NandithaKrishna&M.Amirthalingam



SACREDPLANTSOFINDIA


Contents
Foreword
Author’sNote
PARTI
Introduction
IntheBeginning…
TreeWorshipintheVedas
TreeWorshipintheEpics,Puranas,Jainism,andBuddhism
TheWomanandtheTree
SpecialTrees
SacredGroves
TreeWorshipoutsideIndia
Conclusion
PARTII
AlexandrianLaurel
Ashoka
Bamboo
Banyan
Baobab
BengalQuince
BermudaGrass
BetelVine

BileKiller
BombayAtalantia
BottleFlowerTree
ButterflyPea
Cannonball
CastorOilPlant
Champaka
ClearingNutTree
ClusterFig
Coconut
CommonBur-Flower
Cotton-WoolGrass
CrapeJasmine
Cus-cus
CustardApple
CutchTree
Deodar
DownyJasmine
FlameoftheForest
Gingelly
Grapevine
GreenGram
Hiptage
IndianBeech
IndianButterTree
IndianCadapa



IndianCherry
IndianGooseberry
IndianJujube
IndianLaburnum
IndianLaurelFig
IndianLavender
IndianLotus
IndianMesquite
IndianMedaller
IndianPersimmon
IndianSiris
IndianBlueWaterLily
Ink-Nut/ChebulicMyrobalan
Jackfruit
JavaneseWoolPlant
Krishna’sButterCup
Lemon
LuckyBean
Mango
Mangrove(BlindingTree)
Marigold
MountainEbony
NeedleFlowerJasmine
Neem
NightJasmine
PalmyraPalm


Pipal
Plantain

Pomegranate
PricklyChaffFlower
Rice
SacredBasil
Sal
Sandalwood
SandPaper
ScrewPine
Shoe-Flower
Soma
SteavedTree
Sugarcane
SwallowWort
Sweet-ScentedOleander
Tamarind
TrumpetFlower
Turmeric
TuscanJasmine
WhiteMarudh
WoodApple
WoodenBeggar-Bead
Footnotes
TreeWorshipintheEpics,Puranas,Jainism,andBuddhism
Conclusion


Banyan
BottleFlowerTree
Hiptage
Mango

Pomegranate
SacredBasil
PlantNamesinIndianLanguages
References
SelectBibliography


PENGUINBOOKS
SACREDPLANTSOFINDIA

NandithaKrishnaisahistorian,environmentalist,andwriterbasedinChennai.
APhDinancientIndianculture,sheisthedirectoroftheC.P.Ramaswami
AiyarFoundationandC.P.R.EnvironmentalEducationCentre.Shehas
pioneeredthedocumentationoftheecologicaltraditionsofIndia,restoredover
fiftysacredgroves,andestablishedschools,theC.P.R.IndologicalResearch
Centre,andShakunthalaJagannathanMuseumofFolkArt.Herpublishedworks
includeSacredAnimalsofIndia,BookofDemons,BookofVishnu,MadrasThen
ChennaiNow,Balaji-Venkateshwara,Ganesha,PaintedManuscriptsofthe
SarasvatiMahalLibrary,ArtsandCraftsofTamilnadu,andArtand
IconographyofVishnuNarayana,besidesnumerousresearchpapersand
newspaperarticles.SheisaprofessorandresearchguideforthePhD
programmeoftheUniversityofMadrasandhasreceivedseveralprestigious
nationalandinternationalawards.
M.AmirthalingamisabotanistandenvironmentaleducationofficeratC.P.R.
EnvironmentalEducationCentre,Chennai.Hehasresearchedandpublishedthe
booksSacredGrovesofTamilNadu,SacredTreesofTamilNadu,TempleTanks
ofChennai,andFloraandFaunaofValmiki’sRamayana,besidesresearch
papersandarticlesinvariousjournals,magazines,andseminarproceedings.He
iscurrentlyworkingontheAllIndiaCoordinatedResearchProjectonSacred
GroveEcosystemServiceAssessmentintheInlandPlainsofTamilNadu

sponsoredbytheministryofenvironmentandforests,GovernmentofIndia.


InmemoryofShakunthalaandA.R.Jagannathan,asourceofinspiration,
encouragement,andlove


Foreword
Indiaisahighlybiodiversecountryandatleastfourmajorfactorsare
responsibleforourrichendowmentofplantandanimalgeneticresources.These
are:culturaldiversity(includingspiritualvalues),culinarydiversity,curative
diversity(awidevarietyofmedicinalplants),andecosystemdiversity.Among
thesefactors,spiritualvalueshavecontributedmuchtosavingmanyimportant
plantsandtrees.Thisbookcontainsafascinatingaccountofnumeroussacred
treesandgroves.Thebookalsodescribestheeffortsmadefromancienttimesto
investonselectedtreesasacredaura.Thesthalavrikshaisagoodexampleof
thistraditionofcelebratingourbiologicalheritage.
Whilereadingthisbook,IwasremindedofthefollowingpoembyJoyce
Kilmer:
IthinkthatIshallneverseeApoemaslovelyasatree.
AtreewhosehungrymouthisprestAgainsttheearth’ssweetflowingbreast;Atreethatlooks
atGodallday,Andliftsherleafyarmstopray;AtreethatmayinsummerwearAnestof
robinsinherhair;
Uponwhosebosomsnowhaslain;Whointimatelyliveswithrain.
Poemsaremadebyfoolslikeme,ButonlyGodcanmakeatree.

In1976,IundertookastudyoftheoldesttreesofIndia.IwrotetotheChief
ConservatorsofForestsofallstatesandrequestedinformationontheoldest
livingtreeintheirstate.Mostoftherepliesrelatedtobanyantreesincludingthe
famousbanyantreeoftheTheosophicalSociety,Chennai.Severalofthefamous

banyantreeswerealsoassociatedwithsaintsandtemples.Templetreessuchas
ExcoecariaagallochaofthefamousNatarajaTempleatChidambaramhave
probablybeenworshippedbecauseoftheirimportancetolifeandlivelihoods.
Forexample,thetempletreeofChidambaram,whichisamangrove,mighthave
beenchosenbecausemangrovesserveasbioshieldsagainstcoastalstormsand
tsunamis.


MystudyoftheoldesttreeofIndiarevealedthatatreebelongingtothe
speciesMorusserratamaybetheoldestone(over1200years).AdiShankara
meditatedbeneaththisspectacularlylargemulberrytreeinthevalleyof
Joshimath.TheageofthistreecouldbemeasuredonlyfromtheyearwhenAdi
Shankarapreachedunderit.Thus,therehasbeenastrongcorrelationbetween
ourspiritualhistoryandthehistoryofsacredtrees(IndianFarming,February
1977).WeoweadeepdebtofgratitudetoNandithaKrishnaandM.
Amirthalingamforcapturingthewonderfulbiologicalandspiritualheritageof
ourcountryinthisbeautifulbook.
Chennai
PROFESSORM.S.SWAMINATHAN
Chairman
C.P.R.EnvironmentalEducationCentre


Author’sNote
WhenIwakeupinthemorningandlookoutofmywindow,thefirstthingIsee
isacannonballtreewithitsunkemptstalksweigheddownbyclustersofflowers,
standingonabedoffallenflowers,whichmygardenercarefullycollectsand
putsinawidebowlofwateronthediningtable.Thisisintendedtobeastress
reliever,forsuchisthequalityofthecannonballflower.
Iwasborninanoldcolonialbungalowonanancestralpropertyknownas

‘TheGrove’inMadras.Attheendofthelonggardentherewas,andstillis,an
ancientpipaltree,beneathwhicharefivesnakestonesofdifferentshapesand
sizes,installedbetween1903and1905bymygreatgrandmother,andaGanesha
reliefdatingbacktothelatePallavaperiod.Everyday,mymorningwalkbegins
withacircumambulationofthepipaltree,theGanesha,andthesnakestones.I
rememberthedayswhenthenewmoonarrivedonaMonday,andacrowdof
womenfromTeynampetvillagegatheredtocircumambulatethetree108times.
Mygrandmotherhadtakenthevowtoo,but,inviewofherillhealth,Iwould
circumambulatethetreewhileshesat,prayed,andmeditatedbeneaththepipal
tree.Andtheubiquitoustulsistillsitsproudlyinthecentreoftheopen
courtyard,withinthehouse.ThusthesacredplantsofIndia’shoarypasthave
beenapartofmyownpersonaltraditionanditwasinevitablethatfurther
researchonthissubjectwasessentialtocomprehendourgreatinheritance.
IhaveseensacredplantsalloverIndia,fromthepipalatRishikeshtothetulsi
atVrindavan,fromthemedicinalneematVaidishwaran(lordofmedicine)
templeatKumbakonamtothekhejariinRajasthan’ssacredgroves.AndI
wonderedattheknowledgeofourancientIndians.ManyofthestoriesIhave
narratedinthisbookhavecometomefromeldersinmyfamilyandthosewhom
eitherAmirthalingamorIhavemetinthecourseofourtravels.Otherscome
fromSanskritandTamilliteratureorthesthalapurana(localhistory)ofthe
temple.Theseareoraltraditions,whichhaveheldtogetherIndiansociety.
M.Amirthalingam,scientistandenvironmentaleducationofficeratC.P.R.


M.Amirthalingam,scientistandenvironmentaleducationofficeratC.P.R.
EnvironmentalEducationCentre,whohasdonepath-breakingworkin
documentingsacredgrovesandsacredtreesinTamilNaduandinTamil
literature,workedwithmetoputtogetherthisbook.Thisbookisthustheresult
ofthecombinedresearchofahistorianandabotanist,aSanskritologistanda
Tamilologist.

ItisagreathonourforusthatDrM.S.Swaminathan,thegreatscientistand
fatheroftheGreenRevolution,consentedtowritetheforewordforthisbook,
forwhichwearetrulygrateful.
Manypeoplehavehelpedusinmanyways.DrP.Sudhakartookthe
photographsandcheckedthetaxonomy,particularlythenewLatinnames,which
botanistsgivetheirplants;Y.VenkateshandPremaSrinivasandidthedrawings;
G.BalajiandR.Sathyanarayananphotoshoppedthephotographsanddrawings;
S.P.Vijayakumari,librarianofC.P.R.EnvironmentalEducationCentre,andV.
KameshRaj,librarianofC.P.RamaswamiAiyarFoundation,searchedand
foundthebooksandarticleswewerelookingfor;andH.Manikandancarefully
preservedthecornucopiaofmaterialsthatwehadcollected.
Finally,thisbookwouldnothavebeenpossiblebutfortheinterestand
enthusiasmshownbyUdayanMitraandAmeyaNagarajanofPenguinIndia;
RaviSingh,formerlyofPenguinIndia;andShrutiNarain,copyeditorat
PenguinIndia,whospentmuchtimeandeffortincheckingeverywordandline
andgaveusexcellentsuggestionstoimprovethebook.
Iwouldliketoendbysayingthattreesandforestswereregardedassacred
becauseourancestorsknewtheirimportantroleintheenvironment—givingus
oxygentobreathe,purifyingtheairofitspollutants,givingusfoodtoeatand
materialstobuildhomes,providinghomesforbirdsandanimals,givingus
medicines,andsomuchmore.Theirknowledgeandrespectforscientific
informationwasfargreaterthanours.Wecutdowntreesanddestroyforests
withoutathoughtfortheilleffectsontheenvironmentandhavetakentheearth
tothebrinkofmajorecologicalproblemslikeglobalwarmingandclimate
change.Itisnevertoolatetorealizethatnatureismorepowerfulthanhumans
andwillwinthefinalwar.Forourownwell-being,itwouldhelpifwepreserve
thewonderfulplantsthatareabundantinnature.
Chennai



NANDITHAKRISHNA



PARTI




Introduction
Bamboobowsdrawntautandlethalarrowheadscatchingthesun’sglint,theBaigas—a
dwindlingtribeintheremotejunglesofRanjarainMadhyaPradesh’sDindoridistrict—are
standingguardfortheirgodsagainstwhomtheyconsiderstate-sponsoredmarauders.
TheselushjungleshavebeentheirhomesforgenerationsandBaigasworshiptreesasgods.
Tribalmen,womenandchildrennowstandguard,armedagainstaxesandsaws—ironically,
takingonforestofficialswhotheythinkarefacilitatingthe‘slaughter’.
Thelocalvillagepanchayatheldfrequentmeetingstoprotesttheforestdepartment’spolicy
offellingtrees.Runningoutofpatience,thepanchayatinitsrecentmeetingaskedeveryable
man,womanandchildtotakeuptheirtraditionalarmstoensurenotasingletreeiscut…
TheBaigas,whoarenature-worshippers,saytreesaretheirgodsandfellingthemwould
devastatetheecology.
TheTimesofIndia,Chennai,12April2012

SacredtreesformanimportantpartoftheecologicalheritageofIndia.Most
temples,towns,andvillages—andsometimesevenSikhtemplesandMuslims
dargahs—areassociatedwithtrees.Someplantsaresacredtotheindividual
deity;othersaresacredtotheplace.Sometimes,thetreeisanintegraloreven
largerpartofthesanctityoftheshrine;townsandcitiesanddynastieshavebeen
namedaftersacredtrees.
SeveralplantshavebeenworshippedinIndiafromtimeimmemorial.

Whereverthetulsigrows—fromtheIndo-Gangeticplainstotheshoresofthe
IndianOceanatKanyakumari—itoccupiesapositionofprideinthecentral
courtyardofthehouse,tendedcarefullybythehousewife.Apartfromthe
elaboratemythsconnectingittoLordKrishna,thetulsiplanthasseveral
medicinalproperties(Figure1).Theleavesareswallowedtopreventcolds,
headaches,stomachdisordersandevenheartproblems,andareusedextensively
inAyurvedicmedicine.Tulsiisoftenpowderedanddrunkasatea,orjusteaten
asfreshleaves.Toprotectandreverethisplantwithsomanymedicinal
properties,itwasdesignatedassacred,afittingtributetoitsroleinproviding
invaluablehealthcare.


Figure1

TheworshipofplantsisanancientphenomenoninIndia.Itisprobablythe
oldestformofworship.Theassociationofasingletreewithasacredsthalaor
sthanisreflectedinthechaityavrikshaandsthalavriksha(explainedbelow)of
literatureandsociety.
Theplantsthatweresanctifiedrevealthesocio-economicandhealthconcerns
ofancientpeoples.Someweresanctifiedfortheireconomicrole,somefortheir
produce,someforprovidinghomesforanimalsandbirds,andothersfortheir
medicinalandair-purifyingqualities.Theprocessrevealsthepeople’s
knowledgeoftheirenvironmentanditsconservation.
Treeworshipisdocumentedinallancientsocietiesallovertheworld.The
earliestformofworshipwasprobablythevenerationofthetree.Whenpeople
turnedtofoodproduction,theMotherGoddessortheEarthMotherbecamethe
chiefdeity.Fertility,creation,andtheworldofplantsandanimalsbecameher
blessingstoherdevotees.Theworshipofthetreewastheadorationofher
creativeabilities,symbolizingfertilitysoessentialforthesurvivaloftheearly
people.Spirits—goodandbad—werebelievedtoresideintrees.Ifthetrees

wereworshipped,thentheresidentspiritswerepleased.Assacredforestswere
replacedbyagriculture,asingletreewasleft,whichwasdesignatedasthe
sacredtree.
Theearliesttempleswerelittlemorethanimagesplacedundertrees.Later,
thetreeandtheimagewereenclosedbyafencemadeofwood,followedeven
laterbystone.Thetemplewasalaterconstruction.Numerousreferencesare
madeinliteraturetotreesasabodesofgods.Theyshelteredtheobjectof
worship:adeity,afetish,aweapon,oranyother.Astheopen-airshrinebeneath
thetreewasreplacedbyashrineortempleforthedeity,thetreebecamethe


sthalavrikshaofthetemple;thetreewasassociatedwiththedeityandbecame
aninseparablepartofthelocalmythology.ThesthalavrikshasofIndia
constitutethesinglegeneticresourcefortheconservationofspeciesdiversity.
Thesthalavrikshasonceplayedamajorroleinlocalecologyandtheirworship
celebratesourbiologicalheritage.
Thesacredtreehadmanynames:kalpavriksha(treeoflifewhichgrants
wishes),chaityavriksha(treeshrine),andsthalavriksha(treeofthesacredsite).
TherearemanyplacesthatarenamedaftersacredplantslikeVrindavan,forest
ofthevrinda(tulsiorbasilplant),nearMathurainthenorth,orKanchipuram,
townoftheKanchi(riverportiatree),nearChennaiinthesouth.Clanslike
Kaushika,Pallava,andKadambawerenamedforgrass,leaf,andflower
respectively.
SacredtreesaregenerallyassociatedwithHindudeities,JainaTirthankaras,
andtheBuddha.Duringthemedievalperiod,eachtemplehaditssthalapurana
orstoryofthesacredsitewritten,whichemphasizedthesacredcharacteristicsof
thetreeandthewaterbodyassociatedwiththetemple.
Treeswerereveredforanyoneoffourprimaryreasons:fortheirmedicinal
qualities,suchastheneemandthetulsi;fortheireconomicvalue,suchasthe
Alexandrianlaurelwhichwasusedtobuildcatamaransandshipsoffthe

CoromandelCoast;fortheirecologicalimportance,suchasthemangrovein
Chidambaram;andfortheirsocioculturalrole,suchasthebanyan,themeeting
placeoftheBaniaorbusinesscommunity.


IntheBeginning…
Plantworshipisprobablytheoldestformofreligion,becauseofthesheer
magnificenceandantiquityofhugetrees.TheRigVeda(X.97)saysthatplants
are‘thosethatgrewinoldtimes…muchearlierthaneventheshiningones
[devas]…andaredifferentfrommanydifferentplaces…’Plantswereasource
ofenergy,withhealingpowers,andpersonifiedthedivine.Agnisays‘inplants
andherbs…Ihavedepositedthegermofincrease’(RigVeda,X.183.3).The
treeisthe‘lordoftheforest…whosepraisesneverfail’(RigVeda,IX.12.7),a
symbolofself-regeneratinglifeandimmortality.Amedicinalherbisagoddess
bornonearth(AtharvaVeda,VI.136).Treeswerecalledvanaspatior‘lordof
theforest’andinvokedasdeitiesalongwiththewatersandmountains.TheRig
Veda(X.146)invokestheforestasAranyani,ajungledeity.
Indus–SaraswatiCivilization
ThereareseveralexamplesoftreeworshiponthesealsoftheIndus–Saraswati
civilization.Ofthese,thesacredfigorpipal(Ficusreligiosa)andtheIndian
mesquiteorshami(Prosopisspicigera)arerepresentedmorefrequentlythan
othertreesofdoubtfulidentityandsuggestthatthiswasanimportantaspectof
theInduscivilization.Treesareplacedonapedestalorfencedin,likevillage
treesandsacredtreesintemples(Figures2[a]and[b]).
OnasteatitesealfromMohenjoDaro,afigurewithahornedheaddress,long
braid,andbanglesonbotharmsstandswithinapipaltree.Ononeside,thereisa
kneelingworshipperandagiganticram—possiblyasacrificialoffering.A
humanheadrestsonasmallstool.Sevenmalefiguresareinprocessionbelow—
possiblythesaptarishiofVedicreligion,ahierarchyworkingunderthe
guidanceoftheSupremeBeing,identifiedwiththesevenstarsoftheBigDipper

orUrsaMajor.Allthefiguresaredressedidentically,withasingleplumed


headdress,bangles,andfoldeddhotis.Thefiguresalongthetopofthesealare
interspersedwithpictographsandasinglesignatthebaseofthetree(Figure3).

Figure2(a)

Figure2(b)

AccordingtoBuddhistscriptures,sacrificeswereperformedtoyakshasor
spiritsofthetrees(Coomaraswamy[1928]1980,I.25;II.9).Eventoday,Hindus
circumambulatethepipalseventimestotheprayervriksharajayanamah.This
sealmaybeaHarappanoriginofthisritual.Othersignsofpipalworshipinclude
atreegrowingoutofacentralhubflankedbytwounicornheads,with
pictogramsbelow(Figure4);amalefigure—probablythespiritofthetreeor
yaksha—standingwithinastylizedpipaltree,arecurringthemeonseveralmassproducedmouldedpiecesaswellasonseals(Figure5);andanudemaledeity
withasinglebranchbearingthreepipalleavesrisingfromthemiddleofhis
headdress.Themalefigurehasthreefaces,onefacingfront,onefacingleft,and
onefacingright.Heisseatedinayogicposture,withbanglesonbotharmsand
anelaborateheaddressoftwooutwardbuffalo-stylecurvedhorns(Figure6).


ThispersoncouldonlybeLordShiva,thethree-facedTrimukhaorTrimurti,
incorporatingtheCreator,thePreserver,andtheDestroyerasheiscelebratedin
laterart,suchasthe8thcenturycavesatElephantanearMumbai.Thisisalsoan
earlyformofDakshinamurti,orShivaasateachersittingbeneathapipaltree.
TheRigVeda(X.97.5)referstotheSupremeBeingthus:‘Yourabodeisthe
ashvatthatree;yourdwellingismadeofitsleaves.’


Figure3

Figure4

Figure5


Figure6

Figure7

Whilemalefiguresstandwithinthepipal,afemalefigurewithanarm
stretchedoutsitsontheshamiorkhejariandatigerlooksbackather(Figure7).
Thisthemeisrepeatedonseveralsealsandbas-relieftabletsfromMohenjo
Daro,wherethetigerinvariablylooksbackatawomanseatedwithoneleg
foldedbeneaththeother,possiblyinayogicposture,onashamitree.Thisis
obviouslythespiritofthetree,accompaniedbythetiger,sincenoordinary
mortalwouldbeaccompaniedbyatiger.Sometimes,aflyingbirdfacesthe
womanandabullprecedesthetiger(Figure8).
Inanunusualseal,ashamanicritualisportrayed,whereinawomanwitha
hornedheaddresseitherdancesorfightswithatiger.Thetreebehindthewoman
hasfern-likeleavesandisnotthekhejari(Figure9).


Figure8

Figure9

Figure10


Anotherterracottasealdisplaysaframedswastikawithakhejaritreeon
whichsitsthekneelingwomanandtheinevitabletigerlookingbackononeside,
andanelephantonthereverse(Figure10).Inthenextseal,thereisacomposite
figurewiththebodyofatigerandtheheadofawomanwithalongbraidand
hornsonherheadwhileakhejarigrowsoutofthecentreofherhead(Figure
11).