Handbook of Farm, Dairy,
and Food Machinery
Edited by
Myer Kutz
Myer Kutz Associates, Inc.
Delmar, New York


Copyright © 2007 by William Andrew, Inc.
No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the Publisher.
Cover by Hannus Design
ISBN: 978-0-8155-1538-8 (William Andrew, Inc.)
ISBN: 3-540-21117-9 (Springer B. V.)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Handbook of farm, dairy, and food machinery / edited by Myer Kutz.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8155-1538-8 (978-0-8155 : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-8155-1538-3 (0-8155 : alk. paper)
1. Food processing machinery–Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Farm equipment–Handbooks, manuals, etc.
3. Dairying–Equipment and supplies–Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Kutz, Myer.
TP370.4.H3578 2007
664′.02–dc22
2006103074
Printed in the United States of America
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Co-published by:
William Andrew Publishing

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NOTICE
To the best of our knowledge the information in this publication is accurate; however the Publisher does not assume any
responsibility or liability for the accuracy or completeness of, or consequences arising from, such information. This book
is intended for informational purposes only. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for their use by the Publisher. Final determination of the suitability of any information or product
for any use, and the manner of that use, is the sole responsibility of the user. Anyone intending to rely upon any recommendation of materials or procedures mentioned in this publication should be independently satisfied as to such suitability,
and must meet all applicable safety and health standards.

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To Alan and David, for all the good times at Ichiban

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Preface


The food industry, which includes farming and food production, packaging and distribution, and retail and catering, is enormous. The Wikipedia states that in the United States,
consumers spend approximately US$1 trillion annually for food, or nearly 10% of the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). Over 16.5 million people are employed in the food industry. In
2004, processed food sales worldwide were approximately US$3.2 trillion. According to
Reuters, “food processing is one of the largest manufacturing sectors in the United States,
accounting for approximately 10% of all manufacturing shipments (by value). The processed
food industry has grown by over 10% between 1998 and 2004, and in 2004, the value
of processed food shipments was approximately $470 billion. The largest sectors of the
industry, in terms of value, are meat, dairy, fruit and vegetable preservation, and specialty
foods. Other niche sectors include bakeries and tortilla manufacturing, grain and oilseed
milling, sugar and confectionery, animal food manufacturing, and seafood products.”
The size of the machinery component of the food processing industry is hardly static,
and it is an area where engineers can have a major effect. The U.S. Department of Labor,
Bureau of Labor Statistics, states: “Fierce competition has led food manufacturing plants
to invest in technologically advanced machinery to be more productive. The new machines
have been applied to tasks as varied as packaging, inspection, and inventory control . . . .
Computers also are being widely implemented throughout the industry . . . . Food manufacturing firms will be able to use this new automation to better meet the changing demands
of a growing and increasingly diverse population. As convenience becomes more important, consumers increasingly demand highly-processed foods such as pre-marinated pork
loins, peeled and cut carrots, microwaveable soups, or “ready-to-heat” dinners. Such a
shift in consumption . . . will lead to the development of thousands of new processed
foods. Domestic producers also will attempt to market these goods abroad as the volume
of international trade continues to grow. The increasing size and diversity of the
American population has driven demand for a greater variety of foods, including more
ethnic foods. The combination of expanding export markets and shifting and increasing
domestic consumption . . . will lead to significant changes throughout the food manufacturing industry.”
During 2004, according to data compiled by the U.S. Census Bureau, factory shipments
of farm equipment and machinery, including parts and attachments, produced by original
equipment manufacturers (OEM) totaled US$6.9 billion. The total includes dairy, planting, seeding, fertilizing, harvesting, and haying machinery, among other products. It seems
safe to say that the farm machinery component of the food industry is in the same growth
and development mode as the food processing component.

xxvii

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Preface

Clearly, these two components of the food industry—farm machinery and food processing machinery—are of great interest to engineers in a variety of disciplines, including food and agricultural, mechanical, chemical, materials, and computer engineering. At
least four major technical publishers address food engineering, with as many as several
dozen titles in their lists. But when my editor at William Andrew Publishing, Millicent
Treloar, and I reviewed these lists, none of the titles appeared to us to take the broad
approach that we were interested in—an approach that her informal market research at
industry meetings seemed to justify. So one of the main ideas that drove development of
the Handbook of Farm, Dairy, and Food Machinery to conform to the needs of engineers,
was to provide coverage from farm to market. Our intent from the outset was to cover, in
a single comprehensive volume, those aspects of the food industry of interest to engineers
who design and build farm machinery, food storage facilities, food processing machinery,
and food packaging machinery.
This is a handbook written for engineers by engineers. Most of the contributors are
based in the United States. Of the handbook’s 22 chapters, 16 are from U.S. Contributors.
But over a quarter of the chapters are from contributors based elsewhere—two in Canada,
one in Ireland, one in Thailand, and two in New Zealand. The targeted audience for the
handbook is practising engineers. Because the handbook is not only practical, but is also
instructive, students in upper-level undergraduate and graduate courses will also benefit.
While some chapters deal with the design of farm and food processing machinery and
facilities, other chapters provide the theoretical basis for determining and predicting the
behavior of foods as they are handled and processed. In order for the handbook to be useful
to engineers, coverage of each topic is comprehensive enough to serve as an overview of

the most recent and relevant research and technology. Numerous references are included
at the ends of most chapters.
Like any of my handbooks (I am also the editor of the Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook, which is now in its third edition, the Handbook of Materials Selection, the Standard
Handbook of Biomedical Engineering and Design, the Transportation Engineers’ Handbook, and the Handbook of Environmental Degradation of Materials), the Handbook of
Farm, Dairy, and Food Machinery is meant not only to be used as a print reference, but
also to serve as the core of a knowledge spectrum. In this Internet age, a broad-based publication, such as this handbook, does not exist in isolation. Instead, each part of it—each
sentence, paragraph, item of data, reference, etc.—may be linked to information on a multiplicity of web sites. So this handbook, with its own store of knowledge, is also a gateway
to a wider world of knowledge about farm and food processing machinery and facilities.
The handbook opens with three introductory chapters—Felix Barron’s chapter about
food engineering curricula; a chapter on food regulations by Kevin Keener; and a chapter
on food safety engineering by V.M. (Bala) Balasubramaniam and colleagues Raghupathy
Ramaswamy, Juhee Ahn, Luis Rodriguez Saona, and Ahmed E. Yousef. There are then
four chapters about farm machinery, facilities, and processes, including Brian Adams’
chapter on automating planting machinery, Graeme Quick and Mark Hanna’s chapter on

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xxix

designing grain harvesting machinery, a chapter by Ray Bucklin and colleagues Sidney
Thompson, Ali Abdel-Hadi, and Michael Montross on designing grain storage facilities,
and a chapter by Conley Hansen and Dae-Yeol Cheong on managing agricultural waste.
The next section of the handbook deals with milk and dairy products. There are two
chapters, the first on milking machines and milking parlors by Douglas Reinemann, and
the second on dairy product processing equipment by Doug Goff, from Canada. (Unless
otherwise noted, contributors are from the United States.)
The largest section of the handbook, with a dozen chapters, covers food processing.

This section begins with a chapter on rice processing by Athapol Noomhorm and Imran
Ahmad, both from Thailand. The next chapter, by Conrad Perera and Bronwen Smith, both
from New Zealand, is an overview of food processing operations. These operations are
covered in more detail in the next half-dozen chapters—food drying and evaporation by
William Kerr; food freezing by Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan and Chenchaiah
Marella; heat and mass transfer by Mohammed Farid, from New Zealand; rheology by
Qixin Zhong; thermal processing by Arthur Teixeira; and food process modeling, simulation, and optimization by Gauri Mittal, from Canada. The section continues with a chapter
on designing food process controls by Mark Morgan; a forward-looking chapter on ohmic
pasteurization of meat and meat products by James Lyng and Brian McKenna, both from
Ireland; a chapter on food safety engineering by V.M. (Bala) Balasubramaniam and
colleagues Raghupathy Ramaswamy, Juhee Ahn, Luis Rodriguez Saona, and Ahmed E.
Yousef; and, finally, a chapter on food processing facilities design by Timothy Bowser.
The final section of the handbook contains two chapters on packaging, the first on packaging materials and processing by Jay Singh and Paul Singh (who are not related and are
at different universities), and the second on packaging machinery by Harold Hughes.
While my own training as a mechanical engineer was crucial in conceiving the
Handbook of Farm, Dairy, and Food Machinery, and while my publishing history with
engineering handbooks in a wide variety of disciplines was certainly useful in bringing
the handbook to fruition, it was the contributors who did the real heavy lifting. It is a
miracle, as it is for any handbook with many contributors, that so many found the time
and energy to create their scholarly and practical chapters. Their professionalism is
remarkable, and they have my utmost appreciation and admiration. My thanks also to my
wife Arlene, whose love. encouragement, and patience help me immeasurably.
Myer Kutz
Delmar, NY

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Table of Contents


Contributors ................................................................................................................... xxv
Preface........................................................................................................................... xxvii
PART 1 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD ENGINEERING ......................................

1

1 The Food Engineer ................................................................................................
Felix H. Barron

3

1.1
1.2
1.3

Nature of Work and Necessary Skills ..........................................................
Academic and Industry Preparation .............................................................
Work Opportunities for a Food Engineer ....................................................
1.3.1
Job description sample 1 ................................................................
1.3.2
Job description sample 2 ................................................................
1.3.3
Job description sample 3 ................................................................
1.3.4
Job description sample 4 ................................................................
1.3.5
Job description sample 5 ................................................................
1.4
Engineering Jobs ..........................................................................................

1.5
Future Opportunities.....................................................................................
1.6
Conclusions...................................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

3
4
7
7
8
9
9
10
12
14
14
14

2 Food Regulations ...................................................................................................
Kevin M. Keener

15

2.1

2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5

2.6
2.7
2.8

Background...................................................................................................
2.1.1
Federal Register..............................................................................
2.1.2
United States Code .........................................................................
Sanitation Programs......................................................................................
2.2.1
Sanitation ........................................................................................
Hazard Analyses and Critical Control Point Program (HACCP)................
2.3.1
Prerequisite programs .....................................................................
Current Good Manufacturing Processes (cGMP) ........................................
Meat Processing............................................................................................
Shell Eggs.....................................................................................................
2.6.1
Egg products...................................................................................
Seafood Processing.......................................................................................
Fruits, Vegetables, and Nuts.........................................................................
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16
17
18

18
20
21
22
24
26
27
27
29


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2.9

Beverages......................................................................................................
2.9.1
Alcoholic beverages .......................................................................
2.9.2
Carbonated beverages.....................................................................
2.9.3
Bottled water ..................................................................................
2.9.4
Fruit and vegetable juices...............................................................
2.9.5
Pasteurization..................................................................................
2.9.6
Milk and milk products ..................................................................

2.10 Canned Foods ...............................................................................................
2.11 Foodservice/Restaurants ...............................................................................
2.12 Export Foods ................................................................................................
2.13 Imported Foods.............................................................................................
2.14 Organic Food Processing..............................................................................
2.15 Conclusions...................................................................................................
References................................................................................................................
Acronyms.................................................................................................................

29
29
30
30
31
32
33
34
35
35
36
38
39
39
42

3 Food Safety Engineering.......................................................................................
Raghupathy Ramaswamy, Juhee Ahn, V. M. Balasubramaniam,
Luis Rodriguez Saona, and Ahmed E. Yousef

45


3.1
3.2

Introduction...................................................................................................
Intervention Technologies ............................................................................
3.2.1
Novel non-thermal intervention technologies................................
3.2.2
Chemical interventions ...................................................................
3.2.3
Hurdle approach .............................................................................
3.3
Control/Monitoring/Identification Techniques .............................................
3.3.1
Chromogenic microbiological media .............................................
3.3.2
Molecular and immunological assays methods .............................
3.3.3
Biosensors.......................................................................................
3.3.4
Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometry.......................................
3.4
Packaging Applications in Food Safety .......................................................
3.4.1
Active packaging ............................................................................
3.4.2
Intelligent or “Smart” packaging ...................................................
3.4.3
Tamper evident packaging..............................................................

3.5
Tracking and Traceability.............................................................................
3.6
Byproducts of Processing.............................................................................
3.6.1
Acrylamide .....................................................................................
3.6.2
3-monochloropropanediol...............................................................
3.7
Conclusions...................................................................................................
3.8
Acknowledgment..........................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

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46
46
50
53
54
54
55
56
58
59
60
60
60

61
62
62
63
63
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ix

PART 2 FARM MACHINERY DESIGN .................................................................

71

4 Farm Machinery Automation for Tillage Planting, Cultivation,
and Harvesting ......................................................................................................
Brian T. Adams

73

4.1
4.2

Introduction...................................................................................................
Vehicle Guidance..........................................................................................
4.2.1
Guidance strategies.........................................................................

4.3
Implement Guidance Systems ......................................................................
4.4
Guidance Methods........................................................................................
4.4.1
Global Positioning System (GPS)..................................................
4.4.2
Machine vision ...............................................................................
4.4.3
Dead reckoning...............................................................................
4.4.4
Inertial.............................................................................................
4.4.5
Crop feelers ....................................................................................
4.4.6
Furrow following............................................................................
4.5
Challenges Facing Autonomous Vehicles ....................................................
4.5.1
Safety ..............................................................................................
4.5.2
Liability...........................................................................................
4.6
Conclusions...................................................................................................
References................................................................................................................
Other Contacts .........................................................................................................

73
74
75

80
80
82
84
85
85
85
86
86
87
89
89
91
91

5 Grain Harvesting Machinery Design ..................................................................
H. Mark Hanna and Graeme R. Quick

93

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10

5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15

Introduction...................................................................................................
History ........................................................................................................
Machine Design: Pre-harvest Issues ............................................................
Performance Factors .....................................................................................
Heads: Grain Platforms, Corn Heads, and Strippers ...................................
Feederhouse ..................................................................................................
Cylinder or Rotor and Concave ...................................................................
Separation: Straw Walkers and Rotary Separation ......................................
Cleaning Shoe...............................................................................................
Elevators: Clean Grain and Tailings ............................................................
Grain Bin and Unloading Auger ..................................................................
Other Attachments ........................................................................................
Operator’s Station, Adjustments, and Monitoring Systems.........................
Field Performance ........................................................................................
Grain Damage...............................................................................................

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93
94
95
95
99

99
103
104
106
106
107
109
110
110


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5.16 Combine Trends............................................................................................ 111
References................................................................................................................ 111
6 Grain Storage Systems Design ............................................................................. 113
Ray Allen Bucklin, Sidney Thompson, Ali Abdel-Hadi, Michael Montross
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6

Introduction...................................................................................................
Materials .......................................................................................................
Physical Properties of Agricultural Grains ..................................................
Management Factors ....................................................................................

Codes ............................................................................................................
Drying ...........................................................................................................
6.6.1
Purpose of drying ...........................................................................
6.6.2
Classification of dryer types...........................................................
6.6.3
Theory and simulation of drying....................................................
6.7
Structural Loads............................................................................................
6.7.1
Loads caused by the grain..............................................................
6.7.2
Eccentric discharging of grains from a bin....................................
6.7.3
Flumes.............................................................................................
6.8
Stresses in Granular Materials .....................................................................
6.9
Temperature Cables ......................................................................................
6.10 Thermal Loads and Moisture-induced Loads ..............................................
6.11 Conical Grain Bins .......................................................................................
6.11.1 Flat storage .....................................................................................
6.11.2 Janssen’s equation ..........................................................................
6.11.3 Flat storage, shallow, and deep bins ..............................................
6.11.4 Loads on hoppers ...........................................................................
6.12 Snow and Wind Loads .................................................................................
6.13 Seismic Loads...............................................................................................
6.14 Grain Handling .............................................................................................
6.14.1 Screw conveyors.............................................................................

6.14.2 Belt conveyors ................................................................................
6.14.3 Bucket elevators .............................................................................
6.14.4 Pneumatic conveyors......................................................................
6.15 Chutes ........................................................................................................
6.16 Grain Cleaning..............................................................................................
6.17 Testers for Measuring Flow Properties ........................................................
6.17.1 Classification of flow testers ..........................................................
6.17.2 Examples of flow testers ................................................................
6.18 Modeling of Granular Materials...................................................................
References................................................................................................................

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114
114
115
116
116
116
117
119
122
124
125
126
126
127
128
129

129
132
134
135
137
141
143
144
146
148
151
153
153
155
156
156
158
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xi

7 Milking Machines and Milking Parlors.............................................................. 167
Douglas J. Reinemann
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

7.5

Introduction...................................................................................................
The Milking Routine ....................................................................................
The Milking Machine...................................................................................
Milking Unit .................................................................................................
Milking Systems...........................................................................................
7.5.1
Pipeline systems .............................................................................
7.5.2
Weigh jar systems...........................................................................
7.6
Milking System Piping.................................................................................
7.7
Vacuum Production ......................................................................................
7.8
Vacuum Regulation ......................................................................................
7.9
Vacuum Gauge..............................................................................................
7.10 Test Ports ......................................................................................................
7.11 Distribution Tank or Interceptor...................................................................
7.12 Receiver Group.............................................................................................
7.13 Pipe Sizing and Layout ................................................................................
7.14 Milkline Sizing—Pipeline Systems .............................................................
7.15 Pulsator Airline Sizing .................................................................................
7.16 Main Airline..................................................................................................
7.17 Vacuum Pump Sizing ...................................................................................
7.18 Milking Parlors.............................................................................................
7.19 Milking Parlor Construction Methods .........................................................
7.20 Environmental Control .................................................................................

7.21 Milking Parlor Types....................................................................................
7.21.1 Herringbone ....................................................................................
7.21.2 Parallel ............................................................................................
7.21.3 Side open or tandem.......................................................................
7.21.4 Rotary or carousel ..........................................................................
7.21.5 Flat ..................................................................................................
7.22 Other Milking Parlor Design Elements and Support Equipment ................
7.22.1 Entrance/exit gates..........................................................................
7.22.2 Automatic cluster removers ...........................................................
7.22.3 Crowd gates ....................................................................................
7.22.4 Animal identification and data collection/records systems ...........
7.23 Milking Parlor Hygiene................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

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167
168
169
172
172
172
173
174
176
177
178
178
178

179
179
180
181
181
182
183
183
184
184
185
185
186
186
187
187
187
188
188
189
189


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PART 3 FOOD PROCESSING OPERATING SYSTEMS AND
MACHINERY DESIGN.............................................................................................. 191
8 Dairy Product Processing Equipment ................................................................. 193

H. Doug Goff
8.1
Introduction...................................................................................................
8.2
Clarification, Separation, and Standardization.............................................
8.3
Pasteurization................................................................................................
8.4
UHT Sterilization .........................................................................................
8.5
Homogenization............................................................................................
8.6
Membrane Processing ..................................................................................
8.7
Evaporation...................................................................................................
8.8
Drying ........................................................................................................
8.9
Ice Cream Manufacturing Equipment..........................................................
8.10 Butter Manufacturing Equipment.................................................................
8.11 Cheese Manufacturing Equipment ...............................................................
References................................................................................................................

193
194
196
202
202
205
205

208
210
212
213
214

9 Grain Processing Engineering.............................................................................. 215
Athapol Noomhorm, Imran Ahmad and Porntip Sirisoontaralak
9.1
9.2

Introduction...................................................................................................
Drying ........................................................................................................
9.2.1
On-farm drying ...............................................................................
9.3
Pre-storage Grain Treatments.......................................................................
9.3.1
Grain damage from insects.............................................................
9.4
Post-harvest Value Additions........................................................................
9.4.1
Artificial aging................................................................................
9.4.2
Aroma enhancement of milled rice................................................
9.5
Cooking and Processing ...............................................................................
9.5.1
Retort packaging.............................................................................
9.5.2

Quick cooking brown rice..............................................................
9.6
Quality Evaluation........................................................................................
9.6.1
Image analysis ................................................................................
9.6.2
Texture evaluation of cooked rice..................................................
9.7
Conclusions...................................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

215
215
216
219
220
225
225
229
231
231
235
238
238
239
242
242

10 Technology of Processing of Horticultural Crops.............................................. 251
Conrad O. Perera, Bronwen Smith

10.1

Introduction................................................................................................... 251
10.1.1 General background........................................................................ 251

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10.1.2 Importance of fruit and vegetables ................................................
10.1.3 Fruits and vegetables suitable for processing ................................
10.1.4 Location of processing operation ...................................................
10.1.5 Processing systems .........................................................................
10.2 Properties of Fruits and Vegetables..............................................................
10.2.1 General background........................................................................
10.2.2 Fruit development...........................................................................
10.2.3 Chemical composition ....................................................................
10.2.4 Structural features...........................................................................
10.3 Biological Deterioration and Control...........................................................
10.4 Methods for Minimizing Deterioration........................................................
10.4.1 Physical methods of reducing deterioration...................................
10.4.2 Methods for preserving fresh fruit and vegetables ........................
10.5 General Methods of Fruit and Vegetable Preservation................................
10.5.1 Storage of fresh produce ................................................................
10.5.2 Preservation by manipulation of water activity .............................
10.5.3 Chemical preservation ....................................................................
10.5.4 Preservation by acidification ..........................................................

10.5.5 Preservation with sugar ..................................................................
10.5.6 Preservation by heat .......................................................................
10.5.7 Food irradiation ..............................................................................
10.6 Some Important Methods of Processing of Fruits and Vegetables .............
10.6.1 Canning...........................................................................................
10.6.2 Dehydration ....................................................................................
10.6.3 Freezing ..........................................................................................
10.6.4 Semi-processing..............................................................................
10.6.5 Sugar preserved products ...............................................................
10.6.6 Juice processing..............................................................................
10.6.7 New trends—including minimal processing..................................
10.7 Quality Control/Assurance ...........................................................................
10.7.1 Traceability .....................................................................................
10.7.2 HACCP ...........................................................................................
10.8 Fruit and Vegetable Processing Units ..........................................................
10.8.1 Preliminary studies .........................................................................
10.8.2 Production sites ..............................................................................
10.8.3 Equipment specifications for processing of horticultural crops ....
References................................................................................................................

251
252
252
252
253
253
254
255
261
262

264
264
266
267
267
267
268
269
272
272
273
274
274
276
276
277
277
278
284
287
289
290
290
290
291
295
296

11 Food Drying and Evaporation Processing Operations...................................... 303
William L. Kerr

11.1
11.2

Introduction................................................................................................... 303
Water in Foods.............................................................................................. 303

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11.3
11.4
11.5

Types of Water in Foods ..............................................................................
Food Stability and Moisture Relationships..................................................
Drying ...........................................................................................................
11.5.1 Psychrometrics................................................................................
11.6 Drying Curves and Mechanisms of Drying .................................................
11.7 Types of Dryers ............................................................................................
11.7.1 Hot air dryers..................................................................................
11.7.2 Sun or solar drying .........................................................................
11.7.3 Batch dryers....................................................................................
11.7.4 Rotary dryers ..................................................................................
11.7.5 Vacuum dryers ................................................................................
11.7.6 Continuous dryers...........................................................................
11.7.7 Belt dryers ......................................................................................

11.7.8 Fluidized bed dryer.........................................................................
11.7.9 Puff-drying......................................................................................
11.7.10 Drum drying ...................................................................................
11.7.11 Spray drying ...................................................................................
11.7.12 Osmotic drying ...............................................................................
11.7.13 Freeze drying ..................................................................................
11.8 Quality Changes during Drying ...................................................................
11.9 Evaporation...................................................................................................
11.10 The Basic Evaporator ...................................................................................
11.10.1 Pan and batch evaporators..............................................................
11.11 Tube Evaporators..........................................................................................
11.11.1 Short tube evaporator .....................................................................
11.11.2 Rising film evaporator ....................................................................
11.11.3 Falling film evaporator ...................................................................
11.11.4 Rising-falling film evaporator ........................................................
11.11.5 Agitated film evaporator.................................................................
11.12 Single Effect Evaporators.............................................................................
11.13 Multi-Effect Evaporators..............................................................................
11.14 Mechanical Vapor Recompression ...............................................................
11.15 Quality Changes During Evaporation ..........................................................
11.16 Conclusion ....................................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

305
306
310
310
311
316
316

317
317
318
318
319
320
320
320
321
322
324
324
326
328
329
329
330
330
331
331
332
333
334
335
336
338
338
339

12 Food Freezing Technology .................................................................................... 341

Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan, Chenchaiah Marella
12.1
12.2

Introduction................................................................................................... 341
Freezing Point Depression ........................................................................... 342

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12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6

Freezing Process ...........................................................................................
Phase Change and Ice Crystals Formation ..................................................
Product Heat Load........................................................................................
Freezing Time Estimations...........................................................................
12.6.1 Plank’s equation..............................................................................
12.6.2 Factors affecting the freezing time.................................................
12.6.3 Modified Plank’s equation..............................................................
12.7 Freezing Equipment......................................................................................
12.7.1 Direct contact freezers using cold surface .....................................
12.7.2 Freezers using air as cooling medium ...........................................
12.7.3 Freezers using liquids as cooling media ........................................

12.8 Effects of Freezing and Frozen Storage on Foods ......................................
12.8.1 Effect freezing on physical characteristics.....................................
12.8.2 Effects of freezing on food constituents ........................................
12.8.3 Effects of freezing on thermal properties of foods........................
12.9 Developments in Freezing Techniques ........................................................
12.9.1 High pressure freezing ...................................................................
12.9.2 Dehydrofreezing .............................................................................
12.10 Energy Conservation in Freezing.................................................................
12.11 Scope for Future Focus ................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

342
345
346
347
348
348
349
351
351
353
357
359
359
360
360
362
362
362
363

363
364

13 Heat and Mass Transfer in Food Processing...................................................... 367
Mohammed Mehdi Farid
13.1

13.2

13.3

Basic Concepts of Heat and Mass Transfer .................................................
13.1.1 Conduction heat transfer ................................................................
13.1.2 Forced convection heat transfer .....................................................
13.1.3 Free convection heat transfer .........................................................
13.1.4 Radiation heat transfer ...................................................................
13.1.5 Mass diffusion ................................................................................
13.1.6 Mass transfer by convection...........................................................
Case Study 1: Thermal Sterilization Using Computational Fluid
Dynamics ......................................................................................................
13.2.1 Simulations of thermal sterilization in a vertical can ....................
13.2.2 Simulation of bacteria deactivation during sterilization ................
13.2.3 Simulation of vitamins destruction during sterilizaion..................
13.2.4 Simulation of a horizontal can during sterilization .......................
13.2.5 Simulation of a 3-D pouch during sterilization .............................
Case Study 2: New Approach to the Analysis of Heat and Mass
Transfer in Drying and Frying .....................................................................

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368
370
370
371
371
372
372
374
375
376
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13.4

Case Study 3: Microwave Thawing of Frozen Meat...................................
13.4.1 Theoretical analysis ........................................................................
13.4.2 Discussion of results.......................................................................
13.4.3 Nomenclature..................................................................................
13.4.4 Greek symbols ................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

381

383
386
386
389
389

14 Food Rheology ....................................................................................................... 391
Qixin Zhong
14.1
14.2

Introduction...................................................................................................
Basic Concepts in Rheology ........................................................................
14.2.1 Stress and strain..............................................................................
14.2.2 Constitutive relations and classification of materials ....................
14.2.3 The importance of time, Deborah number.....................................
14.3 Rheology of Fluids .......................................................................................
14.3.1 Shear strain rates in a laminar flow ...............................................
14.3.2 Apparent viscosity and yield stress................................................
14.3.3 Rheological models for fluids ........................................................
14.3.4 Rheometry.......................................................................................
14.4 Rheology of Semi-Solid Materials...............................................................
14.4.1 Small amplitude oscillatory shear tests..........................................
14.4.2 Stress relaxation tests .....................................................................
14.4.3 Creep tests ......................................................................................
14.5 Interfacial Rheology .....................................................................................
14.5.1 Interfacial dilatational rheology .....................................................
14.5.2 Interfacial shear rheology...............................................................
14.6 Conclusions...................................................................................................
References................................................................................................................


391
391
391
393
395
395
395
396
397
400
403
404
409
410
411
412
413
413
414

15 Thermal Processing for Food Sterilization and Preservation .......................... 415
Arthur A. Teixeira
15.1
15.2

15.3

Introduction...................................................................................................
Scientific Principles: Food Microbiology Considerations ...........................

15.2.1 An overview ...................................................................................
15.2.2 Sterilizing value..............................................................................
15.2.3 Process lethality..............................................................................
15.2.4 Specification of process lethality ...................................................
Scientific Principles: (Engineering Heat Transfer Considerations) .............
15.3.1 Steady state (isothermal) heat transfer...........................................
15.3.2 Unsteady (non-isothermal) heat transfer........................................

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15.3.3 Heat transfer mechanisms ..............................................................
15.3.4 Heat penetration measurement .......................................................
15.4 Process Calculation ......................................................................................
15.5 Commercial Retort Sterilization Equipment Systems .................................
15.5.1 Batch retorts....................................................................................

15.5.2 Continuous retort systems ..............................................................
15.6 Commercial Aseptic Process Equipment Systems.......................................
15.7 Low-Acid Canned Food Regulations...........................................................
15.7.1 Plant registration.............................................................................
15.7.2 Process filing ..................................................................................
15.7.3 Personnel training ...........................................................................
15.7.4 Equipment and procedure...............................................................
15.7.5 Product preparation ........................................................................
15.7.6 Establishing scheduled processes...................................................
15.7.7 Thermal process operations............................................................
15.7.8 Process deviations ..........................................................................
15.7.9 Container closure and coding.........................................................
15.7.10 Records and storage .......................................................................
15.7.11 Recall planning ...............................................................................
References................................................................................................................

421
422
423
426
426
428
438
443
443
444
444
444
445
445

446
446
447
447
448
448

16 Food Process Modeling, Simulation and Optimization..................................... 449
Gauri Shankar Mittal
16.1

16.2

16.3

16.4

Introduction...................................................................................................
16.1.1 Modeling.........................................................................................
16.1.2 Simulation.......................................................................................
Modeling Based on Mass and Energy Balances..........................................
16.2.1 Mass balance ..................................................................................
16.2.2 Energy balance ...............................................................................
16.2.3 Reaction kinetics ............................................................................
16.2.4 Heat and mass transport equations.................................................
16.2.5 Initial and boundary conditions......................................................
Finite Difference Techniques .......................................................................
16.3.1 Finite differences ............................................................................
16.3.2 Grid system.....................................................................................
Process Modeling and Simulation................................................................

16.4.1 Example 1: Pasteurization of a beverage in a can—based
on energy balance...........................................................................
16.4.2 Example 2: Temperature profiles of particulate solids in
liquid in a can during pasteurization—energy balances................

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449
451
452
452
454
455
456
458
459
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461
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16.4.3


Example 3: Cooking of a spherical product—modeling and
simulation, based on heat and mass transfer equations and
finite differences .............................................................................
16.4.4 Quality kinetics modeling during meatballs frying—based on
reaction kinetics..............................................................................
16.5 Process Optimization....................................................................................
16.5.1 Linear programming .......................................................................
16.5.2 Dynamic programming...................................................................
References................................................................................................................

467
472
476
476
479
482

17 Design of Food Process Controls Systems .......................................................... 485
Mark T. Morgan, Timothy A. Haley
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5

17.6

17.7

Introduction...................................................................................................

17.1.1 Design of food process controls.....................................................
Benefits of Automation.................................................................................
Computer Integrated Manufacturing ............................................................
Automation Components and Terminology .................................................
Control System Objectives...........................................................................
17.5.1 Discrete control ..............................................................................
17.5.2 Continuous control .........................................................................
17.5.3 Block diagrams ...............................................................................
17.5.4 Closed loop systems .......................................................................
17.5.5 PID control algorithm.....................................................................
17.5.6 Open loop control systems .............................................................
17.5.7 Predictive control............................................................................
17.5.8 Feed-forward control ......................................................................
Controllers ....................................................................................................
17.6.1 Processor.........................................................................................
17.6.2 Memory...........................................................................................
17.6.3 Power supply ..................................................................................
17.6.4 Input/output terminals (I/O) ...........................................................
17.6.5 Chassis ............................................................................................
17.6.6 Programming device.......................................................................
17.6.7 Controller programming .................................................................
17.6.8 HMI—human-machine-interface ...................................................
Sensor Fundamentals....................................................................................
17.7.1 Range and resolution ......................................................................
17.7.2 Accuracy and precision ..................................................................
17.7.3 Sensor dynamics .............................................................................
17.7.4 Rangeability and turndown ............................................................

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485
485
485
486
488
490
491
494
494
495
497
501
502
503
504
505
505
505
506
506
507
507
510
512
513
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17.7.5 Sensitivity/gain ...............................................................................
17.7.6 Linearity..........................................................................................
17.7.7 Maintenance....................................................................................
17.7.8 Specification of sensors ..................................................................
17.7.9 Common sensor technologies.........................................................
17.7.10 Transmitters and transducers..........................................................
17.8 Actuators.......................................................................................................
17.8.1 Motors.............................................................................................
17.8.2 Pumps .............................................................................................
17.8.3 Control valves.................................................................................
17.8.4 Control valve actuators and positioners.........................................
References................................................................................................................

516
516
516
517
518
539
543
543
544
544
546
552


18 Ohmic Pasteurization of Meat and Meat Products ........................................... 553
James Lyng, Brian M. McKenna
18.1
18.2
18.3

Introduction...................................................................................................
Conventional Thermal Methods for the Preservation of Meats ..................
Basic Principle of Ohmic Heating ...............................................................
18.3.1 Fundamentals of electrical circuitry...............................................
18.3.2 Mechanism of ohmic heating .........................................................
18.3.3 Factors influencing heat generation rate ........................................
18.4 Microbial Inactivation during Ohmic Heating.............................................
18.5 Quality of Ohmically Heated Meat Products...............................................
18.6 Economics of Ohmic Processing .................................................................
18.7 Ohmic Heating for Commercial Scale Production of Cooked Meats .........
18.7.1 Ohmic heater control options .........................................................
18.7.2 Packaging for ohmic processing ....................................................
18.7.3 Possible methods for commercial application of ohmic heating
to meat ............................................................................................
18.8 Conclusion and Future Work........................................................................
18.9 Acknowledgements.......................................................................................
18.10 Abbreviations................................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

553
555
556
556
556

558
565
565
568
568
568
570
570
572
572
572
573

19 Food Processing Facility Design .......................................................................... 579
Timothy J. Bowser
19.1
19.2
19.3

Introduction................................................................................................... 579
Background................................................................................................... 580
Key Facility Issues ....................................................................................... 581

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19.3.1 Cross-cutting issues ........................................................................
19.3.2 Interacting issues ............................................................................
19.3.3 Individual issues .............................................................................
19.4 Project Phases ...............................................................................................
19.4.1 Drawings.........................................................................................
19.4.2 Planning ..........................................................................................
19.4.3 Conceptual design ..........................................................................
19.4.4 Preliminary design..........................................................................
19.4.5 Final design ....................................................................................
19.4.6 Construction....................................................................................
19.4.7 Startup.............................................................................................
19.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

582
585
586
587
588
594
602
603
603
604
605
605
605

20 Agricultural Waste Management in Food Processing ....................................... 609
Conly L. Hansen, Dae-Yeol Cheong

20.1
20.2

20.3

20.4

Introduction...................................................................................................
Common Unit Processes Employed in Food Waste Treatment...................
20.2.1 Land application of untreated or partially treated waste ...............
20.2.2 Sedimentation, settling and chemical precipitation .......................
20.2.3 Dissolved air flotation (DAF).........................................................
20.2.4 Stabilization ponds .........................................................................
20.2.5 Aerated lagoons ..............................................................................
20.2.6 Anerobic lagoons............................................................................
20.2.7 Other anaerobic processes ..............................................................
20.2.8 Activated sludge process ................................................................
20.2.9 Membrane processes ......................................................................
20.2.10 Chemical methods ..........................................................................
20.2.11 Trickling filters ...............................................................................
20.2.12 Rotating biological discs ................................................................
20.2.13 Disinfection.....................................................................................
Characteristics of Wastes and Treatment Types...........................................
20.3.1 Dairy processing waste...................................................................
20.3.2 Meat, poultry, seafood processing waste .......................................
20.3.3 Fruit and vegetable processing waste ............................................
20.3.4 Brewery and distillery waste..........................................................
Physical-Chemical Treatment Process .........................................................
20.4.1 Screening ........................................................................................
20.4.2 Sedimentation (settling)..................................................................

20.4.3 Flotation..........................................................................................

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611
611
611
611
611
612
612
612
612
613
613
613
613
613
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615
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20.4.4 Filtration .........................................................................................
20.4.5 Coagulation and flocculation..........................................................
20.4.6 Chemical precipitation....................................................................
20.4.7 Disinfection.....................................................................................
20.4.8 Carbon adsorption ..........................................................................
20.4.9 Ion exchange...................................................................................
20.4.10 Membrane process..........................................................................
20.5 Biological Treatment Process.......................................................................
20.5.1 Aerobic processes ...........................................................................
20.5.2 Anaerobic processes .......................................................................
20.5.3 Composting processes ....................................................................
20.6 Land Treatment of Waste .............................................................................
20.6.1 Land application .............................................................................
20.6.2 Landfilling.......................................................................................
20.7 Bioprocess Technology from Waste.............................................................
20.7.1 Reuse of effluent as resource .........................................................
20.7.2 Bio-energy recovery .......................................................................
20.7.3 Fuel-ethanol production..................................................................
20.7.4 Chemical production ......................................................................
20.7.5 Single-cell protein and biomass .....................................................
20.7.6 Immobilized cells ...........................................................................
20.8 Conclusions...................................................................................................
References................................................................................................................

623
624

626
626
629
630
630
631
632
634
642
643
643
644
646
646
647
649
651
652
653
653
656

PART 4 FOOD PACKAGING SYSTEMS AND MACHINERY DESIGN .......... 663
21 Damage Reduction to Food Products during Transportation and Handling ... 665
Jay Singh, Paul Singh
21.1
21.2

21.3


Introduction...................................................................................................
Functions of Packaging ................................................................................
21.2.1 Containment....................................................................................
21.2.2 Protection........................................................................................
21.2.3 Communication...............................................................................
21.2.4 Utility..............................................................................................
Food Product Categories ..............................................................................
21.3.1 Meats...............................................................................................
21.3.2 Seafood ...........................................................................................
21.3.3 Vegetables and fruits ......................................................................
21.3.4 Processed versus non-processed.....................................................

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665
666
667
668
668
670
670
671
672
675


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21.4

Food Product Distribution Environment......................................................
21.4.1 Harvesting.......................................................................................
21.4.2 Packing ...........................................................................................
21.4.3 Shipping..........................................................................................
21.4.4 Storage and shelf life......................................................................
21.5 Major Causes of Food Spoilage/Damage in Supply Chain.........................
21.5.1 Microbiological spoilage ................................................................
21.5.2 Biochemical ....................................................................................
21.5.3 Chemical .........................................................................................
21.5.4 Macrobiological spoilage ...............................................................
21.5.5 Physical...........................................................................................
21.6 Packaging Materials .....................................................................................
21.6.1 Paper ...............................................................................................
21.6.2 Plastic..............................................................................................
21.6.3 Metal ...............................................................................................
21.6.4 Glass ...............................................................................................
21.7 “Smart” Packaging .......................................................................................
21.7.1 Active packaging ............................................................................
21.7.2 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP).......................................
21.7.3 Controlled Atmosphere Packaging (CAP) .....................................
21.7.4 Intelligent packaging ......................................................................
21.8 Trends in Protective Food Packaging of 2000 and Beyond ........................
21.8.1 Food packaging trends ...................................................................
21.8.2 Damage reduction trends................................................................
References................................................................................................................

675

675
675
677
677
677
678
678
678
678
679
679
680
681
683
684
684
685
685
686
686
686
686
690
692

22 Food Packaging Machinery.................................................................................. 695
Harold A. Hughes
22.1

22.2

22.3

Introduction...................................................................................................
22.1.1 Containment....................................................................................
22.1.2 Protection........................................................................................
22.1.3 Communication...............................................................................
22.1.4 Utility..............................................................................................
Filling Machines...........................................................................................
Volumetric Fillers .........................................................................................
22.3.1 Piston fillers ....................................................................................
22.3.2 Diaphragm fillers ............................................................................
22.3.3 Timed flow fillers ...........................................................................
22.3.4 Auger filler......................................................................................

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695
695
696
696
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22.4

Weight Filling ...............................................................................................
22.4.1 Net weight fillers ............................................................................
22.4.2 Gross weight fillers.........................................................................
22.5 In-Line or Rotary Filling Machines .............................................................
22.5.1 In-line fillers ...................................................................................
22.5.2 Rotary fillers ...................................................................................
22.6 Cap Application Machines ...........................................................................
22.6.1 Chucks and clutches .......................................................................
22.6.2 Chuck type press-on cappers..........................................................
22.6.3 Roller type press-on cappers ..........................................................
22.7 Induction Capsealing ....................................................................................
22.8 Flexible Packaging .......................................................................................
22.9 Form-Fill-Seal Equipment............................................................................
22.9.1 Vertical form-fill-seal machines .....................................................
22.9.2 Horizontal-form-fill-seal.................................................................
22.9.3 Thermo-form-fill-seal .....................................................................
22.10 Canning Machinery ......................................................................................
22.11 Carton Filling and Closing Machinery ........................................................
22.11.1 Carton filling...................................................................................
22.12 Metal Detectors ............................................................................................
22.12.1 Typical metal detector ....................................................................

701
702
702

703
703
704
705
707
708
708
708
710
710
711
712
712
713
715
715
717
717

Index .............................................................................................................................. 719

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PART 1
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD ENGINEERING

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1 The Food Engineer
Felix H. Barron, Ph.D.
Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA

1.1 Nature of Work and Necessary Skills
Food engineering is considered a specialized field of engineering. In general, engineers
are trained in the application of scientific principles and mathematics in order to provide
economical solutions to technical problems; usually fulfilling a social, commercial, or
similar need.
Product design and development are typical activities that an engineer may be asked to
perform. The engineer must specify the functional requirements of the product, design and
testing, and final evaluation to check for overall efficiency, cost, safety, and reliability.
Overall, these principles may be applied to product design, no matter what the product is
(a machine, a food, a chemical).
Engineers may also work in testing, production, or maintenance areas, supervising production in factories, determining the causes of component failure, and testing manufactured products to maintain quality. Costing and scheduling to complete projects are other
typical duties of an engineer. Some engineers may go on to become managers or salepersons. The sales engineer’s background enables him or her to discuss technical aspects
and assist in product planning, installation, and use of equipment. A supervising engineer
can be responsible for major components or entire projects.
Food engineers use computers extensively to produce and analyse products,
processes, or plant designs, to simulate and test how a machine or food system operates,
and to generate specifications for foods, machinery, or packaging. Food engineers
may also use computers to monitor product quality, safety, and to control process
efficiency. Food nanotechnology, which involves the ability to control or manipulate
the product at the atomic scale, is introducing innovating principles into product and
process design.
Seventeen engineering specialties are covered in the Federal Government’s
Standard Occupational Classification system and in engineering in general. Food engineering is recognized by professional societies such as the Institute of Food Technologists,
American Society of Agricultural Engineers, and the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers.


Myer Kutz (ed.), Handbook of Farm, Dairy, and Food Machinery, 3–14
© 2007 William Andrew, Inc.

3

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