Proceedings


COMPARISONOFANALYTICANDSYNTHETICTEACHINGMODELSFOR
LEARNINGTHECONCEPTOF–INGFORM

KurniaIdawati
UniversitasDarmaPersada,Jakarta





Abstract:
ThisstudywasconductedinanefforttomakelearnersofEnglishunderstandtheconceptof-ingform
anditsfunctionsandabletousetheminsentencesbecausethefunctionsof-ingforminsentences,
whetherasnouns,verbs,adjectives,oradverbs,areoftendifficultforthelearnerstounderstandin
Englishgrammarclasses.Forthatpurpose,therewereappliedintwoexperimentalclassestwomodels
oflearningtoteachtheseconceptandfunctions.Themodelsoflearningareanalyticandsynthetic
which were derived from computer system learning and the concept of information processing
learning.Thesecondaimofthestudywastocomparewhichmodelwasmoreeffectiveinincreasing
thelearners'understandingtowardthedifferentfunctionsof–ingforminthecontextofsentences.
Bycontent,theanalyticmodelconsistsofexplanation-basedlearning,whichisawayoflearningwhere
the learners explain their examples to prove the concept; and constructive deduction that aims to
transformtheinformation(knowledge)toapicturethatismorecompact(abstraction)andgeneral
(deductivegeneralization)whilethesyntheticmodelconsistsofempiricalinductivelearning,thatisa
way to generalize the examples observed; and constructive induction, where the learners form
hypothesesthatcanexplainafact/observationtofollowandfindtraitstobuildreasoningbasedon
knowledge/informationalreadyknown.

Keywords:analyticmodeloflearning,syntheticmodeloflearning,-ingform

INTRODUCTION

LearningEnglishwhosepurposeistomastercommunicativecompetenceatthesecondaryeven
tertiarylevelofeducationisnotalwayseasyforlearners.Onecomponentofcommunicativecompetence,
linguisticcompetence(knowinghowtousegrammar,composingwordsintomeaningfulsentences),isin
factstillquitedifficulttoachieveconsideringEnglishisnotusedindailylifeasasecondlanguageafter
Indonesian language. English is often used in academic contexts, when learners should read books or
informationwritteninEnglishforreferences.SometimesEnglishisusedintheworkplaceasthelanguage
ofcorrespondenceandofficialdocuments.Notingthat,thenlinguisticcompetencebecomesverybasicin
learningEnglishbecauseitisthebasicfoundationofalllanguageskills.
Oneelementofmasteryoflinguisticcompetenceisanunderstandingofthefunctionsofwords,
especiallywhenthewordsareinformsofderivationsandinflections.Oneofthoseformsis-ingform.Ing form is formed from verbs with additional inflection -ing that can enter into various functions
dependingonitspositioninsentencestructuresandwithwhichwordsitisused.The-ingformcanserve
aseitheraverbforprogressiveaspect,anoun,anadjective,oranadverb.Theproblemisthatitisnot
easyforthelearnerstodistinguishtheword-formfunctionfromoneanotherandapplyitinthecontext
ofbroadersentencesanddiscourses.Inaclassroomthestudentsoftenfailtoidentifythefunctionsofingformaccordingtotheircharacteristicswhenconstructingsentences.Theignoranceofitsfunctions
willmakeitdifficultforstudentstodeveloptherequiredwritingskills,especiallywhenwritingpapers.
Basedontheresultsofthetestsconsistingof25sentencescoveringfourfunctionsofthe-ing
formconductedtothestudentsofUniversitasDarmaPersada(Unsada)majoringinEnglishsemester4,
mostofthem,i.e.70%,wereunabletorecognize-ingformsasadjectives.Thesecondlargestnumber
wasinthefunctionasadverbsasmuchas68%;thirdplaceasnouns,53%;andthelast,asverbs,asmuch
as22%.Apolltakenfrom44studentsafterthetestingshowedthat100%saidthe-ingformsasadjectives
andadverbswerequiteelusive.Theaveragetestscoreis54withstandarddeviation9.7.Knowledgeof
theformsandconceptsofnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsformoststudentsisnotnew.Theyhave
gottenthatknowledgesinceinthefirstsemester.However,whenthe-ingformwasusedinsentences
withallfourfunctionsandsimultaneouslyassigned,thestudentshaddifficultyidentifyingitwhetheras
nouns,adjectives,adverbs,andevenverbsbetweeneachother.




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Basedonthisbackground,theexperimentwasconductedintwogrammarclassesapplyingtwo
models of learning/teaching adopted from learning strategies of computer learning system (machine
learning)calledasanalyticandsyntheticstrategieswiththeaimofimprovingstudents'knowledgeabout
theconceptof-ingforminitsfunctionsasmentionedabove.Aftertheclassexperiments,thetwomodels
were compared to find out which learning model more effectively improves students' knowledge and
understandingofthe-ingform’sfunctionsinthecontextofsentences.

AnalyticandSyntacticStrategies
Inmodernphilosophyandscience,analyticisunderstoodasaregressivemethodandsyntheticas
acomposite(compositeofvariouselements)orprogressivemethod.Thedifferenceisindirection.The
analyticalmovesfromthespecifictoamoreuniversaldirection,fromthewholetoitsparts,andfromthe
consequencestothecauses.Incontrast,syntheticmovesintheoppositedirection.Syntheticmovesfrom
causetoconsequence,fromsimple(parts)tomorecomplex(whole)andfromgeneraltomorespecialized.
Citing the opinion of Immanuel Kant, de Jong ( mentions that
analyticandsyntheticaretwoeventstoknowscience(twotypesofcognition).Thefirstistruthbasedon
reasoningsoitiscalledapriori,andthesecond,knowledgeortruthwhichmustbebasedonempirical
dataorfacts,iscalledaposteriori.
Intheprocessoflearningtheyareknownasanalyticandsyntheticstrategies.Thisanalyticand
syntheticlearningstrategiesarecategorizedasahigh-levellearningstrategiesbecausetheirgoalisto

increasetheknowledgealreadypossessedbyreformingthatknowledgetoabetterformbydeductive
(analytic) process; and create new knowledge based on factual inputs through induction and analogy
(synthetic)processes.Specifically,Michalski(1993)saysthatanalyticallearningisrelatedtoaninformed
inputanalysisbasedontherelevantknowledgethatalearnerhaspreviouslyhadandthenthecreation
ofdesiredknowledgebasedonthisanalysis.Theinferenceprocessthatgoesisdeductive.
Inpractice,analyticlearninginvolvesthemethodofexplanation-basedlearning(EBL)(Mitchellet
al.,1986;DeJongandMooney,1986).TheapplicationofEBLbeginswithgivinganexampleofaconcept.
Thelearnerisfirstaskedtoexplainasaproofthattheexampleisindeedanexampleofthatconcept.The
abstractconceptdefinitionisassumedtohavebeenknownbythelearneraprioriandthisiscalledthe
backgroundknowledgeofthelearner.Theexplanatorystructuregeneratedbythelearneristhenusedto
createaconceptdefinitionreformulationsothatitbecomesmoreoperationaltoclassifythefollowing
examples.
Another method of learning from analytic learning is constructive deduction. This form uses a
backgroundofknowledgetotransformtheinformationinputdeductivelytoamoreabstractpictureora
moregeneralpictureorboth.Creatingamoreabstractdescriptioniscalledabstraction;whilecreatinga
moregeneraldescriptionbymeansofdeductioncalleddeductivegeneralization.Abstractionisactually
simplifyingamoredetailedlanguage(explanation)intoanundetailedone,suchas"Mytabletcomputer
usestheAndroid5.1EightCoreprocessor"to"Mytabletcomputerismoreresponsive".Whilethephrase
"AlexlivesinBandung,WestJava"becomes“AlexlivesinIndonesia”,isadeductivegeneralizationform
becauseAlex'sresidencelocationisexpanded.
Michalski (1993) then describes synthetic learning as a way of creating desired knowledge by
formulating a hypothesis of the desired knowledge through inductive inference. Although the main
inferenceisinductive,thesyntheticlearningprocessalwaysinvolvessomedeductiveinferences(i.e.to
testwhetherahypothesiscanbepostulatedanobservation).Inductionisaprocesscontrarytodeduction.
Deduction is a new derivative of the premise consequences (basic assumptions), while induction is a
processofhypothesizingapremiseinvolvingconsequences.Michalskiunderlinesthatstrictdeductionis
truth-preserving,andstrictinductionisfalsity-preserving.
Therearetwomethodsofsyntheticlearning,namelyempiricalinductivelearningandconstructive
induction. Empirical inductive learning does not necessarily require background knowledge and is not
sufficienttobuildtheexplanatorystructurefortheobservationsmade.Learnersmerelygeneralizethe

observedexamplestocreateafullandconsistentdescriptionoftheexamplesbasedontheconceptsused
indescribingtheinterconnectedobservations.Thedepictionimpliesobservedfacts,andassuch,canbe
viewedasanexplanatoryhypothesis(generalizationorempiricalexplanation).Thestatementsgenerated
from empirical induction are usually not explanations of causation, because the relationship is not
causationbutcorrelation.Suchstatementsarecommonlyusedinday-to-dayreasoning,forexamplethere
arepeoplewhoask"Whyisatennistablegreen?"Thentheanswermightbe"Allofthetennistablesare
green."Thisanswerisnotarealexplanation,butpeoplegivetheansweras"explanation".
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In constructive induction, learners use a dependent and independent field of knowledge to
hypothesizeconceptsand/orrelationshipsthatcharacterizetheinputfacts.Hypothesizedconceptscan
begeneralizationsandcanalsobeacause-and-effectexplanationofthesefacts,orcanbeaspecialization
of acquired knowledge. If the background knowledge used involves a backward-looking causal
dependence,theresultinghypothesisprovidesacause-and-effectexplanationofwhatisobserved.Ifthe
input is general knowledge, not the specific facts, then constructive induction involves the use of the
knowledgebackgroundtohypothesizealowerormorespecificlevelofknowledge(whichimpliestoa
moregeneralknowledge).Asanillustrationforthelatter,forexample,thereisinformationinputthat
azaleaflowerscangrowinBandung.Fromthatgeneralknowledge,onecanhypothesizethattheazaleas
canalsogrowinLembang.Thistypeofreasoningiscalledinductivespecialization(Michalskietal.,1989).
In general, constructive induction is a backward and/or forward reasoning through certain
independentdomainrules(generalizationrules),and/ordependentdomainrules(expressingtherealm
ofknowledge),sotheresultisahypothesisthattogetherwiththebackgroundknowledgeinvolvesinitial

input.Thusconstructiveinductioncanbeseenasthemostcommonformofinferenceinductioninvolving
empiricalgeneralizationandabduction,abackwardsearchforfindingorforminghypothesesortheories
thatmightexplainafactoranobservationbyfollowingandfindingsignsortraits-typetobuildarationale
for something already known (Patokorpi, 2007). An example of constructive induction is, for example
peoplewhobelievethatawell-organizedpersonimpliestheabilitytoattendmeetingsinatimelymanner.
If one observes Mr. Amir coming to several meetings in a timely manner, then that person can
constructivelyhypothesizethatMr.Amirisawell-organizedman.
Analytic and synthetic strategies are categorized as high-level learning strategies because the
objectiveofthisstrategyistoincreasetheknowledgealreadypossessedbyreformingtheknowledgeto
abetterformwiththedeductive(analytic)process;andcreatenewknowledgebasedonfactualinputs
throughinduction(synthetic).
Withsuchanunderstandingtheframeworkoftheanalyticandsyntheticlearningprocesscanbe
describedasthefollowing:



Learning Process


Analytic
Synthetic
(a)












ExampleGuided

SpecificationGuided

(b)




Explanationbased
learning

(EBL)


Note:
(a)LearningModels
(b)Learninginputs


Learning from
examples

(c)

Deductive


Constructive
deduction







(d)




Learning from
observation

Inductive

Empirical
inductive
learning (EIL)

Constructive
induction

(c)Maininferences
(d)LearningMethods

Figure1.Analyticandsyntheticmodelsoflearning


LearningModel
Thelearningmodel(notteaching,becausethelearningprocessisassumedtobecentredonthe
learnerorlearnercentredandtakesplacebothwaysbetweenthelecturerandthelearner)isastrategy
basedontheoriesandresearchesofeducationexpertsandpsychologists.Learningmodelsarelinkedto
waysinwhichlearningenvironmentsandteachingexperiencesarebuilt,organized/ordered,ordelivered.
Thelearningmodelisunderstoodasaninstructionaldesignthatdescribestheprocessofdetailingand


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creatingaparticularenvironmentorsituationthatcauseslearnerstointeractinsuchawaythatthereis
aspecificchangeintheirbehaviour(Pateliya,2013).InreferencetotheBasicsoftheLearningModelof
the Ministry of National Education (2005), it is mentioned that the learning model is a conceptual
framework that describes systematic procedures in organizing learning experiences to achieve certain
learningobjectives,andservesasaguideforinstructors/teachersinplanninglearning/teachingactivities.
The learning model has four characteristics as follows: (1) the logical and theoretical rationale
composedbythecreatorsordevelopers,(2)therationaleofwhatandhowstudentslearn(thelearning
objectives to be achieved), (3) the necessary teaching behaviour for the model to be successfully
implemented, and (4) the learning environment necessary for the learning objectives to be achieved
(MinistryofNationalEducation,2005).Whilethefunctionsofthelearningmodelare:(1)helpingteachers
chooseteachingtechniquesandstrategiestostreamlinelearningandlearningmaterialstorealizelearning
objectives,(2)tohelprealizetheexpectedbehaviouralchangesoflearners,(3)helpfindwaysandtools

to create environments, (4) help achieve expected teacher-learner interaction, (5) helping to build,
organizeandselectthecontentoflearning,(6)helpdesignappropriateandadequatelearningactivities,
(7)stimulatethedevelopmentofeducationalinnovation(8)assistingintheformationofthetheoryof
teaching,(9)helpingtobuildtherelationshipbetweenlearningandteachingempirically(pateliya,2013).
Joyce and Weil (
identified23modelsthatarecategorizedintofourgroups:InformationProcessingModel,ThePersonal
Model,Socialmodels,andBehaviouralSystemModel.Becauseofmanydifferences,eachmodelgroup
has its strengths and weaknesses. Selection on one particular model device does not indicate the
superiority and high usability of the model but because the model is suitable for a particular learning
situation.Thereisnoonesizemodelthatfitsalltypesoflearning.Itdependsonthematerialtaughtand
thelearningobjectives.Thereforethereisnoguaranteethatallmodelsaresuitableforallteachingand
learningscenarios.Theuseandpracticeoflearningmodelsthatarevariedandtailoredtothenatureof
teachingmaterialsandlearningobjectivesbyteachers,willmaketeachersmoretrainedtolearnabout
themodelandeventuallyunwittinglycreatetheirownlearningmodels.
The main characteristics of the learning model include: (1) syntax, that is a learning outcome
specification,whichiswhatthelearnersshouldbeabletodoafterthelearningprocessiscomplete;(2)
socialsystem,aspecificenvironmentalconditioninwhichthelearners'responsescanbeobserved;(3)
principlesofreaction,thespecificationofwhatlearningperformancecriteriatoexpectfromthelearners;
(4)supportsystem,specificmechanismsthatprovideopportunitiesforthelearners’reactionsandtheir
interactions with the environment; and (5) instructional and nurturant effect, systematic scientific
proceduresthatalterlearnerbehaviour.Thesecharacteristicsarereferredtoasformingelementsofthe
learningmodel(libnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/418/8/08_chapter3.pdf).

InformationProcessingCombinedwithAnalyticandSyntacticModels
Referringtothetheoreticalbasisoftheanalyticandsyntheticstrategiesofthisstudy,themodel
builtwasinthecategoryofInformationProcessingModelbecausetheInformationProcessingModelis
an academic discipline-oriented model of inquiry structures and methods by focusing on intellectual
capacity with respect to the learner's ability to observe, organize data, understand information, form
concepts,useverbal-nonverbalsymbols,andsolveproblems.Thisisinaccordancewiththeanalyticand
synthetictheorieswhoseconcernisalsoprocessinginformation.Informationprocessingreferstotheway

peoplehandlestimulifromtheenvironment,organizingdata,knowingproblems,loweringconceptsand
solutionstoproblemsbothverballyandsymbolically.Thus,learnersareencouragedtothinkproductively
and build intellectual abilities. Eggen, Kauchak and Harder (1979) state that the main purpose of
informationprocessingintheclassroomisthedevelopmentofintellectualabilityandtheacquisitionof
the content of the lesson. According to them, information processing contains three characteristics,
namely:(1)informationobtainedbylearners,(2)dataprocessedbythelearnersintousefulconceptsand
generalizations,and(3)informationconvertedintoamoreusefulform.
Itcanbeconcludedherethatinformationprocessingisgainingknowledgethroughtheanalysisof
dataobtainedfromtheenvironment.Italsohelpslearnersdevelopthinkingskills,whichinturnallows
them to study independently. This is in line with the main purpose of analytic and synthetic learning.
Learninganalyticallymeanstotransformtheknowledgethatthelearnerhasinthemostdesirableand/or
effectiveformtoachievethelearningobjectives;whiletheultimategoaloflearningsyntheticallyisto
reachnewknowledgethatgoesbeyondpreviouslypossessedknowledge.Analyticandsyntheticlearnings

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also focus on intellectual capacity, regarding the ability of the learners to observe, organize data,
understandinformation,formconcepts,andsolveproblems.

-IngForms
InEnglishhistory,-ingformsforparticipleandgerundhavedifferentformsandfunctions.Inthe
OldEnglishera,theparticipleisreallyverbalandending-endewhichthenbecomes-inde.-Ingwhichis

etymologicallyunrelatedto -endeand -inde,isasuffixthatisonlyusedfornounsofaction.Untilthe
middleofthe14thcenturygerundhasnotappeared.Inthiscentury,theparticipleisspokenandwrittening,
and
combined
with
the
form
of
gerund.
(Bothformsareinthecourseoftime,
fusedinto-ing,andthisblendinghascausedconfusioninmanycontemporarygrammaticalexposures.
-Ing forms isthe morphologicalformation ofverband suffix(inflection) -ing. In its various uses, these
formsaresocomplicatedforstudentstounderstand.Thevariousfunctionsinthesentencesarequite
dizzyinganddifficulttodistinguishfromoneanother.Althoughthecategoricalboundariesoftenappear
vague,thefunctionsof-ing-forms’differencesaredividedasfollows:
a.asverbs(presentparticiples)inprogressiveaspect:‘Theyarefishing’.
b.asverbalnouns(gerunds):‘Readingismymostbeneficialactivity’.
c.asadjektivesorverbaladjektives(presentparticiples):‘Therunningwaterprovidedapicturesque
view’.
d.asadverbsorverbaladverbs(presentparticiples):‘Thebullcamerunningtowardstherodeo
clown’.
e.astheoriginalnouns:‘Thebuildingwasonfire’.
.
f. as prepositions: ‘The board has discussed an issue regarding the complaints from the
customers’.

Sections(e)and(f)abovearenotincludedbecausetheyarenotmanyinnumber.-Ingformsthatarenot
used as native verbs are referred to as verbals, to show that although the -ing forms serve as nouns
(gerunds),adjektivesandadverbs(presentparticiples),theystillhavethepropertiesormeaningsofverbs
because if the forming comes from transitive verb, it can be followed by the object as in the phrase

"Findinganeedleinahaystackwouldbemoredifficultthanwhatwe'retryingtodo"fortheexampleof
gerund.Whilefunctioningasanadjektiveitcanbeseeninitsuseattributively:"Instead,shebeganto
create paintings filled with disturbing images (meaning: images which is disturbing)".
( _Grammar/Verbals_Gerunds&Participles.Perdu.pdf), and
predicatively: "His life has been interesting" or post-nominal predicative: "Marshall has made life
interesting."(Celce-Murcia,1999)

METHOD
The first step in conducting this study was to modify the concepts of analytic and synthetic
strategiesofamachinelearning(intelligentsystemsofcomputertechnology)mainlyfromMichalski(1989
&1993)andseparatethestrategiesintotwoproportionstoconstructthelearningmodelswhichwereso
calledanalyticandsyntheticmodelsoflearningsuitedtotheclassroomenvironment.Tomakethemodels
feasiblyoperational,theywerediscussedinafocusgroupdiscussionandwerefinallycombinedwiththe
conceptofinformationprocessinglearningasputforwardbyJoyceandWeilintheir“TeachingModels”
(http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/418/8/08_chapter3.pdf).
ThesecondwastoapplythemodelsintwoGrammarclassesinthreesessionsforeachclasswith
group-discussion-class formation. Each class consisted of 22 students. Before that, the pre-test was
conductedtotwoexperimentalclassesAandBinthegrammarclassestofindouttheinitiallevelofthe
students’knowledgeonthefunctionsof-ingformsbeforetheanalyticmodelandthesyntheticmodel
were applied. The results of the pre-tests were calculated to find out the average score and standard
deviationofeachclass.Theexperimentstooktheformofteaching-ingformsbyusinganalyticmodelfor
experimentclassAandsyntheticmodelforexperimentclassB.Attheendoftheexperiment,apost-test
wasgiventoeachclass.Theteachingintwoclasseswasconductedbytheresearcherherself.
Databeforeandaftertreatmentwiththemodelswerecalculatedthroughthe-ttest.Thepre-test
andpost-testdataofeachclasswerecalculatedbystatisticalt-testasa2-samplecomparativeanalysis
correlationwithdegreesoffreedom(df)=n-1;H0wasacceptedwhentstatisticrejectediftstatistic>ttable.Comparativeanalysisfor2uncorrelatedsamples,i.e.dataanalysisofclass
A’spost-testandclassB’spost-testwerealsocalculatedbyusingindependentsamplet-test.

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Furthermore, the data about supporting factors and obstacles in the implementation of both
strategieswereneededtoobtainfromtheinterviewwiththeexperimentalrespondentsafterthelearning
processended.Theinterviewswereopensothattheabovefactorscouldbemorerevealed.Thedata
obtainedwereanalyzeddescriptively.
Theinstrumentsforcollectingthedatawereapre-testandapost-testofthe-ingformfunctions
generatedfromtheidentificationtestof25sentences.Thetestinstrumentbeforeandafterthetreatment
had passed the validity test of biserial point correlation with discrimination value 0.34 (valid) and the
difficulty level index of the test with the value of 0.58 (moderate). The tests were arranged in simple
sentencesthatincluded4functionsof-ingformsasverbsofprogressiveaspect,nouns,adjectives,and
adverbs.

FINDINGSANDDISCUSSION

Aspreviouslyexplained,theexperimentofteaching–ingformsintwoclasseswasconductedby
utilizing analytic and synthetic models. The learning processes with those two models were briefly
describedinthefollowingtablewiththelearningprocessesinthetwoclasses.

Table1.TheSyntaxofAnalyticandSyntheticModelsinTeaching–ingForm

Learninginput
ThinkingProcess

AnalyticModel
1. Theteachergivesexamplesofa 1.Thelearnersidentifytheexamples
concept with specifications
by observing the attributes
(example-guided
and
(characteristics).
specification-guided).

2. A number of types of
hypotheses the learners make 2.Thelearnersprovethehypotheses
arepresentedtobediscussed.
based on a variety of different

examples.
3.Thedefinitionofanoperational
concept is used to classify 3. The learners conclude (deduce)
subsequentexamples.
basedonexamples


SyntheticModel
1. The teacher presents a
completedefinitionofaconcept
tobelearned
2. The teacher provides examples
thatfitintothedefinitionofthe
concept and those which are
notincludedinthedefinitionof
theconcept

3. Theteacherguidesthelearners
toward understanding the
conceptthroughtheprocessof
discoveryandconstruction.

1. Thelearnersanalyzethedefinition
oftheconceptusedtoidentifyand
listexamples.
2. Thelearnersanalyzetheexamples
and identify the suitability and
unsuitabilityoftheexampleswith
thedefinitionoftheconcept.

3. The learners hypothesizes the
examplesandthosewhicharenot
examplesofthedefinition

LearningMethods
1. The
learners
discuss
the
characteristics of the examples and
comparethemwiththespecification
oftheconcept.

2. The learners make explanatory
structures (proof) that the example
isactuallyaproofofaconcept(EBL).

3. The learners use the explanatory
structures to build knowledge and
createanoperationaldefinitionofthe
concept(constructivededuction).
1. The learners generalize the
examplesandidentifythedata(EIL)

2. Thelearnersexplaintherelationship
of the suitable examples with the
definition of the concept and the
examples which do not fit the
definition(constructiveinduction).
3. The learners build new concepts of
theexamplesthatarenotrelatedto
the
definition
(constructive
induction).


AnalyticModelofLearning

The teacher gave various sentences as the examples from the concept of -ing form with the
specification as verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (word class category). By way of analogy, the
teacheralsopresentedavarietyofothersentencesthatcontainthefourconceptsofwordclassesother
thanthe–ingform.Actually,thelearnerwasassumedtohavebackgroundknowledgeabouttheconcept
ofthefourwordclassesabove,buttheteachercouldgivethemguidancesothattheycouldrecallthe
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four classes. For example, to make the learners understand the concept of verb, noun, adjective, and
adverb,theteacherpresentedasentence:"Thepreviousorderiscomingsoon"andstatedthattheverb
inthesentencewascoming,orderwasanoun,previouswasanadjective,andsoonwasanadverb.Of
coursetheteachershouldexplainwhythewordorderwasthenouninthatsentence,andsoon.This
processwasreferredtoasexample-guidedandspecification-guided.
Thelearnersidentifiedandcomparedthecharacteristicsofthesedifferentexamplesandinwhatwords
theformwasusedbothintermsofthewordclassandsentencestructures,forexample:
-TheywillhavebeentouringforsixmonthsbeforetheygettoJapan.
-Leavingthechildrenaloneatnightisverydangerous.
-Thesleepingbabylookssopeacefulandrelaxed.
-Theyspendtheirleisuretimeplayingcards.
The examples presented may be more numerous and varied than those above because they
provide many ranges of options. For example -ing form that serves as an adjective should not be
positionedbeforethenoun(attributive),butalsocanbepredicativeandpost-modifierpositions.
Thelearners’identificationbasedontheconcepttowardsthoseexampleswasmadeintheform
ofastructuredexplanationforeachcategorytoprovethattheexampleswerereallytheexamplesofeach
concept.
The learners discussed the features of the example and compared it with the concept
specifications. They used their background knowledge about the concept of four word classes (nouns,
verbs,adjectives,adverbs).Ifnecessary,theywereaskedtomakethelimitationofthewordclassina
simple way in order to be used as a comparison tool. After that the learners were asked to create an
explanatorystructure(hypothesis)toexplainthattheexamplescorrespondedtoeachspecificationofthe
conceptofform-ingform.Thishypothesishadtobeultimatelyprovedagainthroughtheuseofthe-ing

form in other sentences that they made with the teacher's guidance. This is called Explanation-Based
Learning(EBL)
Their explanations became hypotheses which were then used as the next data to be studied and
discussed. The learners identified and analyzed additional examples as True or False based on the
hypothesestheyalreadymade.Forexampletheyhypothesizedthatthe-ingforminthephrase"willhave
beentouringforsixmonthsbeforetheygettoJapan"wasaverbbynotingthattouringwassharedwith
theauxiliary'been'inperfectiveaspect'have'andfuturetense,andtheoverallsentencereferredtothe
progressiveaspect;whilesyntactically,the-ingformwasinpredicativepositionafterthesubject.With
suchanexplanatorystructurethelearnersidentifiedtheothersentencesintheexamplesasverb(True)
andnotverb(False).Forexample,the-ingformin"Leavingthechildrenaloneatnightisverydangerous"
isnotaverb.Ifitismentionedasaverb,thenthesentenceiswrongandsoon.
Thelearnerstestedtheirhypothesisandmadeoperationaldefinitionsofconceptsinaccordance
withtheattributesorfeaturescontainedinthesentences.Afterthattheymadeexamplesoftheirown
sentencestobeclassifiedagainthattheexamplesfittedtheconceptstheyhadbuilt.
The teacher asked about their reasons for the True and False answers and affirmed the
hypothesis and reiterated definitions based on important features. The learners then deducted by
definingtheoperationalconceptforthephrase"Leavingthechildrenaloneatnightisverydangerous"as
follows:'The-ingforminthesentenceisanouninsteadofaverb,becauseinthesentencestructurethe
nounphraseispositionedasthesubjectofthesentenceandthepredicateis"isverydangerous".The
learnerswereassumedtohaveabackgroundknowledgeoftheminimumEnglishsentencestructurethat
the sentence structure consists of subject and predicate (noun phrase + verb phrase). The learners
sharpenedtheiranalysisbyfocusingonthenounphraseinwhichthe-ingformleavingisfollowedbythe
nounphrasethechildrenalone.Thusthenounleavingalsohasaverbcharactersothatthechildrencan
bedescribedastheobjectoftheverbwhichalsobecomesthenounphraseinthesentenceasawhole.
Theycoulddrawtheconclusion(deduction)thatthe-ingforminthatcontextwascalledtheverbalnoun,
i.e.thenounthathadtheverbcharacter.
Thenthelearnersmadeanotherhypothesis,forexamplethat"likethenounfunctioningeneral,
then the-ing form can also replace the other nouns in the sentence". They were then asked to make
examples of other sentences to prove their hypothesis. For example they were encouraged to make
sentenceslike"Forgivemeforthelatecall",thatcouldbesubstitutedwiththenounformphrase"Forgive

meforcallingsolate."Theteacheralsogaveguidedexamples,suchasthephrase"Italkedtohimwithout
any knowledge that he was the head of the department "in which the underlined section should be
replaced with the noun -ing form phrase by the learners. Through discussion they were expected to
replacethenounphraseunderlinedanyknowledgebyknowing.


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In the same way, there was also an analysis of the concept of -ing form which has adjective
specifications,forexample:
-Thesleepingbabylookssopeacefulandrelaxed.
-Runningwaterlooksprettyinafountain.
-Wehadanexcitingmomentatthattime.
-Instead,shestartedtocreatedisturbingsounds.
Thenthedeductionbecame:"the-ingformintheaboveexampleservesasanadjectivebecause
itisusedtodescribe(modify)anounplacedafterit,sothesleepingbabymeansthebabythatissleeping,
runningwatermeansthewaterwhichisrunning,excitingmomentmeansthemomentwhichisexciting,
andsoon.
For adverb specifications like in the sentence "The sunshine came streaming through the
window",thelearnersweretodeduceitbysayingthatthe–ingforminstreamingwasanadverbbecause
ofitspositionaftertheintransitiveverbcame.Thenthewordservestoexplain(modify)theverbcomeas
theadverbofmanner,withprovinginquestion:"Howdidthesunshinecomethroughthewindow?"
Thelearnerswerealsotoidentifythe-ingformphrasesthatserveasadverbsinslightlymore

complexsentences,suchas"Notknowinganyoneintown,hefeelsverylonesome".
Theotherformofdeductionisanabstractionthatdistinguishestwofunctionsofthe-ingformhavingthe
samepositionalongwiththenouns.Thisdeductioncanbeprecededbyanexampleguidedbytheteacher
askingthelearnerstocompleteasentencee.g.:
Aroomforwaitingiscalled.....(theexpectedanswerfromthelearnerswasawaitingroom)
Atrainthatiswaitingiscalled.....(theexpectedanswerfromthelearnerswasawaitingtrain)
Abagthatisusedforsleepingiscalled....(theexpectedanswerfromthelearnerswasasleepingbag)
Achildthatissleepingiscalled....(theexpectedanswerfromthelearnerswasasleepingchild)
Thelearnersthenanalyzedtheseexamplesandidentifiedthedifferentusesofthe-ingformsothatit
couldbeseenthatthewaitingroomwasdifferentfromthewaitingtrain.Thatwaythelearnerdeduced
the-ingforminthewaitingroomwasthatitwasusedasanounbecausewaitingintheexpressionaroom
forwaitingisanoun.Itwasassumedthattheyhadabackgroundknowledgeoftheprepositionalphrase,
thatthewordafteraprepositionisanoun.Semantically,theywerealsoencouragedtobeabletoexplain
the meaning that the noun of -ing form when used in conjunction with another noun head has the
meaningorfunctionoftheheadnoun.
Thenthedeductionforthewaitingtrainalsoreferredtothepreviousexpressionthatwasatrain
that is waiting in which the clause that is waiting functioned to explain a train. It was concluded that
waitinginawaitingtrainwasanadjective.Throughobservationitwasseenthatthe-ingformthatserves
asanadjectivewhenusedinconjunctionwithheadnounwouldmeanactionordescriptionofthehead
noun,notusabilityorfunctionoftheheadnoun.
Thelearnerswereencouragedtodiscloseandreportontheirexplanatorystructure,whethertheywere
concentratedonattributesorconcepts,whethertheyhypothesizedonceinonetimeorseveraltimes,
andhowtheyalteredtheirhypothesisifthehypothesishadnotbeenapproved.Theirhypothesesmay
eitherbeacceptedorrejectedonthebasisofproofoftheexample.Ifaccepted,thehypothesiswillbe
thedefinitionoftheconcept.
In conveying the structure of the explanation (deduction) in the hypothesis and the definition of the
concept,ifnecessary,itwassometimesdoneintheIndonesianlanguagebecausetheimportantpoint
here was the learners’ own understanding to explain the -ing form as verbs, nouns, adjectives, and
adverbs.
A proven hypothesis would be the definition of a concept. The definition of the concept is

considered a better form of knowledge that can be used as a reference to construct new sentences.
Explanatorystructures,hypotheses,andoperationaldefinitionscanbeeitherdeductiveabstractionsor
generalizations.Botharecalledconstructivedeductions.
Theanalyticmodeloflearningasdescribedabovealsoincludesaspectssuchas:

Socialsystem
Thesocialsystemhasamoderatestructureinwhichateacherandlearnerscanengageinfree
interaction and dialogue even though the teacher initially plays a major role in concept selection and
control of learning activities. With the learners being encouraged, it is expected that the learners can
deduce and make operational concept definitions usable for making their own examples. Among the

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learners there is also constructed a cooperative discussion interaction so that they can learn
independently.

Principlesofreaction
Theteacherprovidessupportsthroughoutthelessonbyfocusingondiscussionsthatdiscussthe
hypotheses made by the learners. The learners are helped to create a dialogue between them in
hypothesis testing. The teacher focuses on the learners’ attention to specific characteristics in the
examplesandassiststhemindiscussingandevaluatingtheirthinkingstrategies.Theteachershouldalso
supportthebenefitofusingvariousstrategiesratherthanjustonestrategythatisexpectedtobethebest

foreveryoneinallsituations.

Supportsystem
Wellorganizedmaterialisanessentialsupportneededinthislearningmodel.Materialsanddata
areselectedandarrangedinunitsthatmakeiteasytosample.Ifthelearnerisabletothinkmorecomplex,
thenthelevelofdifficultyoftheexamplescanbeincreasedthustheunderstandingofaconceptdeepens.
Ontheotherhand,itcanencouragetheabilityoflearnerstomaketheirownexamples.

Instructionalandnurturanteffect
Theinstructionaleffecttofthislearningmodelisthatlearnerscanunderstandthenatureof
concepts,explanatorystructures(hypotheses),conceptbuildingstrategies,andtheabilitytoconstruct
operationaldefinitionsofconcepts.Whilethenurturanteffectintheformofenvironmentalexperiences
andlearningatmospherecreatedfromthemodelisthesensitivityoflogicthinkingincommunication,
tolerant attitude to the differences but still appreciate the logic of reasoning, and awareness of the
perspectiveorotherviews.

SyntheticModelofLearning
Inthelearningof-ingformssynthetically,theteacherprovidedinformationinputintheformof
conceptdefinitionsandexamplesordata.Theteacheralsoencouragedthelearnerstofind,mentionand
list the data that fit the definition. For example, the learners were given the task of observing and
identifyingthe-ingformasaverbalnoun(gerund),butpreviouslytheyweregivenadescription(concept
definition)aboutthegerund:"Gerundareverbalsthatfunctionasnounsandhavean-ingending.Since
gerundsarederivedfromverbsandhaveanending,theydoexpressaction.However,becausegerund
functionasnouns,theyoccupyslotstraditionallyheldbynounsinsentencessuchassubjects,directobjects
andobjectsofpreposition.Gerundsmayoccurasaword,ortheymaybepartofagerundphrase.Agerund
behaves as a verb within a phrase so that it may be modified by an adverb or have an object.
"(www.uhv.edu/ac)
Thesyntheticmodelisintherealmofcognitivismtheory,thelearnersgainnewknowledgewith
thereasoningbasedontheknowledgethathasbeenpreviouslyowned.Thus,thelearnersareassumed
tohaveknowntheroleandpositionofanouninthesyntacticstructureofEnglish.Theteacherthengave

thedata(text/discourse)foridentificationpurposes.Groupingisdoneaccordingtotheabovedefinition,
bycategorizingtheappropriateandnon-conformingform.Thedataofadiscoursewereasfollows:
A person traveling in a foreign country will need to bring the required documents. Aisha was
awareofthat.So,shewasverybusypreparingallthestuffforhertrip.Shedidnotliketakinganyrisk
whileawayfromhomecountry.Butanythingunwantedcouldhappen.Shewasstuckinaverylongtraffic
houronthewaytotheairport.Arrivinglate,shewasnotpermittedtogetaboardingpass.Sheinsisted
ongettingitbuttherewasnoavail.Shewasalreadylateandherplanewasabouttotakeoff.Theofficer
suggestedshetookanotherflight.Shehadnochoice.Betterbelatethanfailgoingabroad,shethought.
Waitingforanotherflight,shewasstandingatthecornerwatchingpeoplegobyattheairport.Shesaw
themwalkingtoandfro.Suddenly,someonetappedonhershoulder.Itwasherfriend,Danny.Hesaid
hallotoher.Theyfinallyknewthattheyhadthesamedestination.TherewasnodenyingthatAishawas
reallyhappytohaveacompany.Theunexpectedblessingindisguisewaslikearelievingpain.
Theteacherassignedthelearnerstoobservingthetextandgroupingthe-ingformsaccordingto
thedefinitioninatable,i.e.theGerundtableandgroupingthe–ingformswhichwerenotappropriate
accordingtotheirobservationsintheNotGerundtable.
Throughdiscussionamongthelearners,theyanalyzedandidentifiedthetextbasedonthegivenconcept
definitions,aswellasgroupingthe-ingformaccordingtothecharacteristicsmentionedinthedefinition.
They also classified the forms they consider not to be included in the definition. The learners further


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explainedtheunderlyingreasonforthegrouping.Theyhypothesizedexamplesandthosethatwerenot

examplesofadefinition.
When the learners grouped the data by definition, the process is referred to as learning empirical
inductivelearning.Thenextprocessisconstructiveinduction,i.e.whentheyexplainedtherelationship
between the data in a group and the definition as a reference. The learners observed a part of the
definitionofthegerundwhichsays:"becausegerundsfunctionasnouns,theyoccupyslotstraditionally
heldbynounsinsentencessuchassubjects,directobjectsandobjectsofpreposition".Theyobservedthe
databasedontheguideandfoundtheexpression"Shedidnotliketakinganyriskwhileawayfromhome
country".Sothroughdiscussion,theyexplainedthat"taking"isagerund(anoun)becauseitspositionin
thesentenceisasadirectobjectoftheverb"didnotlike".Byexpressingthesamesentence,theyalso
inferenced,basedonthedefinition"gerundbehavesasaverbwithinaphrasesothatitmaybemodified
byanadverborhaveanobject",thatgerund"taking"hastheobjectof"anyrisk",sothegerund"taking"
appliesasaverbinthephrase.Inthenon-gerundcategory,thelearnerswerealsoaskedtoexplainwhy
whattheymeanasnon-gerundiscalledasanon-gerund.Havingfoundthedatainaccordancewiththe
concept of a gerund, and understanding the definition along with supporting facts, the learners could
perform the discovery and construction process, by formulating the formation of new
hypotheses/concepts that move from the grouping of forms which do not include gerunds. Thus they
foundtheconceptof-ingformsasverbs,adjectives,andadverbs.
Theeasiest–ingformtoidentifyasanon-gerund(noun)oftheabovediscourseistheexpression"she
wasstandingatthecorner".Inthissentencethelearnerswereaskedtoindicatewhetherthe-ingform
wasaverb.Sincetheyhaveabackgroundintheknowledgeoftensesthentheteacherencouragedthem
tonametheirtensessothattheycouldbeusedtodistinguishthe-ingforminitsfunctionasnounsand
verbs.
The attempts to understand the -ing form as an adjective require knowledge of adjective
concepts.Inthiscasethelearnerswereremindedofthelearningofpartsofspeechthattheyalreadyhad.
Withaninductivestrategy-startingwithquestionsandexamplestoprinciplesorconcepts-theywere
asked to give or write examples of some words in the adjective category. It is possible they will only
mention isolated adjectives. To avoid this, they are lured to use the adjective along with the nouns it
describes,withaquestionfromtheteacher,forexample:"HowdoIknowtheword?Pleaseuseitwith
otherwordsothatIcanseethatitisreallyanadjective".Theteachercanwritedownanynounthatthe
learnershaveknownandaskthemagain."WhatifIcallthisanadjective?Isitanadjective?"Withtheir

backgroundknowledgetheywillsaythewordasanoun.Theteacherwillaskagain:"Howdoyouknow
thatitisanoun?"Maybetheywilladdthenoun(e.g."house")withadeterminer(e.g."a","the"or"my")
toprovethatwordisatruenoun.Ifso,thentheteachercantheninsertanadjectivetheyhavepreviously
mentionedbetweenthedeterminerandthenounandletthemdrawtheirownconclusions.Theexpected
conclusionoflearnersistheirabilitytoexplainadjectivefunctions.Theirhypothesisoftheadjectivewas
usedtoobservethetextandfindtheexpressionssimilartothehypothesis.Herearetwoproofs.Thefirst
proofofasimilarexpression(thesamestructure)withtheadjective+nounphrase(e.g.abighouse)isa
relievingpain.Thustheirhypothesisiscorrectbecauseitcanbeprovenempiricallybasedonthefacts(in
thetext)theyfound.Thesecondproofisthattheformof"relieving"canbesummedupasanadjective
basedonthehypothesistheyconstructed.
In terms of-ing form functions as adverbs, inductive learning took a long time because the
conceptofadverbanditsfunctionisquitebroadandvariedinitsuseinsentences.Thephrase"arriving
late"inthesentence"Arrivinglate,shewasnotpermittedtogetaboardingpass",couldbeseenpartially
by the learners by generalizing the phrase as being a gerund. They observed that "arriving late" was
followedbytheadverb"late"byconsideringthedefinitionoftheconceptthattheprevailinggerundlike
verbscouldgetadverbs.Internally,the-ingforminthephraselookslikeagerundbecauseithasa"late"
adverb,buttheconstructionofthatphraseshouldbeviewedasawholeinrelationtothecontextofthe
sentence(itneedstobeemphasizedtothelearnersthateachwordhascertainfunctionsandmeanings
only when used in the context of a whole sentence). To solve the problem, learning was done by
observationoftheexampleofothersentencewhichhadbeenstudiedbutfirsttheyweregivenaconcept.
Theconceptread:“todeterminewhetherawordinasentenceisagerund,lookattheword(s)endingin
–inginthesentence.Ifthewordcanbereplacedbythepronounit,thenthewordisagerund.Iftheword
it replaces other words in addition to the gerund, then these make up the gerund phrase” (Lester, in
www.uhv.edu/ac).

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Forexample,thephrase"takinganyrisk"inthesentence"Shedidnotliketakinganyrisk"canbereplaced
by"it"to"Shedidnotlikeit",asaproofthatthephraseisagerund.Butthephrasearrivinglatecannot
bereplacedby"it"inthesentence"Arrivinglate,shewasnotpermittedtogetaboardingpass"because
thesentencewouldbewrong(notgrammatical).Thephraseisonlysuitableifreplacedwithanadverb,
suchaseventually.
Thesyntheticmodeloflearningasdescribedabovealsoincludesaspectssuchas:

Socialsystem
Inthesocialsystemofthislearningmodel,theclassroomatmosphereishighlycooperativebased
onactivitiesthatsupporteachotherpositively.Theteacherplaysaroleinprovidingstimulithatguidethe
learners’ understanding so that they can perform discovery and construction processes in the use of
severalconceptsofthe-ingform’sfunctions,sothatitcanbetrulyunderstoodandusedinthemakingof
sentences.Theteacherorganizessequencesofactivitiesandcontrolslearningcooperatively.Thelearners
alsotrytolearnthelearningstrategiesintheformatofdiscussionbetweenthem.

Principlesofreaction
Someimportanttasksthatteachershoulddoareasfollows:
-Prepareclearguidelinesforactivitiesandrespondtolearningactivities.
-Makesthecognitivetaskoptimally.
-Prepareactivitiesthatwillbedoneintheclassroom.
-Monitoringlearnerstogetthemtherightinformation.
-Buildquestionsthatcanencouragethelearnertoanswerasexpected.
-Conditionthelearnerstobereadyfornewexperiencesandcognitiveactivities.

Supportsystem

Learningmaterialsshouldbepreparedinastructuredway.Thefourfunctionsof-ingformscan
besequencedfromthemosteasilyunderstoodfunctionstothelearners,startingfromtheverbfunction
becausethelearnersfirstrecognizesthe-ingformfromitsuseintensesintheprogressiveaspect.The
learningdatacanbeprovidedseveraltimesaccordingtotheneedsandtimeallocationsavailable,starting
fromthesimplediscourseinwhichthefunctionsof-ingformareusedinaneasywayforthefourword
classes(nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs),tothemorecomplexphrasesandsentences.

Instructionalandnurturanteffect
This model is designed to teach the learners how to do concept forming activities and teach
various concepts based on many data. The nurturant effect is to build and develop attention to the
languageoflogic,themeaningofwordsandthenatureofknowledge.

TheResultoftheExperiments
Theimplementationsofthetwomodelsintheexperimentalclasseswerecarriedoutafterthe
independentsamplet-testhadbeenconductedtomakecertainthatbothclasseshadthesamevariant.
ThevalueofSig(0.957)>0.05showsthatbothgroupshavethesamevariant.Secondly,bothgroupshave
thesameaveragepre-testresultsbecausetheoutputoft-testrevealsSig(2-tailed)=0.562>0.05.Thusit
canbeconcludedthatthetwogroupsmeettherequiredqualificationsforthegivenlearningtreatment
withtheanalyticalmodelandsyntheticmodelbecausethetwogroupshavethesameaverageofability.
Thedatabelowshowsthatbothclassesutilizinganalyticandsyntheticmodelsimprovedtheirknowledge
onthefunctionsof–ingformscontextually.However,theanalyticclassdidbetterthansyntheticclass,as
itisshowninthedifferentresultsofthepost-tests’meanscores.

Table2.StatisticsofPairedSamplesandCorrelationofAnalyticandSyntheticModels
Teaching
Test
Mean
N
Std.
Std. error Correlation Sig.

model
deviation
mean
Analytic
Pre-test
50.82
22
9.634
2.054
.822
.000
Post-test 75.55
22
10.971
2.339
Synthetic Pre-test
52.55
22
9.975
2.127
.773
.000
Post-test 67.18
22
13.504
2.879



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Therewasastrongcorrelationbetweenthescorebeforethetreatmentandthescoreafterthe
treatment in the analytical model of learning where Sig. <0.05. The difference of the average scores
betweenpre-testandpost-testwasquitelargei.e.24.73.Onascaleof100,themeanscore75.55after
thetreatmenthadincreasedtogradeB+fromgradeD(50.82).Theinfluenceofthisanalyticalmodelon
2
thesuccessoflearning–ingformswas(0.822 =0.675)orequalto67.5%.Theremaining33.5%wascaused
byotherfactorsthatwerenotexamined.Ontheotherhand,therewasalsoastrongcorrelationbetween
thescorebeforethetreatmentwiththescoreafterthetreatmentwiththesyntheticmodelwhereSig.
<0.05.Themeanscoredifferencebetweenpre-testandpost-testwas14.63.Onascaleof100,themean
score67.18afterthetreatmenthadincreasedtogradeC+fromgradeD(52.55).Theeffectofsynthetic
2
modelonthesuccessoflearning–ingformwas(0.773 =0.597)orequalto59.7%.Theremaining40.3%
wasduetootherfactorsthatwerenotinvestigated.
The difference of standard deviation in the synthetic class after the treatment was larger than in the
analyticclass.Itmeansthattherewasstillawidegapamongthelearnersinthesyntheticclassintheir
abilitytoimprovetheirknowledgeonidentifyingtheusagesofthe–ingformsinsentences.Someofthe
learnersfounditdifficulttocomprehendthedifferentfunctionsof–ingformswhenthe–ingformswere
appliedinthesentences.However,afewofthemsucceededtoimprovetheirscores.
Thedifferenceofmeanscorespre-testandpost-testbetweentheanalyticclassandthesynthetic
classwasquitesignificant.Themeanscoreoftheanalyticclasswas24.73whilethesyntheticclass’was
14.63.Itmeansthattheanalyticclassdidbetterinthepost-testthanthesyntheticclassasitisshownin
theirgrades.TheanalyticclassgotgradeB+(75.55)comparedtotheresultofthepre-test,whichwas

onlygradeD(50.82).Meanwhile,thesyntheticclassmerelyreachedgradeC+comparedtotheirinitial
score,whichwasD(52.55).

ComparisonoftheAnalyticModelandtheSyntheticModel
Alearningmodeliscalledaseffectiveorineffectivewhenithasbeenusedinteaching.Thusthe
effectiveness of the learning/teaching model is directly related to teaching effectiveness. The
effectiveness of teaching is an activity that encourages students to learn. Many factors affect the
effectivenessofteaching,includingcurriculumanditsdevelopment.Somewayssuchasstudentopinions,
self-reviews,peerevaluations,andobjectivecriteriasuchasmeasuringstudentlearningoutcomesand
improving their learning can all be used as tools to measure teaching effectiveness
(development/effective-teaching.pdf).
So,thesourceoftheeffectivenessassessmentcomesfromthreetypesofparticipants:students,
colleagues,andteachersthemselves.Inthisstudythemeasurementoftheeffectivenessofthelearning
modelusedinclassroomteachingislimitedonlytostudentlearningoutcomesandopinions,plusareview
oftheteacherherself,inthiscasetheresearcher.Amongthesetwo,themostobjectiveofcourseisthe
measurement of learning outcomes. Whereas student ratings and teacher reviews are positioned as
qualitativedatatoillustratethesupportingandinhibitingfactorsoftheteaching/learningmodel.
Thefollowingisaquantitativestatisticalcalculationofstudentlearningoutcomeswiththeanalyticand
syntheticmodels.Thepurposeofthiscalculationistocomparethetwomodelsoflearninginordertofind
out which model can further improve student's learning achievement in learning the concept of -ing
forms, both in function aspect and its use in sentences. For this reason, a descriptive and statistical
comparisonofindependentsamplet-testcanbeseeninthetablebelow:

Tabel3.T-TestofIndependentSamplesforAnalytic-SyntheticModels
Learning
Levene’s Test
Outcome
for Equality of t-testforEqualityofMeans
Variances
F

Sig.
t
Sig.(2- Mean Std.
95% Confidence
tailed) Differ- Error
Interval of the
ence
Diff.
Difference
Lower Upper
Equal
variances
assumed

2.701

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2.255

2.255

.029

.030

8.364

8.364

3.709

3.709

.878

.869

15.849

15.859


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Equal
variances not
assumed

T-testofIndependentsamplesaboveisusedtotestwhetherbothgroupshavethesamevariant,withthe
followinghypothesis:
H0:bothgroupshavethesamevariant.
H1:bothgroupsdonothavethesamevariant.

Sigvalueis(0.108)>0.05,soH0isaccepted,meaningthatbothgroupsofdatahavethesamevariant.
Next,thesamestatisticaltestisusedalsototestwhetherbothgroupshavethesameachievementscores.
Thehypothesisisasfollows:
H0:bothgroupshavethesameaveragelearningoutcomes.
H1:thetwogroupsdonothavethesameaveragelearningoutcomes.
TheoutputisknownSig.(2-tailed)=0.02<0.05,consequently,H0isrejected,meaningthatbothgroups
donothavethesameaveragelearningoutcomes.Thusitcanbeconcludedthattheanalyticmodelused
tostudytheconceptof-ingformeitherinitsclassfunctions(asverbs,nouns,adjectives,adverbs)andits
useinthecontextofsentences,ismoreeffectivethanthesyntheticmodelalthoughbothcanimprove
learning achievement . But the learning achievement with the analytic model is still higher than the
syntheticmodel.

SupportingandInhibitingFactors
A reference for describing supporting and inhibiting factors for both analytic and synthetic
modelswerederivedfromthestudentsinadditiontotheteacher.Becausethestudentsarethegroups
involvedinlearning,thentheirperceptionsareconsideredimportant.Theirresponsesoftenillustratethe
strengths and weaknesses of a teaching. However, they are not observers of lectures because their
opinionsaresometimesinfluencedbytheirmotivations,attitudesandneeds.Thisqualitativedatawas
obtainedthroughinterviewsattheendoftheclassexperiments.Notallrespondentsgavetheiropinions.
However,qualitativedatadonotnecessarilyrequirealargenumberofrespondents.Fivetotenofthem
have represented the whole because the questioning was done openly and witnessed by other
respondents.
Thesupportingfactorforbothmodelsaccordingtotherespondents(thestudents)isthatthe
understandingoftheconceptof–ingformanditsfunctioninthecontextofsentencesisstrongerand
deeperbecausetheyaregivenfreedomofopinionandultimately"findbythemselves"thefunctionsofingformswhentheyweregivennewsentences.Theirunderstandingisbetterbecausetheyweregiven
theopportunitytodefinethefunctionof-ingformsassociatedwithitsstructureandsemanticaspectsin
the sentence. The respondents of the analytic class felt challenged by studying in groups and asking
questions while testing their "hypotheses" about the function of -ing forms with other groups. The
obstaclewasthatittookalongertimetoarriveatthecomprehensionofafunctionwhencomparedto
being"told"bytheteacher.Whiletheinhibitingfactorinthesyntheticmodelisalsothesame.Ittook

longlearningtimeplusthedifficultyoffindingotherconceptsaboutthefunctionsof-ingformsinthetext
ofdiscourseifsimplybeingguidedbyonlyoneconceptdefinition.
Bothanalyticandsyntheticmodelsaretwosidesofthesamecoin.Botharecognitivelearning
strategies of information processing learning approach. Information processing learning is oriented to
academicdisciplinesregardinginquirystructuresandmethodsbyfocusingonintellectualcapacitywith
respecttotheabilityoflearnerstoobserve,organizedata,understandinformation,formconcepts,use
verbal-nonverbal
symbols,
and
solve
problems
(chapter3.pdf).Applicationofthismodel
aimstoincreasingtheknowledgeoftheconceptsand,moreover,theirapplicationscanbestoredlonger
in the memory of the learner. It will be different if a teacher only tells them directly the meaning or
definitionoftheconceptratherthanencouragethemtofindoutandfinditthemselves.Informationor
knowledgeinthefirstwaymayeasilybeforgottenbecausethelearneractsasapassiverecipient.But
when the same knowledge is obtained by the second way by involving the learners in the discovery
process,thentheinformationhasthepotentialtobestoredintheirlong-termmemoriesbecausethe
learnersactasactiveinvestigators.
Intermsofself-review,well-organizedteachingmaterialisanessentialsupportneededinboth
analyticandsyntheticlearningmodels.Materialsanddataareselectedandarrangedinunitsthatmake


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iteasytobecomeexamples.Ifthelearnersareabletothinkmorecomplex,thenthelevelofdifficultyof
theexamplescanbeincreasedtodeepenthelearners’understandingofaconcept.Ontheotherhand,in
suchaway,itcanencouragethelearnerstooptimizetheirabilityofmakingtheirownexamples.Thetiring
thingfortheteacheristoprepareexamplesofsentencesthatarenumerous,variedandintieredlevels
ofdifficulty.
Learning materials should be prepared in a structured way. The four functions of -ing forms can be
sequencedfromthefunctionsmosteasilyunderstoodbythelearners,startingfromthefunctionasverbs
becausethelearnersfirstrecognize-ingformsforitsuseintheprogressiveaspectoftenses.Thelearning
datacanbeprovidedseveraltimesaccordingtotheneedsandtimeallocationsavailable,startingfrom
thesimplediscourseinwhichthefunctionsofthe-ingformsareusedinaneasywayforthefourword
classes(noun,verb,adjective,adverb),tothemorecomplexphrasesandsentences.Thismeansworking
andthinkinghardfromthesideoftheteacherifhe/shewantstheteachingtosucceed.
Thedisadvantagesofbothmodels–inreferringtotherespondents'opinion-aretheamountoftimeit
takestolearntheconcepts.Thelongtimeneededinthelearningprocessisbecausethestudentsare
encouragedandstimulatedtoactivelyperformtheinductiveanalysisandbuildconceptualunderstanding
throughafixedanalysis.

CONCLUSIONANDSUGGESTION
The analytic and synthetic models for learning –ing forms are two models adapted from a
syntheticanalyticlearningstrategyforacomputerlearningsystem.Becausethe–ingformlearningisa
learningabouttheconceptinitsfunctionsbasedonthewordclass(partsofspeech)inthecontextofa
sentence, the learning structure refers to information processing which is also identical with the
informationprocessingsystemofacomputer.Intheperspectiveofcognitivepsychology,ahumanisan
informationprocessorandthisissimilartohowcomputersprocesstheinformation.Withthisanalogy,
theinformation-processingmodelisalsoanimplementationprocedureinanalyticandsyntheticlearning,
builtasawaytolearnconceptsforhumanbeings.Althoughtheimplementationintheclassroomtakes
relativelylongertime,thelearningresultsobtainedcanlastlongerinthelearners'memorybecausethey
actasactiveinvestigators.

Afterappliedintheteachingexperimentintwoclasses,thatistheclasswithanalyticmodeland
theclasswithsyntheticmodelinordertoknowwhichmodelismoreeffectiveforthesuccessofthestudy,
hencethrought-teststatisticitisknownthatteachingwiththeanalyticmodelimprovedmorelearning
achievement.Themeanscoreoftherespondentsinthepost-testis75.55fortheanalyticalmodeland
67.18forthesyntheticmodel.
Thesupportingelementoftheanalyticmodelisthattheconceptandthefunctionsof-ingformsinthe
sentenceswerebetterunderstoodandcouldeasilybeidentifiedbytherespondents.Whiletheclasswith
thesyntheticmodelstillmuchneededtutoringbecausetherespondentsreliedononlyonedefinitionof
theconceptofthe-ingforms,i.e.asanoun.Throughthedataobservationintheformofadiscourse,they
had to find three other functions. Secondly, the respondents were able to make their own definitions
concerningthefunctionsof-ingformsinrelationtootherwordsinthecontextofsentences.Theobstacle
was that the need for careful preparation and the data (examples of sentences and discourse) were
numerous.Anotherobstaclewastheamountofstudytimethatismorethantheconventionalwayof
learning.
Thereareatleasttwoissuesarisingfromthisinvestigation.Theamountoftimespentinapplying
themodelsinclassesisstilllongerthanexpected.Tosomeextent,thatcouldmakethelearnersfrustrated
andbored.Thereshouldbeanotherwaytomakebothmodels‘timefriendly’.Secondly,sinceanalytic
and synthetic are two sides of one coin of the way human beings think and reason, there may be a
possibilitytocombinebothmodelsintoonepackageofteachingmodel.So,afurtherresearchisneeded
tobeconductedinordertofindsolutionstotheseissues.

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