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Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery
Fifth Edition

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Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery
Fifth Edition

N. Kent Ames

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This edition first published 2014 © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
First edition, © 1978 Department of Surgery and Medicine, Kansas State University,
College of Veterinary Medicine
Second edition, © 1989 Veterinary Medicine Publishing Company
Third edition, © 1994 Veterinary Learning Systems
Fourth edition, © 2006 Veterinary Learning Systems
Editorial offices: 1606 Golden Aspen Drive, Suites 103 and 104, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA
The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for

permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ames, N. Kent, author.
Noordsy’s food animal surgery / N. Kent Ames. – Fifth edition.
pages cm

Food animal surgery
Preceded by: Food animal surgery / John L. Noordsy and N. Kent Ames. 4th ed.
Veterinary Learning Systems, c2006.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-35260-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-118-40382-2 (epub) –
ISBN 978-1-118-40383-9 (emobi) -- ISBN 978-1-118-40385-3 -- ISBN 978-1-118-77034-4
1. Veterinary surgery--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Food animals--Surgery--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
I. Noordsy, J. L. (John L.). Food animal surgery. Preceded by (work): II. Title.
III. Title: Food animal surgery.
[DNLM: 1. Cattle--surgery. 2. Goats--surgery. 3. Sheep--surgery.
4. Surgical Procedures, Operative--veterinary. 5. Swine--surgery. SF911.N66 2014]
SF911.N66 2014
636.089’7--dc23
2013024787
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be
available in electronic books.
Cover image: iStockphoto – rtyree1, Bobbi Gathings, Olga Khoroshunova, urbancow,
Buillaume Dubé
Cover design by Jen Miller Designs
Set in Futura Std 9/12.5pt by Aptara® Inc., New Delhi, India
1

2014

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Contents
Preface

About the Companion Website

ix
xi

1

General Surgical Consideration
Preoperative Procedures
Preparing the Surgical Site
Postoperative Care
Suggested Reading

1
1
3
5
8

2

Surgical Restraint
General Considerations
Techniques That Divert the Animal’s Attention
Methods That Prevent Kicking
Methods for Raising a Leg in Cattle
Methods for Restraining the Tail in Cattle
Methods for Casting Cattle
Other Restraints
Mechanical Restraint

Suggested Reading

11
11
11
12
13
15
15
16
17
18

3

Local and Regional Anesthesia
General Considerations for Local and Regional (Nonepidural) Anesthesia
Abdominal Wall Anesthesia in Cattle
Anesthesia of the Distal Limb Via Vascular (IV) Infusion in Cattle
Anesthesia of the Horn (Cornual Nerve Block)
Eye and Eyelid Anesthesia in Cattle
Teat Anesthesia in Cattle
Sacral and Subsacral Paravertebral Blocks
Suggested Reading

19
19
19
24
25

27
30
33
37

4

Epidural Anesthesia
Principles of Epidural Anesthesia
Administering Epidural Anesthesia
Suggested Reading

39
39
41
50

5

General Anesthesia and Postoperative Analgesia
Introduction and General Considerations
Selected Drugs Used for Sedation, Tranquilization, Analgesia,
Anesthesia, and Muscle Relaxation
Inhalation Anesthesia
Suggested Reading

51
51

Surgery of the Head and Neck in Cattle and Goats

Basic Cornuectomy in Cattle
Cosmetic Cornuectomy in Cattle
Cornuectomy in Goats
Trephination of Frontal Sinuses in cattle

65
65
66
67
68

6

54
59
63

v

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Contents

Dentistry in Cattle
Tracheotomy in cattle

Esophagostomy in Cattle
Suggested Reading

69
70
71
73

7 Surgical Treatment of Ocular Squamous Cell
Carcinoma and Corneal Dermoids in Cattle
Ocular Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Corneal Dermoid Surgery
Surgery for Entropion
Suggested Reading

75
75
80
80
81

8 Hernias and Umbilical Masses
Introduction
Surgical Procedures in Cattle
Surgical Procedures in Pigs
Herniorrhaphy in Sheep and Goats
Suggested Reading

83
83

84
92
95
95

9 Laparotomy in Cattle
Abdominal Surgery in cattle
Exploratory Laparotomy
Suggested Reading

97
97
100
103

10 Rumenotomy, Fistulation, Cannulation, and
Pericardiotomy in Cattle
Rumenotomy
Creation of a Temporary Rumen Fistula
Permanent Rumen Cannulation
Pericardiotomy: Surgically Correcting Traumatic Pericarditis
Suggested Reading

105
105
108
112
113
116


11 Abomasal Surgery
General Considerations
Surgical Techniques for Treating Left Displaced Abomasum
Surgical Procedures for Treating Right Displaced Abomasum
Surgical Technique for Treating Abomasal Volvulus (RTA)
Conclusion
Suggested Reading

119
119
119
127
128
130
130

12 Surgical Treatment of Intestinal Obstruction
Introduction
Common Clinical Signs of Intestinal Obstruction in Cattle
Using Resection and Anastomosis to Treat Intussusception
of the Jejunum in Cattle
Emergency Repair of Intestinal Laceration or Evisceration Trauma
in Pigs and Calves
Spermatic Cord–Induced Intestinal Incarceration Surgery in Steers
Treating Typhlectasis with or without Torsion
Suggested Reading

133
133
133


13 Rectal Prolapse Repair
Factors That Can Predispose Animals to Rectal Prolapse
Types of Rectal Prolapse

139
139
139

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134
135
135
136
138


Contents

Surgical Repair
Common Sequelae to Rectal Prolapse and Repair
Suggested Reading

139
143
143

14 Surgery of the Female Reproductive System
Oophorectomy in Cattle

Cesarean Section in Cows and Other Procedures to Aid Delivery
Cesarean Section in Sheep and Goats
Cesarean Section in Sows
Repair of Chronic Vaginal Prolapse in Cows
Third-Degree Perineal Laceration Repair
Urethral Extension to Control Urine Pooling
Suggested Reading

145
145
150
161
163
167
175
177
179

15 Surgery of the Male Reproductive System
Castration
Surgery for Cryptorchidism, Ectopic Testicle, and Scirrhous Cord
Surgical Correction of Penile and Preputial Conditions in Bulls
Extirpation of the Preputial Diverticulum in Boars
Surgical Preparation of Teaser Bulls, Boars, and Rams
Suggested Reading

183
183
188
192

207
210
218

16 Surgical Treatment of Conditions Associated
with Urolithiasis
General Considerations
Urethrostomy
Tube Cystostomy
Urethral Catheterization
Urethral Repair in Breeding Bulls
Surgery for Subcutaneous Abdominal Inflammation and
Edema Caused by Urethral Rupture
Surgical Removal of the Urethral Process in Wethers and Rams
Suggested Reading

221
221
221
225
227
228
230
230
230

17 Mammary Surgery
Teat Surgery
Udder Surgery
Suggested Reading


233
233
246
252

18 Ligament and Tendon Surgery
Tendon Surgery
Ligament Surgery
Suggested Reading

253
253
256
260

19 Foot and Claw Surgery
General Considerations
Amputation of the Claw in Cattle
Excision of Interdigital Fibromas (Corns)
Removal of Interdigital Foreign Bodies or
Foreign Bodies Surrounding the Claw
Subsolar Abscess Surgery
Trimming of Claws, especially in Cattle
Amputation of the Forelimb and Hindlimb in Cattle, Especially Calves

261
261
261
263


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265
266
267

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Contents

Amputation of Medial Dewclaws of the Rear Feet in Heifers
Suggested Reading

268
268

20 Joint Surgery
General Considerations related to Joint Effusion
Arthrocentesis
Joint Flushing
Arthroscopy

Arthrodesis
Treatment of Meniscal Tears
Suggested Reading

271
271
271
272
273
273
274
274

21 Common Fractures and Dislocations
General Considerations
Specific Fractures and Dislocations
Suggested Reading

275
275
276
280

Study Question Answers
Index

283
293

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Preface
It is my pleasure to present the 5th edition of Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery. It is my
desire to continue Dr. Noordsy’s tradition of providing a readily accessible, updated,
source of detailed surgical techniques for cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. The book
is in outline form to create a step by step approach and quick reference for over
100 surgical procedures seen by practicing veterinarians.
The book is intended to be a field manual and is not a classic textbook with detailed
references and statistical charts. It assumes the reader has basic surgical skills including
sterile technique, tissue handling, surgical anatomy, knot tying, suture patterns and
surgical judgment. Without application of the basic surgical principles, a successful
surgical outcome may be in question and animal welfare may be compromised.
John Noordsy often used the axiom “time is trauma.” It is imperative the veterinary
surgeon be efficient and minimize surgery time. However the quest to shorten surgery
time should not preclude the quality and precision required to successfully complete the
procedure.
In the past decade, food animal veterinarians have become more aware of surgical
anesthesia, pain mitigation and postoperative analgesia. Calm animals with minimal
movement and pain allow the surgeon to complete the procedure in the shortest amount
of time with the greatest chance of success. Chapter 5 has been revised to provide the
practitioner information on anesthetic and analgesic protocols that can be incorporated
into the surgical and post surgical plan.
It is important to recognize that many of the anesthetics and analgesics described
in Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery are not FDA approved for use in food animal
species. It is therefore imperative that the veterinary surgeon completely understands
and adheres to the guidelines set forth in the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification
Act (AMDUCA) including Extra Label Use of Drugs (ELUD). It is our duty as food animal
veterinarians to insure no violative drugs enter the food chain in order to insure the
most wholesome food supply in the world.

With the widespread use of A.I., embryo transfer, gene manipulation, cloning,
and the potential value of show animals, the food animal practitioners will likely be
faced with a dilemma of performing surgery to enhance the appearance or to correct
a genetic defect for exhibition purposes. The AVMA Policy on Ethics contains the
following statement regarding surgical correction of genetic defects.

VII Genetic Defects
A. Performance of surgical or other procedures in all species for the purpose of
concealing genetic defects in animals to be shown, raced, bred, or sold, as breeding
animals is unethical.  However, should the health or welfare of the individual patient
require correction of such genetic defects, it is recommended that the patient be
rendered incapable of reproduction (www.avma.org/KB/Policies/Pages/Principles-ofVeterinary-Medical-Ethics-of-the-AVMA.aspx).
You may notice the title of the book has been changed to Noordsy’s Food Animal
Surgery to honor John L. Noordsy. It was Dr. Noordsy that originally published this
book as a compilation of the notes he presented to the veterinary students at Kansas
State University.
It was a distinct honor to have Dr. Noordsy as my major professor, friend, colleague
and mentor. I have experienced firsthand his willingness to share the techniques
presented in this book, knowledge, experience, surgical skill, and wisdom. In return
and as past president of the American Association of Bovine Practitioners (AABP),
ix

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■

Preface


I traveled to Kansas State to present Dr. Noordsy a hand carved wooden bull as the
recipient of the Amstutz-Williams Award, the most prestigious award of the AABP. It is
the highest honor that can be bestowed by the AABP.
During the presentation, I described John Noorday the Surgeon with the following
words: qualified, confident, skilled, calm, fast, and proficient. John Noordsy, the
Teacher, was described with these words: dedicated, stimulating, respectful, ethical,
prepared, encouraging, approachable, practical, and organized. John Noordsy, the
person, has these descriptors: kind, generous, gracious, reverent, jolly, thoughtful, and
a friend with a twinkle in his eye.
John Noordsy is a special person who has and will continue to enrich the lives of
veterinarians, veterinary students, clients, and surgical patients for many years.

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About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/amesfoodanimalsurgery
The website includes:
■ PowerPoints of all figures from the book for downloading
■ Questions and answers

xi

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Chapter 1

General Surgical Consideration
Preoperative Procedures
History
■

Obtain a detailed history of the patient, especially as it relates to prior disease and
treatment.

Physical Examination and Clinical Tests
Under common field conditions, which are often emergencies, a physical
examination may be all that time will allow.
■ If possible, perform quickly applied clinical tests (e.g., hemoglobin levels, fecal
occult blood, or urine dipstick), which may provide pertinent information not
obtained via physical examination. Detailed clinical pathologic and radiologic
evaluation may not be feasible.
■ In cases of elective surgery, relevant diagnostic procedures are strongly
recommended to complement the physical examination and history.
■

Note
Highly valued animals are commonly
insured. Permission to operate from
the insurance company is often
essential, especially in cases of
elective surgery.

Monitoring and Assessment

Cattle
■
■
■
■
■
■

■
■
■

Obtain a detailed history.
Pulse and cardiac auscultation
Respiration: rate, depth, rhythm, and sounds
Mucous membranes
Temperature
General appearance:
● Hydration status
● Condition of hair coat
● Coordination and gait
● Body symmetry
● Evidence of abnormal discharges from body orifices
● Attitude (e.g., lethargy or excitement)
Rectal examination
Oral examination
Clinical tests (which may be relevant in elective surgery):
● Hemogram
● Blood gas analysis
● Serum chemistry assays

● Urinalysis
● Fecal examination for occult blood and parasites
● Peritoneal cytology (e.g., neoplasia or peritonitis)
● Biopsy (e.g., lymph node)

Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery, Fifth Edition. N. Kent Ames. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/amesfoodanimalsurgery

1

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Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery

Pigs

Note
Extremely muscular pigs may be
prone to the stress syndrome and
malignant hyperthermia.

Obtain a detailed history.
Physical examination is commonly limited to:
● Temperature
● General appearance

● Respiration: rate, depth, and rhythm
● Coordination and gait
■ Observation of discharges from body orifices
■
■

Sheep and Goats
Obtain a detailed history.
Physical examination is similar to that for cattle, except for limitations related to size
of the species.
■ Perform clinical tests, such as those recommended for cattle, if they are pertinent and
economically feasible.
■
■

Surgical Facilities
In a farm setting, a properly selected surgical location will improve the surgical outcome.
■ The ideal surgical facility should take into account:
● Accessibility of the patient and surgical personnel
● Patient restraint
● Footing for the standing patient
● Lighting
● Access to water and drainage
● Protection from environmental conditions:
◆ Rain
◆ Temperature extremes
◆ Wind
◆ Dust
◆ Flying insects
■


Restriction of Food and Water in Elective Surgery
Ruminants placed in lateral or dorsal recumbency should have restricted intake:
● Roughage for 48 hours
● Concentrate for 24 hours
● Water for 12 hours
■ Neonates or animals fed exclusively a milk diet require no food or water restriction.
■ Monogastric patients should have restricted intake:
● Feed for 24 hours
● Water for 12 hours
■

Note
Bringing an animal to a state of
quietness and complacency before
surgery is valuable—it may produce
a smoother recovery.

RX

Drug Information

Xylazine is marketed in two
concentrations: 20 and
100 mg/ml. Precise dosages are
more easily obtained with the 20mg/ml product

Preoperative Medications
Antibiotics
● Preoperative antibiotics are indicated for patients with likely surgical

contamination (e.g., umbilical abscess and open wounds).
■ Sedatives and tranquilizers
● Be careful, over sedated livestock may lie down.
● Acepromazine maleate (see dosage Chapter 5)
◆ Effect depends on dose and route of administration
◆ Effect is predictable
◆ Not as effective in excited patients
◆ May be administered using IV, IM, SC, or PO
● Xylazine hydrochloride (see dosage Chapter 5)
◆ Effect is dose dependent
◆ Somewhat unpredictable in its effect
■

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General Surgical Consideration

■

Ruminant species are more sensitive to xylazine than are horses, so use caution
to ensure the proper dose, especially in sheep, goats, and calves.
◆ May cause uterine contractions in pregnant animals
◆ Mild analgesic effect
◆ May be used as an epidural agent when mixed with 2% lidocaine or sterile
water (see Chapter 4)
■ Anticholinergics
● Atropine
◆ Commonly used in monogastric animals
◆ Of questionable value in ruminants, where it may reduce the flow of saliva but

has the disadvantage of making secretions more viscid and thus more difficult to
remove from the respiratory tract.
■ Analgesics
● Butorphanol tartrate
◆ May be used alone or in combination with sedatives and tranquilizers
◆ Not approved by FDA for food animals
◆ May cause excitement and a rough recovery from general anesthesia
● Flunixin meglumine
◆ Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID)
◆ A good analgesic at the label dose
◆ Also has antipyretic and antitoxemic effects
◆ May be ulcerogenic at high doses or with prolonged use
◆ Does not have FDA approval for all food animal species
◆ Presently only labeled for IV use in cattle
● Aspirin
◆ Dosage and short duration of effect may be problematic.
◆ May be ulcerogenic at high doses or with prolonged use
◆ Has not gone through the approval process, so some agencies have called for a
ban on its use
● Phenylbutazone (bute)
◆ NSAID
◆ Prohibited from extra label usage in dairy cattle 20 months of age and older
◆

Preparing the Surgical Site
Note

Cleaning
With a soft brush and comb, remove all loose debris from the animal.
Remove the hair mass with a large animal clipper followed by a #10 or #40 head

clipper.
■ Remove hair at least 6 inches around the surgical incision site, with removal being
neat and uniform.
■
■

Preparation of the Proposed Surgical Site
Rough scrub with liberal amounts of surgical scrub solutiona and water. A minimum
of three scrub and rinse cycles is recommended.
■ Complete a final scrub with alternating scrub and alcohol solutions. Start at the
proposed surgical site, and work in circles of increasing diameter to the edge of the
clipped area.
■

a

Surgical scrub solution may be iodophor scrub, chlorhexidine, or mild detergent.

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A client’s interpretation of surgery is
often based on the appearance (i.e.,
the neatness) of the surgical site and
sutures.

3


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Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery

■

Final preparation is completed with iodophor or other appropriate disinfectant
placed on the proposed surgical site by using a method similar to that used for the
final scrub or by means of a spray bottle.

Draping
Because many surgical procedures in cattle involve local or regional anesthesia
and standing restraint, complete draping may be difficult or impossible.
Thus, regional draping—covering the field of surgery adequately—is
recommended.
■ Use moisture-resistant drapes: Abdominal fluid spillage followed by
capillary contamination of cloth drapes is a common break in sterile
technique.
■ Draping (masking) of eyes may facilitate restraint techniques.
■

Tail Restraint
■

Restrain the tail to prevent switching and surgical site contamination
(Figures 1-1 and 1-2).

FIGURE 1-1. Tail rope used for restraint in obstetric procedures.

FIGURE 1-2. Tail-to-leg tie used for restraint in standing abdominal surgery.


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General Surgical Consideration

■

Postoperative Care
Nutrition
■
■

■

■

■

■

■

Palatable grass or alfalfa hay is a good first choice for cattle, sheep, and
goats.
Entice a patient to resume normal eating behaviors postoperatively.
● This task can be very frustrating.
● Changing the character of food by moistening it with water or molasses
may help.
● Feeding a variety of feedstuffs in a smorgasbord fashion may be beneficial.

● Make certain the feed is fresh and is changed on a regular basis.
● Small portions are generally better than large portions.
For cattle, using a stomach tube with a slurry of alfalfa meal or pellets in water with
electrolytes added increases the fill of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and stimulates
animals to resume eating.
● Use 0.5 to 1 kg (1 to 2 lb) of alfalfa meal in 12 to 15 L (3 to 4 gallons) of water
pumped into the rumen.
● Keep stirring the slurry or it may clog the stomach pump.
● Do not add dextrose, rumen bacteria will utilize added dextrose.
● Many practitioners have a favorite mixture for oral nutritional supplementation for
cows.
Electrolytes may need to be provided as a supplement.
● Sodium, potassium, and chloride are the most commonly supplemented
electrolytes.
● 30 g of KCl + 50 g of NaCl in 20 liters (5 gallons) of water will often be
consumed voluntarily by cows with low serum chloride levels commonly seen in
LDA, RDA, and volvulus of the abomasum.
● Cows commonly refuse feed that is top dressed with salt.
● Consider placing a small salt block in the manger for the patient to lick.
Water
● Maintain a clean, fresh water supply
● Consider providing water orally via a stomach tube and pump; 20 to 40 liters (5
to 10 gallons) is generally sufficient for adult dairy animals.
● Hypertonic saline (7%), 1 L IV, will stimulate cows to drink.
Transfaunation
● Postoperative appetite of ruminants may be improved by inoculating the rumen
with fresh flora obtained from the rumen of a healthy cow.
◆ Rumen flora is collected from a herd mate, an animal from a slaughter facility,
or a cow fitted with a rumen cannula.
◆ Fresh undiluted rumen liquid, 2 to 4 L (0.5 to 1 gallon), pumped into the patient

will repopulate the rumen with normal bacteria and protozoa.
◆ Maintain the temperature of the rumen fauna as the bacteria and protozoa are
heat/cold sensitive.
Patients will eat more if they feel good.
● Treat all concurrent disorders, including ketosis, dehydration, and infection
● Manage pain
● Control fever
● House in a clean, dry environment preferably in sight of herd mates.

Wound Care
The speed of wound healing is rarely increased, but factors that slow wound healing
can be controlled.
■ Principles of wound healing include:
● Controlling contamination and infection
■

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Note
Animals require good postoperative
nutrition for optimal recovery and
return to normal function.

Caution!
Using rumen content from a cow in a
different herd may breach biosecurity
protocols.

5



6

■

Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery

Controlling inflammation
Avoiding desiccation
● Avoiding disruption of normal cellular function
● Minimizing tension and movement of the wound
Wound dressings and skin antiseptics, especially powder preparations, can act as
foreign materials and thereby delay healing.
In case of mass contamination during surgery, sterile isotonic solutions with or
without antiseptics are recommended for flushing the wound.
● Solutions should be warmed but not to temperatures exceeding 40°C.
● Use large volume plus low pressure (≤15 psi).
Bandage types:
● Wet-to-dry
● Adherent
● Semiocclusive nonadherent
Bandage materials:
● Gauze
◆ Soft, nonirritating, and very absorbent
◆ Permits rapid evaporation
◆ May adhere to the wound unless coated with some type of ointment (e.g., triple
antibiotic ointment, or povidone iodine)
● Absorbent cotton
◆ Available as sterile or nonsterile cotton and in various grades
◆ Should be sterile and of a high-quality grade

◆ Commonly used on the outside of gauze as a protective absorbent dressing for
wounds
◆ Should be used with caution when applied directly to wounds
◆ Absorbs moisture rapidly, but evaporation is very slow, which results in a wet
bandage that supports bacterial growth.
● Nonadherent wound dressing
◆ Many options are available.
◆ Packaged sterile
◆ Somewhat expensive
◆ Poorly absorbent
● Muslin (heavier than gauze)
◆ Should be considered when additional tension or pressure is desirable
● Adhesive tape
● Elastic bandage (Ace)
● Stockinette
● Elastic adhesive (Elastikon)
● Nonadhesive (Vetwrap)
● Spray-on bandage
Use of bandages and proper application:
● Use bandages to keep a dressing in position and to exert the desired amount of
pressure on the wound.
● Apply the bandage to maintain its placement but without excessive pressure
(Figure 1-3).
● Elastic bandages are often used when pressure is required temporarily.
● Esmarch’s bandage is a rubberized bandage.
◆ Begin bandaging at the distal end of a limb. Blood is forced up and away from
the extremity.
◆ May facilitate relatively bloodless surgery when applied preoperatively to an
extremity
◆ Commonly used as a temporary bandage but may be used for an extended

period (e.g., 72 hours on a prolapsed prepuce)
●
●

■
■

■

■

Caution!
Do not create excessive pressure on
the blood vessels of the pastern.

■

FIGURE 1-3. Bandaging the bovine foot
in a figure-eight pattern.

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General Surgical Consideration

●

●

Many-tailed bandages may be used to support the abdomen in food animals with

abdominal wounds.
◆ Made from heavy burlap or canvas
Bandage the bovine foot in a figure-eight pattern. Include an interdigital
dressing.

Postoperative Medication
Antibiotics
● Antibiotics are generally indicated in food animals.
● Use FDA-approved antibiotics.
● Use appropriate drug, dose, duration, route, and withdrawal time.
● Should not be used as a crutch for poor sterile technique
● The IP use of antibiotics, although controversial, can be effective when used during
abdominal surgery of food animals.
◆ Use an antibiotic with minimal inflammatory response.
◆ Dilute the drug with 500 to 1,000 ml of sterile isotonic solution, and pour
directly into the abdominal cavity.
■ Fluids
● Five to 10 gallons of sterile isotonic fluids administered IV during a period of 24
hours is effective for eliminating dehydration and beginning convalescence in
adult cattle.
● If sterile fluids are not available, distilled water or clean filtered tap water with
added electrolytes can be effective. The risk of complications increases with the
use of non-sterile fluids.
● Scours, toxemia, shock → metabolic acidosis → hyperkalemia
● Abomasal volvulus, vomiting → metabolic alkalosis → hypokalemia
● The amount of NaHCO3 required to replace a deficit is determined by the
following equations for all livestock species:
◆ 0.3 × Adult body weight (kg) × Base deficit = Deficiency (mEq)
◆ 0.5 × Neonatal body weight (kg) × Base deficit = Deficiency (mEq)
● Hypertonic saline 7%.

◆ One liter contains 70 g of NaCl.
◆ One liter contains nearly 1,200 mEq of sodium and 1,200 mEq of chloride.
◆ Hypertonic saline will stimulate the patient to drink water.
◆ Do not give hypertonic saline without access to water.
■ Pain control
● Pain in ruminants is difficult to evaluate.
● Flunixin meglumine
◆ Given at the label dose, it effectively controls visceral pain.
◆ Not as effective for musculoskeletal pain
◆ Do not use continuously for more than 5 days because of possible abomasal
ulcers.
■

TABLE 1-1
Isotonic
Solutions

Amount to be added
to each Liter

Amount to be added
to each Gallon

50 g

200 g

9g

36 g


KCl 1.1%

11 g

44 g

NaHCO3 1.2%

12 g

48 g

Dextrose 5%
NaCl 0.9%

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First-Aid
Conversion to mEq.
■ 1 g NaCl = 17 mEq
■ 1 g KCl = 14 mEq
■ 1 g NaHCO3 = 12 mEq

■

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Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery

Follow ELDU (Extra Label Drug Use) guidelines
Currently only approved for IV use in cattle
● Meloxicam
◆ Approved food animal drug in other countries but not in the United States.
◆ Typical dose 0.5 mg/kg of BW
◆ Follow ELDU guidelines
● Aspirin
◆ An NSAID
◆ Has not gone through the approval process, so FDA discourages its use for food
animals
◆ Use and precautions are similar to those for flunixin meglumine.
● Phenylbutazone
◆ Prohibited from extra label usage in dairy cattle 20 months of age and older.
◆ Oral dosage requires a large loading dose (10mg/Kg) followed by 5 mg per kg
of body weight every 48 hours.
● Butorphanol
◆ An effective analgesic
◆ May require concurrent tranquilization for optimal effect
◆ Follow ELDU guidelines
● Morphine
◆ A powerful analgesic
◆ Controlled drug with the potential for abuse
◆ Follow ELDU guidelines
■ Drugs to increase GI motility
● Neostigmine

◆ Has a questionable effect in ruminants
◆ Stimulation of smooth muscle may not be well organized, with GI spasms rather
than organized propulsive movement being the result.
● Bethanechol
◆ Preliminary studies indicate that bethanechol may increase contractility of the
small intestine.
◆ Indications exist that a synergistic response occurs when given in combination
with metoclopramide.
● Metoclopramide
◆ Has been used (at 0.1 mg/kg) to treat abomasal empting defect in sheep
◆ Its greatest effect appears to be in forestomachs and abomasums.
◆ Has been used in selected cases of vagal indigestion
● Erythromycin
◆ An antibiotic with GI stimulation as a side effect (1.0 mg/kg in 1 L of saline
infused for 60 minutes every 6 hours has been used to treat postoperative ileus
in horses).
◆ Pain is a possible negative side effect.
◆
◆

Suggested Reading
Auer JA, Stick JA, (eds). Equine Surgery, ed 2. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, 1999.
Belknap EB, Navarre CB. Differentiation of gastrointestinal disease in adult cattle. Vet
Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 16(1): 59–86, 2000.
Extra-label drug use in animals: Final rule. Fed Regist 61:57732–57746, 1996.
Fubini SL, Ducharme NG. Farm Animal Surgery. St. Louis, MO: WB Saunders, 2004,
pp 45–123.
Hall LW. Wright’s Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia, ed 7. London: Bailliere Tindall,
1971, p 151.


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General Surgical Consideration

Noordsy JL. Methods of suturing skin incisions in cattle: Special considerations. Vet
Med Small Anim Clin 74(10): 1501–1507, 1979.
Riebold TW, Goble DO, Geiser DR. Large Animal Anesthesia, Principles and
Techniques. Ames, IA: State University Press, 1982.
Riviere JE, Webb AI, Craigmill AL. Primer on estimating withdrawal times after
extralabel drug use. JAVMA 213(7): 966–968, 1998.
Roussel AJ, Constable PD. Fluid and electrolyte therapy. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim
Pract 15(3): 447–468,1999.
Steiner A, Roussel A, Martig J. Effect of bethanechol, neostigmine, metoclopramide,
and propranolol on myoelectric activity of the ileocecal area of cows. Am J Vet Res
56(8): 1081–1086,1995.
Upson DW. Handbook of Clinical Veterinary Pharmacology, ed 2. Lenexa, KS,
Veterinary Medicine Publishing, 1985.
Van Amstel Sarel R, Shearer J. Manual for Treatment and Control of Lamness in Cattle.
Ames, IA: Blackwell Publishing. 2006, pp 141–146.
Westhues M, Fritsch R. Animal Anaesthesia (General). Translated by Weaver AD.
Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1965.
The United States Pharmacopeial Convention. />public/aavpt/phenylbutazone.pdf, 2004.

Chapter 1 Study Questions
1. Should alleviation of pain be a major priority in food animal practice?
2. Is it practical to do “field surgery” on food animals?

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Answers Key
Answers to study questions can
be found starting on page 283
or online at www.wiley.com/go/
amesfoodanimalsurgery.

■

9


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Chapter 2

Surgical Restraint
General Considerations
■

■
■
■
■
■
■

Surgical procedures can be performed on food animals that are either standing
or lying down. Decide whether you want the animal to remain standing or to lie
down, then design the restraint to keep the animal in the desired position.

Do not over restrain the animal. The average patient is unfamiliar with techniques
used for surgical procedures and will react adversely to excessive restraint.
Chemical restraint used in combination with mechanical restraint is often the most
effective technique.
Covering the eyes of the patient often facilitates restraint.
If possible, approach the patient in a well-lighted environment. Approaching the
animal in the dark will often unnecessarily scare it.
Never allow restraint methods to interfere significantly with normal physiologic
processes (e.g., respiration, rumination, or regurgitation).
Use a nonirritating cotton rope with a relatively large diameter in casting procedures.

Techniques That Divert the Animal’s Attention
Cattle
Using a Tail Restraint (Figure 2-1)
■
■

An alternative name is a tail jack.
Commonly used to control kicking during:
● Minor surgical procedures
● Injections
● Udder examinations
● Castration

Caution!
Excessive pressure on the tail of
immature patients may damage
coccygeal vertebrae.

Using a Tail Jack

■

Tail must be straight up and not to the side.

Using a Nose Lead (Figures 2-2 and 2-3)
An excellent attention-diverting restraint for:
IV medication administration
● Minor surgery
● Examination of the head and other parts of the body
■ In general, avoid extreme traction on the nose lead.
● Preferred use is with a halter.
● If a halter is not used, be cautious when anchoring the rope to stationary objects
because an animal, especially a hypersensitive one, may tear its nostril.
■

●

Noordsy’s Food Animal Surgery, Fifth Edition. N. Kent Ames. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/amesfoodanimalsurgery

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