FUNDAMENTALS
OF OPTICS

FourthEdition

Francis A. Jenkins

Late Professor of Physics
University of California, Berkeley

Harvey E. White
Professor of Physics, Emeritus
Director of the Lawrence Hall of Science, Emeritus
University of California, Berkeley

~

McGraw-Hili Primls

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McGraw-Hill Higher Education ~
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This book was set in Times Roman. The editors were Robert A. Fry and Anne T.
Vinnicombe; the production supervisor was Dennis J. Conroy. The new
drawings were done by ANCO Technical Services.

FUNDAMENTALS OF OPTICS

Fourth Edition

Copyright@ 2001 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United
States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or
distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base retrieval
system, without prior written permission of the publisher.
This book contains all material from Fundamentals of Optics, Fourth Edition by
Francis A. Jenkins and Harvey E. White. Copyright@1976, 1957, 1950 by The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Formerly published under the title of
Fundamentals of Physical Optics. Copyright@ 1937 by The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc. Copyright renewed 1965 by Francis A. Jenkins and Harvey E.
White. Reprinted with permission of the publisher.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 QSR QSR 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
ISBN 0-07-256191-2

Editor: Shirley Grall
Printer/Binder: Quebecor World

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CONTENTS

Part One

Preface to the Fourth Edition

xvii

Preface to the Third Edition

xix

Geometrical Optics

1 Properties of Light
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

The Rectilinear Propagation of Light
The Speed of Light
The Speed of Light in Stationary Matter
The Refractive Index
Optical Path

Laws of Reflection and Refraction
Graphical Construction for Refraction
The Principle of Reversibility
Fermat's Principle
1.10 Color Dispersion

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3
5
6
8
9
10
11

13
14
14

18


vi

CONTENTS

2

Plane Surfaces and Prisms


2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9

Parallel Beam
The Critical Angle and Total Reflection
Plane-Parallel Plate
Refraction by a Prism
Minimum Deviation
Thin Prisms
Combinations of Thin Prisms
Graphical Method of Ray Tracing
Direct-Vision Prisms
2.10 Reflection of Divergent Rays
2.11 Refraction of Divergent Rays
2.12 Images Formed by Paraxial Rays
2.13 Fiber Optics
3 Spherical Surfaces

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

Focal Points and Focal Lengths
Image Formation
Virtual Images
Conjugate Points and Planes
Convention of Signs
Graphical Constructions. The Parallel-Ray Method
Oblique-Ray Methods
Magnification
Reduced Vergence
3.10 Derivation of the Gaussian Formula
3.11 Nomography
4

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10


4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15

24

24
25
28
29
30
32
32
33
34
36
36
38
40
44

45
46
47
47
50
50
52

54
54
56
57

Thin Lenses

60

Focal Points and Focal Lengths
Image Formation
Conjugate Points and Planes
The Parallel-Ray Method
The Oblique-Ray Method
Use of the Lens Formula
Lateral Magnification
Virtual Images
Lens Makers' Formula
Thin-Lens Combinations
Object Space and Image Space
The Power of a Thin Lens
Thin Lenses in Contact
Derivation of the Lens Formula
Derivation of the Lens Makers' Formula

60
62
62
62
63

64
64
65
67
68
70
70
71
72
73

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CONTENTS

78

5 Thick Lenses

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9


Two Spherical Surfaces
The Parallel-Ray Method
Focal Points and Principal Points
Conjugate Relations
The Oblique-Ray Method
General Thick-Lens Formulas
Special Thick Lenses
Nodal Points and Optical Center,
Other Cardinal Points
5.10 Thin-Lens Combination as a Thick Lens
5.11 Thick-Lens Combinations
5.12 Nodal Slide
6

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9

Spherical Mirrors
Focal Point and Focal Length
Graphical Constructions
Mirror Formulas
Power of Mirrors
Thick Mirrors

Thick-Mirror Formulas
Other Thick Mirrors
Spherical Aberration
Astigmatism

7 The Effects of Stops

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9

Field Stop and Aperture Stop
Entrance and Exit Pupils
Chief Ray
Front Stop
Stop between Two Lenses
Two Lenses with No Stop
Determination of the Aperture Stop
Field of View
Field of a Plane Mirror
7.10 Field of a Convex Mirror
7.11 Field of a Positive Lens
8


8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

vii

78
79
81
82
82
84
88
88
90
91
93
93
98

98
99
102
104
105
107
109
109
1I1

115

lIS
1I6
1I7
1I7
1I8
120
121
122
122
124
124

Ray Tracing

130

Oblique Rays
Graphical Method for Ray Tracing
Ray-tracing Formulas
Sample Ray-tracing Calculations

130
131
134
135

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viii

CONTENTS

9

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10

9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7

10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
10.15
10.16
10.17
10.18
10.19
10.20
10.21

Part Two
11

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4

Lens Aberrations

149

Expansion of the Sine. First-Order Theory
Third-Order Theory of Aberrations
Spherical Aberration of a Single Surface

Spherical Aberration of a Thin Lens
Results of Third-Order Theory
Fifth-Order Spherical Aberration
Coma
Aplanatic Points of a Spherical Surface
Astigmatism
Curvature of Field
Distortion
The Sine Theorem and Abbe's Sine Condition
Chromatic Aberration
Separated Doublet

150
151
152
153
157
160
162
166
167
170
17l
173
176
182

Optical Instruments

188


The Human Eye
Cameras and Photographic Objectives
Speed of Lenses
Meniscus Lenses
Symmetrical Lenses
Triplet Anastigmats
Telephoto Lenses
Magnifiers
Types of Magnifiers
Spectacle Lenses
Microscopes
Microscope Objectives
Astronomical Telescopes
Oculars and Eyepieces
Huygens Eyepiece
Ramsden Eyepiece
Kellner or Achromatized Ramsden Eyepiece
Special Eyepieces
Prism Binoculars
The Kellner-Schmidt Optical System
Concentric Optical Systems

188
191
191
193
193
194
195

195
198
198
200
201
202
205
205
206
206
206
207
208
209

Wave Optics
Vibrations and Waves

215

Simple Harmonic Motion
The Theory of Simple Harmonic Motion
Stretching of a Coiled Spring
Vibrating Spring

216
217
218
221


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CONTENTS

11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11

Transverse Waves
Sine Waves
Phase Angles
Phase Velocity and Wave Velocity
Amplitude and Intensity
Frequency and Wavelength
Wave Packets

12 The Superposition of Waves
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8

12.9

Addition of Simple Harmonic Motions along the Same Line
Vector Addition of Amplitudes
Superposition of Two Wave Trains of the Same Frequency
Superposition of Many Waves with Random Phases
Complex Waves
Fourier Analysis
Group Velocity
Graphical Relation between Wave and Group Velocity
Addition of Simple Harmonic Motions at Right Angles

13 Interference of Two Beams of Light
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11
13.12
13.13
13.14
13.15

Huygens' Principle

Young's Experiment
Interference Fringes from a Double Source
Intensity Distribution in the Fringe System
Fresnel's Biprism
Other Apparatus Depending on Division of the Wave Front
Coherent Sources
Division of Amplitude. Michelson Interferometer
Circular Fringes
Localized Fringes
White-Light Fringes
Visibility of the Fringes
Interferometric Measurements of Length
Twyman and Green Interferometer
Index of Refraction by Interference Methods

14 Interference Involving Multiple Reflections
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9

Reflection from a Plane-Parallel Film
Fringes of Equal Inclination
Interference in the Transmitted Light
Fringes of Equal Thickness

Newton's Rings
Nonreflecting Films
Sharpness of the Fringes
Method of Complex Amplitudes
Derivation of the Intensity Function

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223
224
225
228
229
232
235
238
239
240
242
244
246
248
250
252
253
259
260
261


263
265
266
268
270
271
273
275
276
277
279
281
282
286
288
291
292
293
294
295
297
299
300


~-

X


--~

CONTENTS

14.10

14.11
14.12
14.13
14.14
14.15
14.16

Fabry-Perot Interferometer
Brewster's Fringes
Chromatic Resolving Power
Comparison of Wavelengths with the Interferometer
Study of Hyperfine Structure and of Line Shape
Other Interference Spectroscopes
Channeled Spectra. Interference Filter

15 Fraunhofer Diffraction by a Single Opening
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction
Diffraction by a Single Slit
Further Investigation of the Single-Slit Diffraction Pattern
Graphical Treatment of Amplitudes. The Vibration Curve
Rectangular Aperture
Resolving Power with a Rectangular Aperture
Chromatic Resolving Power of a Prism
Circular Aperture

Resolving Power of a Telescope
15.10 Resolving Power of a Microscope
15.11 Diffraction Patterns with Sound and Microwaves
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9

16 The Double Slit
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9
16.10

Qualitative Aspects of the Pattern
Derivation of the Equation for the Intensity
Comparison of the Single-Slit and Double-Slit Patterns
Distinction between Interference and Diffraction
Position of the Maxima and Minima. Missing Orders

Vibration Curve
Effect of Finite Width of Source Slit
Michelson's Stellar Interferometer
Correlation Interferometer
Wide-Angle Interference

17 The Diffraction Grating
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.9

Effect of Increasing the Number of Slits
Intensity Distribution from an Ideal Grating
Principal Maxima
Minima and Secondary Maxima
Formation of Spectra by a Grating
Dispersion
Overlapping of Orders
Width of the Principal Maxima
Resolving Power
17.10 Vibration Curve
17.11 Production of Ruled Gratings
17.12 Ghosts


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301
302
303
305
308
310
311

315
315
316
319
322
324
325
327
329
330
332
334

338
338
339
341
341
342
346

347
349
351
352

355
355
357
358
358
359
362
362
363
364
365
368
370


CONTENTS

17.13
17.14
17.15
17.16

Control of the Intensity Distribution among Orders
Measurement of Wavelength with the Grating
Concave Grating

Grating Spectrographs

18 Fresnel Diffraction
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
18.9
18.10

18.11
18.12
18.13
18.14
18.15

Shadows
Fresnel's Half-Period Zones
Diffraction by a Circular Aperture
Diffraction by a Circular Obstacle
Zone Plate
Vibration Curve for Circular Division of the Wave Front
Apertures and Obstacles with Straight Edges
Strip Division of the Wave Front
Vibration Curve for Strip Division. Cornu's Spiral
Fresnel's Integrals

The Straight Edge
Rectilinear Propagation of Light
Single Slit
Use of Fresnel's Integrals in Solving Diffraction Problems
Diffraction by an Opaque Strip

19 The Speed of Light
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7
19.8
19.9

xl

370
373
373
374
378
378
380
383
384
385
386

388
389
389
390
393
395
397
399
400
403

Romer's Method
Bradley's Method. The Aberration of Light
Michelson's Experiments
Measurements in a Vacuum
Kerr-Cell Method
Speed of Radio Waves
Ratio of the Electrical Units
The Speed of Light in Stationary Matter
Speed of Light in Moving Matter
Fresnel's Dragging Coefficient
Airy's Experiment
Effect of Motion of the Observer
The Michelson-MorleyExperiment
Principle of Relativity
The Three First-Order Relativity Effects

403
405
406

408
408
410
411
411
412
413
414
414
416
418
419

20 The Electromagnetic Character of Light

423

19.10

19.11
19.12
19.13
19.14
19.15

20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5

20.6

Transverse Nature of Light Vibrations
Maxwell's Equations for a Vacuum
Displacement Current
The Equations for Plane Electromagnetic Waves
Pictorial Representation of an Electromagnetic Wave
Light Vector in an Electromagnetic Wave

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424
425
427
428
429


xii

CONTllNTS

20.7
20.8
20.9

20.10
20.11
20.12


Energy and Intensity of the Electromagnetic Wave
Radiation from an Accelerated Charge
Radiation From a Charge in Periodic Motion
Hertz's Verification of the Existence of Electromagnetic Waves
Speed of Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space
Cerenkov Radiation

21 Sources of Light and Their Spectra
Classification of Sources
Solids at High Temperature
Metallic Arcs
Bunsen Flame
Spark
21.6 Vacuum Tube
21.7 Classification of Spectra
21.8 Emittance and Absorptance
21.9 Continuous Spectra
21.10 Line Spectra
21.11 Series of Spectral Lines
21.12 Band Spectra
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5

22 Absorption and Scattering
General and Selective Absorption
Distinction between Absorption and Scattering

Absorption by Solids and Liquids
Absorption by Gases
Resonance and Fluorescence of Gases
22.6 Fluorescence of Solids and Liquids
22.7 Selective Reflection. Residual Rays
22.8 Theory of the Connection between Absorption and Reflection
22.9 Scattering by Small Particles
22.10 Molecular Scattering
22.11 Raman Effect
22.12 Theory of Scattering
22.13 Scattering and Refractive Index
22.1
22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5

23 Dispersion
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4

23.5
23.6
23.7
23.8
23.9

429

430
432
432
434
434
438
438
439
439
442
442
443
445
445
447
450
452
453
457
457
458
459
461
461
464
464
465
466
468
469

470
471
474

Dispersion of a Prism
Normal Dispersion
Cauchy's Equation
Anomalous Dispersion
Sellmeier's Equation
Effect of Absorption on Dispersion
Wave and Group Velocity in the Medium
The Complete Dispersion Curve of a Substance
The Electromagnetic Equations for Transparent Media

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475
479
479
482
485
487
488
489


CONTENTS

23.10

23.11

Theory of Dispersion
Nature of the Vibrating Particles and Frictional

24 The Polarization
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5
24.6
24.7
24.8
24.9

24.10
24.11
24.12
24.13
24.14
24.15
24.16
24.17
24.18

Forces

of Light


Polarization by Reflection
Representation of the Vibrations in Light
Polarizing Angle and Brewster's Law
Polarization by a Pile of Plates
Law of Malus
Polarization by Dichroic Crystals
Double Refraction
Optic Axis
Principal Sections and Principal Planes
Polarization by Double Refraction
Nicol Prism
Parallel and Crossed Polarizers
Refraction by Calcite Prisms
Rochon and Wollaston Prisms
Scattering of Light and the Blue Sky
The Red Sunset
Polarization by Scattering
The Optical Properties of Gemstones

2S Reflection
25.1
25.2
25.3
25.4
25.5
25.6
25.7
25.8
25.9


25.10
25.11
25.12

Reflection from Dielectrics
Intensities of the Transmitted Light
Internal Reflection
Phase Changes on Reflection
Reflection of Plane-polarized Light from Dielectrics
Elliptically Polarized Light by Internal Reflection
Penetration into the Rare Medium
Metallic Reflection
Optical Constants of Metals
Description of the Light Reflected from Metals
Measurement of the Principal Angle of Incidence and Principal
Azimuth
Wiener's Experiments

26 Double
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4
26.5
26.6
26.7

Refraction

Wave Surfaces for Uniaxial Crystals

Propagation of Plane Waves in Uniaxial Crystals
Plane Waves at Oblique Incidence
Direction of the Vibrations
Indices of Refraction for Uniaxial Crystals
Wave Surfaces in Biaxial Crystals
Internal Conical Refraction

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491
494
497
498
499
500
501
503
504
505
507
507
508
510
511
511
513
514
515

516
518
S23
523
526
527
527
529
531
533
534
536
538
540
541
S44
544
546
549
550
551
553
556


xiv

CONTENTS

26.8

26.9

External Conical Refraction.
Theory of Double Refraction

27 Interference
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.6
27.7
27.8
27.9

of Polarized

557
559
Light

Elliptically and Circularly Polarized Light
Quarter- and Half-Wave Plates
Crystal Plates between Crossed Polarizers
Babinet Compensator
Analysis of Polarized Light
Interference with White Light
Polarizing Monochromatic Filter
Applications of Interference in Parallel Light

Interference in Highly Convergent Light

28 Optical Activity and Modern
28.1
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9
28.10
28.11
28.12
28.13
28.14
Part Three

Rotation of the Plane of Polarization
Rotary Dispersion
Fresnel's Explanation of Rotation
Double Refraction in Optically Active Crystals
Shape of the Wave Surfaces in Quartz
Fresnel's Multiple Prism
Cornu Prism
Vibration Forms ana Intensities in Active Crystals
Theory of Optical Activity
Rotation in Liquids
Modem Wave Optics

Spatial Filtering
Phase-Contrast Microscope
Schlieren Optics
Quantum

and Their

Origin

The Bohr Atom
Energy Levels
Bohr-Stoner Scheme for Building Up Atoms
Elliptical Orbits, or Penetrating Orbitals
Wave Mechanics
The Spectrum of Sodium
Resonance Radiation
Metastable States
Optical Pumping

30 Lasers
30.1
30.2

581
581
582
584
586
588
589

590
591
593
594
596
597
602
604

Optics

29 Light Quanta
29.1
29.2
29.3
29.4
29.5
29.6
29.7
29.8
29.9

Wave Optics

564
564
567
568
569
571

572
575
576
576

Stimulated Emission
Laser Design

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612
616
617
619
622
625
626
629
630
632
633
634


CONTENTS

30.3
30.4
30.5

30.6
30.7
30.8
30.9
30.10
30.11
30.12
30.13

31
31.1
31.2
31.3
31.4
31.5
31.6
31.7

32
32.1
32.2
32.3
32.4
32.5
32.6
32.7
32.8
32.9
32.10
32.11


The Ruby Laser
The Helium-Neon Gas Laser
Concave Mirrors and Brewster's Windows
The Carbon Dioxide Laser
Resonant Cavities
Coherence Length
Frequency Doubling
Other Lasers
Laser Safety
The Speckle Effect
Laser Applications

635
636
642
643
646
650
652
653
653
653
654

Holography

658

The Basic Principles of Holography

Viewing a Hologram
The Thick, or Volume, Hologram
Multiplex Holograms
White- Light- Reflection Holograms
Other Holograms
Student Laboratory Holography

659
664
665
669
670
672
675

Magneto-Optics and Electro-Optics

678

Zeeman Effect
Inverse Zeeman Effect
Faraday Effect
Voigt Effect, or Magnetic Double Refraction
Cotton-Mouton
Effect
Kerr Magneto-optic Effect
Stark Effect
Inverse Stark Effect
Electric Double Refraction
Kerr Electro-optic Effect

Pockels Electro-optic Effect

679
685
686
688

33 The Dual Nature of Light
33.1
33.2
33.3
33.4
33.5
33.6
33.7
33.8
33.9
33.10

XV

Shortcomings of the Wave Theory
Evidence for Light Quanta
Energy, Momentum, and Velocity of Photons
Development of Quantum Mechanics
Principle of Indeterminacy
Diffraction by a Slit
Complementarity
Double Slit
Determination of Position with a Microscope

Use of a Shutter

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691
692
693
693
695
698
699
700
703
704
705
705
707
707
709
710


xvi

CONTENTS

33.11
33.12


Interpretation of the Dual Character of Light
Realms of Applicability of Waves and Photons

712

Appendixes

715

I The Physical Constants
II Electron Subshells
III

IV
V
VI
VII

711

716
717

Refractive Indices and Dispersions for Optical Glasses
Refractive Indices and Dispersions of Optical Crystals
The Most Intense Fraunhofer Lines
Abbreviated Number System
Significant Figures

722

723
724

Index

727

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720

721


..

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

This fourth edition is written primarily to be used as a textbook by college students
majoring in one of the physical sciences. The first, second, and third editions were
written by Francis A. Jenkins and Harvey E. White while teaching optics in the
physics department at the University of California, Berkeley. With the passing of
Professor Jenkins in 1960 this fourth edition has been revised by Harvey E. White.
A considerable number of innovative: ideas and new concepts have been
developed in the field of ()ptics since the third .edition was published in 1957, thereby
requiring a sizable amount of new material. Three new chapters, a number of new
sections on modern optics, a number of new references, and all new problems at the
ends of all chapters have been added to bring the fourth edition up to date.
Fizeau's experiments on the speed of light in air and Foucault's experiments on
the speed of light in stationary matter have beeh moved to Chapter 1. This serves as a

better introduction to the important concept of refractive index and leaves the rest of
Chapter 19 relatively unchanged.
In Part One, Geometrical Optics, the long and tedious calculations of ray tracing, using logarithms, has been replaced by direct calculations using the relatively
new electronic calculators, thereby permitting lens design engineers to program
larger computers.

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xviii

PREFACETO THEFOURm EDmON

In Part Two, Wave Optics, Chapter 11 has been modified to give a better approach to the subject of wave motion. In Chapter 16 a section has been added on the
correlation interferometer. Some of the major features of recent developments have
been added at the end of Chapter 28: modern wave optics, spatial filtering, the phasecontrast microscope, and schlieren optics.
In Part Three, Quantum Optics, three new chapters have been added as important new developments: Chapter 29, Light Quanta and Their Origin; Chapter 30,
Lasers; and Chapter 31, Holography.
I wish to take this opportunity of thanking Dr. Donald H. White for his
assistance in gathering much of the new material used in this the fourth edition.
HARVEY E. WHITE

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PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

The chief objectives in preparing this new edition have been simplification and
modernization. Experience on the part of the authors and of the many other users of
the book over the last two decades has shown that many passages and mathematical

derivations were overly cumbersome, thereby losing the emphasis they should have
had. As an example of the steps taken to rectify this defect, the chapter on reflection
has been entirely rewritten in simpler form and placed ahead of the more difficult
aspects of polarized light. Furthermore, by expressing frequency and wavelength in
circular measure, and by introducing the complex notation in a few places, it has been
possible to abbreviate the derivations in wave theory to make room for new material.
In any branch of physics fashions change as they are influenced by the development of the field as a whole. Thus, in optics the notions of wave packet, line width,
and coherence length are given more prominence because of their importance in
quantum mechanics. For the same reason, our students now usually learn to deal
with complex quantities at an earlier stage, and we have felt justified in giving some
examples of how helpful these can be. Because of the increasing use of concentric
optics, as well as graphical methods of ray tracing, these subjects have been introduced
in the chapters on geometrical optics. The elegant relationships between geometrical
optics and particle mechanics, as in the electron microscope and quadrupole lenses,

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XX

PREFACETO THB TIIIRD EDmON

could not be developed because of lack of space; the instructor may wish to supplement the text in this direction. The same may be true of the rather too brief treatments
of some subjects where old principles have recently come into prominence, as in
Cerenkov radiation, the echelle grating, and multilayer films.
A difficulty that must present itself to the authors of all textbooks at this level
is that of avoiding the impression that the subject is a definitive, closed body of
knowledge. If the student can be persuaded to read the original literature to any
extent, this impression soon fades. To encourage such reading, we have inserted
many references, to original papers as well as to books, throughout the text. An

entirely new set of problems, representing a rather greater spread of difficulty than
heretofore, is included.
It is not possible to mention all those who have assisted us by suggestions for
improvement. Specific errors or omissions have been pointed out by L. W. Alvarez,
W. A. Bowers, J. E. Mack, W. C. Price, R. S. Shankland, and J. M. Stone, while
H. S. Coleman, J. W. Ellis, F. S. Harris, Jr., R. Kingslake, C. F. J. Overhage, and
R. E. Worley have each contributed several valuable ideas. We wish to express our
gratitude to all of these, as well as to T. L. Jenkins, who suggested the simplification of
certain derivations and checked the answers to many of the problems.
FRANCIS A. JENKINS
HARVEY E. WHITE

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FUNDAMENTALS
OF OPTICS

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PART ONE

Geometrical Optics
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1
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

All the known properties of light are described in terms of the experiments by which
they were discovered and the many and varied demonstrations by which they are
frequently illustrated. Numerous though these properties are, their demonstrations
can be grouped together and classified under one of three heads: geometrical optics,
wave optics, and quantum optics, each of which may be subdivided as follows:
Geometrical optics
Rectilinear propagation
Finite speed
Reflection
Refraction
Dispersion
Wave optics
Interference
Diffraction
Electromagnetic character
Polarization
Double refraction
Quantum optics
Atomic orbits
Probability densities
Energy levels
Quanta
Lasers


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4

FUNDAMENTALS

OF OPTICS

Screen

Screen

FIGURE lA
A demonstration experiment illustrating the principle that light rays travel in
straight lines. The rectilinear propagation of light.

The first group of phenomena classified as geometrical optics are treated in the first 10
chapters of this text and are most easily described in terms of straight lines and plane
geometry. The second group, wave optics, deals with the wave nature of light, and is
treated in Chaps. 11 to 28. The third group, quantum optics, deals with light as made
up of tiny bundles of energy called quanta, and is treated from the optical standpoint
in Chaps. 29 to 33.

1.1 THE RECTILINEAR

PROPAGATION

OF LIGHT


The rectilinear propagation of light is the technical terminology applied to the
principle that "light travels in straight lines." The fact that objects can be made to
cast fairly sharp shadows may be considered a good demonstration of this principle.
Another illustration is found in the pinhole camera. In this simple and inexpensive
device the image of a stationary object is formed on a photographic film or plate by
light passing through a small opening, as diagramed in Fig. lAo In this figure the
object is an ornamental light bulb emitting white light. To see how an image is
formed, consider the rays of light emanating from a single point a near the top of the
bulb. Of the many rays of light radiating in many directions the ray that travels in the
exact direction of the hole passes through to the point a' near the bottom of the image
screen. Similarly, a ray leaving b near the bottom of the bulb and passing through
the hole will arrive at b', near the top of the image screen. Thus it can be seen how an
inverted image of the entire bulb is formed.
If the image screen is moved closer to the pinhole screen, the image will be
proportionately smaller, whereas if it is moved farther away, the image will
be proportionately larger. Excellent sharp photographs of stationary objects can be
made with this arrangement. By making a pinhole in one end of a small box and
placing a photographic film or plate at the other end, taking several time exposures
as trial runs, good pictures are attainable. For good, sharp photographs the hole

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"'-

".

it., ...., ...~.. l

t> "~'"


"'-

::i

51;.'. ~

:a.J~.i]d
LJ~d~~
~

FIGURE IB
Photograph of the University of California Hospital, San Francisco, taken with a pinhole camera.
exposure 3.0 min; square hole = 0.33 mm.

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Plate distance 9.5 em; Panchromatic

film;