and
the first item in your list is a noun, vvrite all o f the follow ing items as nouns also. I f
the ĩirst item is an iníìnitive verb phrase, make all o f the others infinitive verb phraS"
es; i f it is a dependent clause, make all o f the others dependenl clauses. Ị f you are
making a comparison or contrast, make sLire that the items you are comparing or
contrasting are the same.

184


Chapter 10 Types of Scntences
Notice hovv the rule o f parallelism is folỉowed iĩỉ the second sentence in each o f the
ĩollovving sets.
N oí p a ra lỉel

M y English conversation class is made up o f Chinese, Spaniards,

and some are from Bosnia.

P aralleỉ

M y Engỉish conversation class is made up o f Chinese, Spaniards,
and Bosnians.


No( paraỊỊeỉ

The students vvho do vvell attend class. ihey do their homevvork, and
practice speaking in English.

Parallcỉ

The students vvho do vvell attend class, đo th e ir h om ew o rk, and

practice speaking in Engỉish.

Noi p a ra ỉle l

The teacher wanted to knovv vvhich country vve came from and OLir
future goals.

P aralỉeỉ

The teacher vvanted to knovv vvhich country vve came from and vvhat
our tuture goaỉs vvere.

N o ị paraỉỊeỉ

The language skills o f the students in the evening classes are the
same as the day classes.

P ũrallel

The language skills o f the students in the evening classes are the

same as the ỉanguage skills o f the students in the day classes.

You may also siibstitute a pronoun for the second "the language skills":
The language skills o f the students in the evening classes are the same as those o f
the students in the day ciasses.
Aỉl o f the \vords in the Tirst item do not aỉvvays have to be repeated in the second. You
may rcpeat all or some o f the vvords, depending Iipon vvhat you vvish to emphasize.
Before you vvTÌte a paper or (before) (you) take a test, you must organize your
thoughts.
’‘Before” and/or ” you" may be deleted from the second item vvithout breaking the rule
o f paralleỉism.
L^eĩore you vvrite a paper or take a test, you must organize your thoughts.

C oordhuitors __ And, Or, But
Words, phrases, and clauses that are joined by and, oì\ and bxịt are vvritten in paralỉeỉ
íbrm. Notice the parallel striictures joined by coordinators in the íoỉlovving senleiices:
The Pederal A ir Pollution Control Administration reguiates automobile exhausts,
and the Pederal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft.
The states regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial
aircraft.
Pesticides cannot be sold i f they have an adverse* effect on humans, on anỉmal life,
or on the environment.

adverse: uníavorable

185


Part III Scntence Structure


Correlative Conjunctions
Use paralỉel íorms vvith the coưeỉative conjunctions both ... and, eỉíher ... or; neithcr
... nor, and not o n ỉy ... hut also.

Correlative conjunctions are placed directly before the elements they jo in in the
sentence. Notice the parallel structure in these clauses joined by coưelative conjunctions:
A new law provides the means for both reguỉating pesticides and ordering their removaí if they
are dangerous.
Air pollutants may come either from the ocean as naturai contamlnants given off by sea ỉife or
from the internal combustion engines of automobiles.
If neither industry nor the Public works toward reducing polỉutlon problems, íuture generations
wili suffer;
Many people are neither concerned about pollutants nor vvorrieđ about their íuture impact.
At the present time, air pollution is controlled through laws passed not only to reduce the
pollutants at their sources but also to set up acceptable standards of air quality.

PRACTICE 11

Paraỉietism
A. Tvvo or more items in each o f the follow ing sentences are Nvritten in paralỉel
grammatical form. Underline the items or iđeas that are parallel, and circỉe the
vvord or vvords that connect the paraliel structures.

Example
An ideal envỉronment for studying includes good ỉighting, a spacÌQus desk, Ịànd
comfortable chair:
1. You know you are truly biỉingual when you can calculate in your second language
and vvhen you begin to đream in it.
2. People often spend as much time Nvorrying about the future as p lan n in g for it.
3. You can learn a second in the classroom, at home, or in a country vvhere the

language is spoken.
4. My new personal Com puter is both fast and reliable.

5. My old typevvriter is neither íasl nor reliable.
6. Ann is growing older but unfortunately not vviser.
7. Young people buy computers not only to do schoolvvork but also to play games.
8. I f industrial nations continue to bum fossil fueỉs and i f developing nations continue
to bum their rain forests, the ỉevel o f CO2 in the atmosphere vvill continue to
increase.
9. Beíore the judge announced the sentence,’ he asked the murderer i f he vvanted to
speak either to the victinVs íamiỉy or to the jury.
10. The criminal neither admiíted guiỉt nor asked for forgiveness beíore he was
executed.

* sentence: punishment

186


Chapter 10 Types of Sentences
B. Revvrite the follow ing sentcnces in parallel form. Underline the part o f the sentence
that is not parallel and correct it.
Example
The disadvantages o f using a credit card are overspendirm and vou pay
high interest rates.
The disadvantages o f using a credit card are overspendinạ and paying
hiạh interest rates.
1. Credit cards are accepted by department stores, airlines, and they can
be used ỉn some gas stations.
2. You do not need to risk carrying cash or to risk to pass up‘ a sale.

3. With credit cards, you can either pay your bill vvith one check, or
you can slretch out your payments.

COMPUTER TIP
Computer programs
that check your style
are avaílabie
Hovvever. these
programs alen you
only to certain stylistic
problems They are not
able to detect problems
in grammar

4. You can charge both at restaurants and vvhen you síay at Hotels.
5. Many peopỉe cairy not only credit cards but they also carry cash.
6. Many peopỉe vvant neither to payoff their balance monthly nor do
they like paying interest.
7. Not making any payment or to send in only mỉnimum payments
every month is poor money management.

c. Write

seven original sentences in parallel form, using the coordinating
conjunctions and, or: and h iit and the correlative conjunctions boíh ... and, eiĩher
... or, n e iíh e r... nor, and not o n lv ... but aỉso one time each.

Sentence Prohlems
In this section, you vvill ỉearn to recognize and correct some common errors In
sentence structure: sentence íragments as vvell as choppy, run-on, and stringy sentences.


Sciìteiìce FragmeiUs
Sentence íragments are incomplete sentences or parts o f sentences. Remember that a
comolete sentence must contain at ỉeast one main or independent clause.

' pass ap: miss an opportunity

187


Part ĨII Sentence Structure
Study the foIlowing four examples o f sentence fragments and the sugíĩested methods
for correcting them.
1. Because some students work part4ime vvhiỉe taking a fuỉỉ load o f courses.
Probỉem:
This is a dependent clause.
To correct: Attach it to an independent claiise.
Because some síĩidents work part-time W'hiỉe taking a fu ll loaci (>f courses, ỉhev
have very> liltle free ỉinie.

2. For exampie, the increase in the eost o f renting an apartment.
Probỉem: There is no verb.
To correct: Rewrite the sentence so that it has a verb.
For e.xample, the cost oJ reníing on aparímení increased.

3. Peeiino lonely and íailing most o f his classes.
Problem:
This is a partidpial phrase.
To correct: (a) Add a subject and change the participỉes tG verbs, or
(b) attach the phrase to an independent cỉause.

(a) He feỉt Ịonelv and wơs /a ị/in g most o f lĩìs cíasses.
(b) FeeỊịfiiỉ ỉoneỉv and /ơ iỉin g most o f lĩis classes, the studenỊ wise/y cieciíỉed to
make an appointmení \viíh ìùs counseỉor.

4. Many young people who ỉeave home at an early age.
Problem: This is a noiin phrase + a relative clause. The independent clause is
uníinished.
To correct: (a) Change the relative clause into an independent claiise, or
(b) compỉete the unfmished independent clause.
(a) Manv voung peopỉe leave homc ưt an early age.
(b) Xíanv voỉtníỊ people \vho lecive liome at an earỉv age do not nuínaị^e llìc ir
monev weìl.

Alvvays check your own vvriting for sentence Tragments. Pay particLiỉar attention to
your sentences beíiinning with subordinating conjunctions (aỉíhoĩỉgh, since, hecause, if,
he/ore, etc.). These are DANGER WORDS! Make sure tỉiat every subordinate clause
beginning vvith tliese vvords is attached to an independent clause.

PRACTICE 12

Rewrìíutỵ Sentence Fragmeiìts
A. Read the íollovving sentences. Mark them FRAG i f they are sentence tVagments, or
COMP i f they are complete sentences. On a separate piece o f paper, revvrite cach
fragment to make a complete sentence.
____ 1. The desirc o ra ll hiimankincỉ lo IIve in peacc and íVcedom, for cxarnplc.
____ 2. Sccond, Ihc lầcl ihal men are pliysically strongcr than womcn.
____ 3. rhe bcsl movie that I savv lasl ycar.
____ 4. Titanic vvas the most financially successfuỉ movie ever madc.
____ 5. Por cxamplc, niany sludcnls have part-timc ịobs.
____ 6. Aỉlhoìh pcoplc \vant lo bcỉicvc that all mcn arc created equai.

____ 7. ỉ'inciing a suilablc marriage partncr is a challcnging task.
____ 8. Many o f my rricnds who didn’t havc ihc opportunily to go to collcgc.
____ 9. Working during ihe moming and altending classcs during thc ìcrnoon.

188


Chapter 10 Types of Scntences
____10. Because I don't feel that grades in colỉege have any value.
____11. The nuclear accident that occurred in Russia in 1986, the vvorst nuclear accident
in historv.
____ 12. The first hint o f the tragedy came íw o days after the accident occurred.

___ 1 3 . W hen radiation m onitors' in Svvcden indicated an increase in radiation ỉevels

over Scandỉnavia.
____14. Radiation escaping into the atmosphere, d riítin g vvest over other countries, and
causing crops and dairy products lo becorne contaminated.
____ 15. O pponents o f nuclear povver plants pointing to the Chernobyl disaster and the

near-disaster at a U.S. plant ỉn Pennsylvania.
B.

Read the follow ing short essay. Put brackets [ ] around any sentence ĩragments that yoLi
íind and mark them FRAG. Then correct alỉ íragments on a separate piece o f paper,
piece o f paper
Women Drivers
Maíe Chauvinism^ extends even into the area of automobile driving. it seems.
Beỉieving that they are far better drivers than vvomen. Men copsider women drivers
incompetent, inattentive, and even dangerous behind the vvheeỉ.

Hovvever, statistics prove that women are. in fact. safer drivers than men. For
5 example. Insurance rates Insurance rates for women are 20 percent lower than they
are for men. Another proof is that more accidents are caused by male drivers betvveen
the ages of 18 and 25 than by any other group. Also, the greater percentage of
accidents involving deaíhs caused by men. Although women are criticized for being too
cautious. They are really just being safe drivers.

10

The reasons for women drivers' saíer driving habits can perhaps be íound in the
differing attitudes of the sexes toward auíomobiies. On the one hand. women drivers
who regard the automobile as a convenience. Like a washing machine. On the other
hand. men regard the automobile as an extension of their egos^ Using it as a weapon
w h e n th e y íe e l p a rtic u la rly a g g re s s iv e . O r u s in g ít a s a s ta tu s S ym b o l.

15

All in all, women are safer drivers Because of their attitude. Men can learn to
become safe drivers. If they adopt the attitude that an automobiie is mereiy a
convenlence.

Choppy seníences
Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. Aỉthough short sentences can be
cffective, overuse o f them is considered poor style in academic vvriling.
Choppy sentences are easy to correct. Just combine tvvo or three short sentences to
make one compound or complex sentence. Your decision to make a compound or a
compỉex sentence slìouỉd be based on \vhether the ideas in the short sentences are equal
or \vhether one idea is dependent on the other.

monitors: niachines to check radiation levels

■ malc chauvinism; mcn’s belicrin maỉc siiperiority
’ cgos: self-importance

189


Part III Sentence Structure
1. ỉfth e sentences express equaỉ ideas» use coordination to combine them.
Choppy sentences

W ind is ơn e nd u rin g source o f power. Water ìs also an Itn ỉin rite d ư n e n ^

source. Dams produce hydraidic power. They have existed fo r a lom: tìfve.
ịVindm iỉls are reliveỉy new.
Corrccied

Bh w irìd and wơter are enduring sources o f power. Dams have produced
hydraulic power fo r a long time, hut \vindm ills are relativeỉy new.

2. l f the sentences express unequal ideas, that is, i f one sentence expresses a less
important idea than the other, use subordination to combine them.
Choppy sentences

ịYe nmst f in d new sources o f energy. N a tu ra l sources o f encrg}’ are

dw indỉin^J Soỉar enerịry is a prom ising new scmrce o f e n e r^ , Soỉar
energy is energy /ro m the sun.
Correcíed

\Ye tnust fn id ne\v sotưces o f energy becouse n a íu ra ỉ sources o f emr<ỉy are

d w iìid ỉin g . S oỉa r energ}\ w h ich is energy fro m the sun, is a p ro m is in g new

soĩirce.
Examine your own vvriting careíulỉy. Do you use too many short sentences? If you do,
practice combining them.

PRACTICE 13

Rewrỉtìng Choppy Sentences
Improve the foỉlowing choppy sentences by combining them to make either
compound, complex, or compound-complex sentences.
1. Gasoline became expensive. Automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller
cars. Smaller cars use less gasoline.
2. The Computer has undoubtedly beneíited humanity. The Computer has also created
problems for humanity.
3. Government and private agencies have spent biỉlions o f dolỉars advertising the
dangers o f smoking. The number o f smokers is stilỉ increasing.
4. Some students go to a vocational school to learn a trade. Some students go to
coỉlege to get a degree.
5. The grading system at our college should be abolished^ The students don’t like

getting grades. The instructors donì enjoy giving grades.
Rim^On Sentences and Comma Splices
A run-on sentence is a sentence in vvhich tvvo or more independent clauses are
vvritten one after another with no punctuation. A similar error happens vvhen tvvo
independent cỉauses are incorrectly joined by a comma vvithout a coordinating
conjunction. This kind o f error is called a comma splice.

Rim-on:


M y/am iỉy wení io AustraỊia then ỉhey emigrated ÍO Canada.

Comma splice:

My fa m ỉly went to Austraỉia, then they emigrated ío Canada.

' dwindling: dccreasing
" abolishcd: gotlcn riđ of: abandoned

190


Chapter 10 Types of Sentences
l'he vvays to correct these two sentence errors are the same.
1. Add a period: M y fam ily went to Australia. Then they emigrated to Canada.
2. Add a semicolon: M y íam ily went to Australia; then they emigrated to Canada.
3. Add a coordinator: M y íamily vvent to Australia, and then they emigrated to Canada.
4. Add a subordinator: My fam ily vvent to Australia before they emigrated to Canada. *
ìter my famiỉy went to Australia, they emigrated to Canada.

PRACTICE 14
Run^On/Comma Spỉice
'ice Sentences
ẳí
A. Correct the follow ing run-on/comma splice sentences using the method indicated.
1. A newly arriveđ international student faces many problems, for example, he has to
cope with a nevv culture.
a. (Add & p e rio d .)__________________________________________________________
b. (Add & semicolon.)
2. Nevv York City is very cosmopoỉitan, there are people from many cuỉtures and

ethnic groups living there.
a. (Add & period.) ____________________________________________ -____________
b. (Add & semicolon.).
c.(Add a subordinator.).
d.

(Add a coordinator.)

3. Learning a nevv languas^e is like ỉeaming to svvim it takes a lot o f practice.
(Add a coordinator.)__________________________________________________
4. Ask for assistance at the reíerence desỉc'm the library, there is alvvays a librarian on
duty.
(Add a semicolon.).
5. Skiing is a dangerous sport you can easily break your leg or your neck.
(Add a subordinator.)_______
B. Some o f the íoỉlovving sentences are run-ons or comma splices, and some are
correct. Check each sentence. I f it is incorrect, vvrite RO or cs in the space at the
left. I f it is correct, leave the space blank. Then, on a separate piece o f paper,
correct the incorrect sentences.

Example
RO

Tvvo letters arrived on Monday a third one came on Wednesday.
Tvvo letters arrived on Mondav: a third one came on VVednesdav.


PartlII Sentence Structure
__1. An encyclopedia is a valuable source of infoiTnation it contains
summaries of every area of knovvledge.

__2. Because o f the rapid expansion o f human knowlcdge, il is diíTicult to

keep encyclopedias currenl.
__3. A printed encyclopedia becomes obsolele' almost as soon as ii is

pubỉished also it is quile expensive to purchase.
__4. Encyclopedias on CD-ROMs are inexpensive, convenicnt

10

use. and

easiỉy updateđ.
Your school library
probably has other
cx}mputefi2ed reíerence
materials such as
dictionaries and
bibliographies Ask your
school librarian to show
them to you.

__5. Articles in encyclopedias are written by experts in each subject. who

are ofìen university pressors.
__6. An editor o f an encycỉopedia doesn't vvrite articles he only collccts

and edits articles vvritten by other cxperts.
__ 7. To ĩind a book on a certain subject, you used to look in a card
catalog, lo íìnd a magazine article on a subject, you uscd to look in a

periodical index.
__8. Novv, most libraries have throvvn avvay their card calalogs, they have
compulerized catalogs that are much more eíĩicieni 10 use and
update.
__9. Many periodicaỉ indexes, vvhich onỉy list titles o f magazine articlcs
and indicate vvhere to find them, have been replaced by Computer
indexes, some o f vvhich display synopses^ and even entirc articles

instantly.
__10. l f you can't find any information

a subject, you can alvvays ask a

librarian to heip you, they are paid 10 assist students.

c.

Locate the run-on/comma splice sentences in the íolỉovving paragraphs. Mark them
by vvriting RO or cs above them. Then, on a separate piece o f paper, revvrite both
paragraphs, correcting the mistakes that you found.
Grade inflatỉon
Teachers at stone Mountain State Coỉlege give higher grades than teachers at tvvelve
of the nineteen other colleges ỉn the State colỉege system, according to a recent report from

the State institutional Research Committee. Thls report showed that more than one-third of
the undergraduate grades avvarded in the spring semester, 1997. were A's, only 1.1 percent
5

were Ps. The percentage of A's avvarded to graduate students was even higher, almost
two-thirds were A's.

While students may be happy to receive high grades, there is evidence that thls trend is
having negative consequences. Investlgation of the admissions criteria^ of some graduate
and proíessional schools indicates that the admissions offices of these schools are

ỈO discounting high grades on the transcripts of SMBO students, this means that an A from
SMSC ỉs not equal to an A from other universities. Grade infiation may, theretore. hurt a
student from stone Mountain State College who intends to apply to a graduate or
proíessional school, he or she may not be accepted despite a hỉgh grade point average.

' obsolete: oul of date, old
^ synopses: summaries
criteria: slandards by Nvhich a ịudgment is made

192


Chapter 10 Types of Sentences
A string) sentence is a sentence vvith too many independent clauses, usualỉy
connected w ith and, but, so, and hecause. It often results from vvriting the vvay you speak,
going on and on like a string vvithouí an end.
There is no rule lim iting the number o f independent cỉauses allovved in one sentence,
but two is a «ood maximum. To correct a stringy sentence, divide it and/or recombíne the'
clauses, remembering to subordinate vvhen appropriate.

Sỉriììg}’

Many students attend classes all morning, and then they vvork alỉ aftemoon,
and they also have to study at night, so they are usually exhausted by the
Nveekend.


Correcỉed

Many students attend cỉasses alỉ moming and work ail aítemoon. Since
they also have to study at night, they are usuaỉly exhausted by the Nveekend.
Because many students attend cỉasses alỉ morning, vvork all aữernoon, and
study at night, they are usually exhausted by the vveekend.

Stringy Setítences
Improve these strlngy sentences.
1. He enrolled in an advanced calculus class, but he found it too diíTicult, so he
dropped it.

2. The tidaỉ vvave ruined the crops, and it desíroyed several villages, and it caused
many deaths, so it vvas a reaỉ disaster.

3. The anaỉysts vvorked many hours on the Computer phogram, but they couỉdn’t fmd
the cause o f the problem, so they rmally gave up, and they vvent home.

4. Junk food is bad for yoụr hecỉith, and it also contains no vitamins, and it damages
your stomach, so people shouldn’í eat it.

5. The lack o f rainíail has caused a severe vvater shortage, so people have to conserve
water cvery day, and thev aỉso have to think o f nevv ways to reuse vvater, but the
situation is improving.

19^