CS716
Advanced Computer Networks
By Dr. Amir Qayyum
1
Lecture No. 16
Where we are now …
• Understand different ways to move
through network (forwarding)
– Read signs at each switch (datagram)
– Follow a known path (virtual circuit)
– Carry instructions (source routing)
• Bridge approach to extending LAN
concept
3
Where we are now …
• Next
– Example of a real network
(ATM)
– How switches are built and
contention within switches
4
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
• Defined by ATM Forum (formed
in Oct. 1991)
– Telephone industry (link providers to
build networks)
– Data network industry
• High speed switching technology:
right thing at right place at right
time ? ? ?
5
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
• Common in WANs, can also be used
in LANs
– Competing technology with Ethernet, but
areas of application only partially overlap
• Connectionoriented packet
switched network
– Virtualcircuit routing
• Typically implemented on SONET
(other physical layers possible)
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ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
• Signaling (connection setup)
Protocol: Q.2931
– Discovering routes and allocating
resources at switches
• ATM address format
– E.164 and NSAP (Network Service
Access Point)
– Different from MAC addresses
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ATM Signaling
• Connection setup called signaling
(standard Q.2931)
• Route discovery, resource resv, QoS, ...
• Send through network
– Request setup circuit
– Send setup frame on setup circuit
• Establish locally
– No intermediate switch involvement
– Requires preestablished virtual path
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Cell Switching (ATM)
• Fixed length (53 bytes) frames are
called cells
– 5byte (header + 1byte CRC8) + 48
byte payload
• Standard defines 3 layers (5 sublayers)
– Layers interface to physical media and
to higher layers (e.g., encapsulating
variablelength frames)
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Cell Switching (ATM)
• 2level connection hierarchy
– Virtual circuits
– Virtual paths
• Bundles of virtual circuits
• Travel along common route
• Reduces forwarding
information
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Why Hierarchical Connections ?
• Simpler ...
• Setup
– New virtual circuits follow virtual path route
• Forwarding
– Virtual path identifier (VPI) used between
switches (smaller forwarding table)
– VCI used for last hop (to host)
• Rerouting around failures
– Change virtual path once vs. 64k virtual
circuits
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Variablelength Frames …
• Small data is sent in a minimumsized
packet
– No need for extraneous padding
• Large file is sent by breaking it into
many maximumsized packets
– Low overhead (header to data bytes
ratio), increasing bandwidth efficiency
– Minimize total number of packets sent
• Minimize perpacket processing
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Drawbacks of Fixedlength Frames
• No optimally good fixed length
• Higher overhead for large frames
– Must be fragmented
– One header per fragment (less
efficient)
• Low utilization for small frames
– Must be padded
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Then Why Fixedlength Frames ?
• Require simpler hardware …
– Facilitates the impl of hardware switches
– Helpful building fast, highly scalable
switches
• Easier to build hardware doing simple job:
to process knownlength frame
• Parallelism in processing stages: lots of
switches doing same thing in parallel
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– Analogy: processor instruction pipeline with
Why Short Frames ?
• Better behavior of nonpreemptive
queues
• Reduced granularity of preemption
– Highpriority frame may wait for max
size frame
• Long frame (4kB) admits long wait
• Short frame limits wait
– Limits endtoend jitter, or variance in
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Why Short Frames ?
• Shorter queues
– Switches typically store and
forward packets
– Cannot send until full packet
arrives
– Short frames (fragmentation)
allows first part to be sent while
remainder arrives
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Queuing Behavior Examples
• Consider 4kB vs. 53B frames, 100
Mbps link
• Preemption: highpriority frame
arrives just as switch starts sending
lowpriority frame
– 4kB: wait for 4096 x 8 / 100 =
327.68 microseconds
– 53B: wait for 53 x 8 / 100 = 4.24 us
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Queuing Behavior Examples
• Shorter queues: two chunks (or
frames) arrive simultaneously at time
0
– 4kB: link is idle until all data arrive at
time 327.68 us; 8 kB left to send
– 53B: link nearly fully utilized (waits
4.24us); at time 327.68 microseconds,
roughly 4kB left to send
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Why 53byte Frames ?
• Telephone community wish: carry voice
effectively
• Demands ATM to improves latency for
audio data
– Voice encoded at 64kbps: 8bit smpl at 8KHz
– Need full cell’s worth of samples before
sending cell
• 1Kbyte cells > 125ms per cell (human detectable)
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• 53 byte cells implies 6 ms of data
Why 53byte Frames ?
– Smaller latency implies no need for
echo cancellers
– Audio reconstruction
• Expect low rate of cell loss; can
interpolate loss (6 ms)
• Compromise: 48 bytes =
32(Europe) + 64(US) / 2
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ATM Cell Format
• UserNetwork Interface (UNI)
4
GFC
–
–
–
–
–
–
8
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VPI
VCI
3
Type
1
8
CLP HEC(CRC-8)
384 (48 bytes)
payload
Hosttoswitch format
GFC: Generic Flow Control (still being defined)
VCI/VPI: Virtual Circuit/Path Identifier
Type: management, congestion control, AAL5 (later)
CLP: Cell Loss Priority
HEC: Header Error Check (CRC8)
• NetworkNetwork Interface (NNI)
– Switchtoswitch format
– GFC becomes part of VPI field
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Segmentation and Reassembly
• Variablelength packets passed to
ATM are often larger than 48 bytes
– May not fit in the ATM payload
• Fragmentation is required at the
source
– Highlevel message into lowlevel
packets
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Segmentation and Reassembly
• Destination reassembles the
fragments
– Transforms fragments back into
the message
• ATM name this procedure as
Segmentation and Reassembly
(SAR)
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Segmentation and Reassembly
• ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
–
–
–
–
–
Application to ATM cell mapping
AAL header contains information for reassembly
AAL1, AAL2 for applications needing guaranteed rate
AAL3/4 designed for variablelength packet data
AAL5 is an alternative standard for packet data
AAL
AAL
…
…
ATM
ATM
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ATM Layers
• ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
– Convergence Sublayer (CS) supports
different application service models
– Segmentation and Reassembly (SAR)
supports variablelength frames
• ATM Layer
– Handles virtual circuits, cell header
generation, flow control
• Physical layer
– Transmission Convergence (TC)
handles error detection, framing
– Physical medium dependent (PMD)
sublayer handles encoding
CS
AAL
SAR
ATM
TC
PHY
PMD
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